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Testing the Dual-System Theory of Decision-Making: a Pilot Study Using Electroencephalography (EEG)

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Testing the Dual-System Theory of Decision-Making: a Pilot Study Using Electroencephalography (EEG) Testing the Dual-System Theory of Decision-Making: A Pilot Study Using Electroencephalography (EEG) Lisa Marieke Kluen Integrated Program In Neuroscience Douglas Research Institute McGill University, Montreal October 2014 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Masters of Science © Lisa Marieke Kluen, 2014 1 Table of Contents Abstract (English, French) Acknowledgements 1. Introduction 1.1 Background: decision-making 1.2 Measuring decision-making: The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) 1.3 Models of decision-making 1.3.1 The Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SMH) 1.3.2 The Dual-System Theory 1.4 Measuring implicit processes of decision-making using electroencephalography (EEG) 1.4.1 EEG and Decision-Making 1.5 Decision-preceding negativity (DPN) as a marker of implicit anticipation processes of decision-making 1.6 Objectives of the study and hypotheses 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Participants 2.2 Socio-demographic and clinical assessments 2.3 Experimental Task 2.4 EEG Recording 2.5 Data Analysis 2.6 EEG Analysis 3. Results 3.1 Behavioral Data 3.2 EEG Data 4. Discussion 5. Limitations 5. Future Directions 7. Conclusion 8. Bibliography 2 Abstract Making decisions is an essential part of life. The capability to discriminate between risky and safe or the ability to foresee long-term consequences of actions and thus change expectations through experience, are crucial in the process of making advantageous and strategic decisions in everyday life (Rothkirch, Schmack, Schlagenhauf, & Sterzer, 2012). Moreover, impaired decision-making has been found in patients suffering from lesions in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex as well as in different psychiatric disorders (Adida et al., 2011; Cella, Dymond, & Cooper, 2010; Malloy-Diniz, Neves, Abrantes, Fuentes, & Correa, 2009; Murphy et al., 2001). Improving our understanding of the mechanisms of normal and pathological decision-making is, therefore important. Different models have been developed to research and explain decision- making behavior. The somatic marker hypothesis (Bechara, 1997) proposed that, to be able to make advantageous decisions in uncertain situations, unconscious and automatic bodily signals (the so-called somatic markers) are critical (Bechara, 1997). More generally, the dual-system theory of decision- making (Evans, 2008; Kahneman, 2011) postulates that decision-making relies on two brain systems, one being unconscious, implicit and fast, and the second being conscious, explicit and effortful (Evans, 2008; Kahneman, 2011) The aim of the current work was to explore the implicit processes guiding decision-making, notably those immediately preceding a willed risky decision. To this aim, we used EEG and the Iowa Gambling Task in a group of 35 healthy participants. We identified a decision-preceding negativity (DPN) in the frontal and central area of the cortex. The results of the current study support the somatic marker hypothesis as well as the assumption that implicit processes support and guide decision-making behavior (Bechara, Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio, 2005). Additionally, these markers might be beneficial in future research investigating aberrant decision-making behavior in clinical populations. 3 Résumé La prise de décision est un élément essentiel de la vie. La capacité de discrimination entre risque et sécurité ou la capacité de prévoir les conséquences à long terme des actions et donc de modifier les attentes grâce à l'expérience sont essentiels dans le processus de prise de décision avantageuse et stratégique dans la vie quotidienne (Rothkirch , Schmack , Schlagenhauf , et Sterzer , 2012). En outre, une prise de décision désavantageuse a été observée chez les patients souffrant de lésions du cortex préfrontal ventromédian, ainsi que dans différents troubles psychiatriques (Adida et al, 2011; Cella, Dymond, & Cooper, 2010; Malloy - Diniz, Neves, Abrantes, Fuentes, et Correa , 2009; Murphy et al, 2001). L'amélioration de notre compréhension des mécanismes de prise de décision normal et pathologique est donc important. Différents modèles ont été développés pour expliquer la prise de décision. L’hypothèse des marqueurs somatiques (Bechara, 1997) a proposé que, pour être en mesure de prendre des décisions avantageuses dans des situations incertaines, des signaux corporels automatiques et inconscients (les marqueurs dits somatiques) sont essentiels. Plus généralement , la « théorie du système duel » de la prise de décision (Evans, 2008; Kahneman, 2011) postule que la prise de décision repose sur deux systèmes cérébraux , l'une étant inconscient , implicite et rapide , et le second étant conscient, explicite et nécessite un effort. L'objectif des travaux présentés ici était d'explorer les processus implicites guidant la prise de décision, notamment ceux précédant immédiatement une décision risquée volontaire. Dans ce but, nous avons utilisé l'électroencéphalographie (EEG) et l’Iowa Gambling task chez 35 participants sains. Nous avons identifié une onde négative nommée « decision-preceding negativity » (DPN) dans les régions préfrontales et centrales du cortex. Les résultats de l' étude appuient l'hypothèse des marqueurs somatiques notamment que des processus implicites guident la prise de décision (Bechara et al., 2005). En outre, ces marqueurs pourraient être utiles dans de futures recherches pour étudier le comportement de prise de décision aberrante dans les populations cliniques. 4 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Fabrice Jollant as well as my committee members Dr Mathieu Brodeur and Dr Sylvain Baillet. I am grateful to have received their support and that I could benefit and learn from their expertise. I would like to also thank Yang Ding and Dr Stéphane Richard-Devantoy for their help and nice words during my time at McGill. 5 1. Introduction 1.1 Background: decision-making Advantageous decision-making is critical for survival and adaptation. Patients with decision-making deficits show numerous problems in everyday-life (Bechara 1994), notably in complex situations where options are numerous and in social situations (Bechara, Tranel, & Damasio, 2000; Bianchin & Angrilli, 2011), leading them to experience severe disability and negative consequences (F. Jollant et al., 2005). Such inabilities have been reported initially among patients with lesions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Bechara, Tranel, et al., 2000; Eslinger & Damasio, 1985). Various psychiatric disorders have also been linked to disadvantageous decision-making, including mood disorders (Adida et al., 2011; Cella, Dymond, & Cooper, 2010; Malloy-Diniz, Neves, Abrantes, Fuentes, & Correa, 2009; Murphy et al., 2001), histories of suicidal acts (F. Jollant et al., 2005), borderline and antisocial personality disorders (Bazanis et al., 2002; Blair, 2001), and schizophrenia (Sevy et al., 2007), among others. These patients tend to make riskier decisions based on immediate reward and seem to disregard possible long-term outcomes (Knoch et al., 2006). Understanding mechanisms of normal and pathological decision- making may shed light on ways to improving this important cognitive function when it is altered. 6 Decision-making relies on a number of interrelated processes, including the assessment of risk (i.e the probability of negative outcomes relative to positive outcomes) and the ability to learn from previous experience (Bianchin & Angrilli, 2011). Options are often numerous and the underlying rules (e.g. the risk associated with each option) usually unknown (Bechara, Tranel, et al., 2000; Bianchin & Angrilli, 2011). To be able to effectively reach desired outcomes when making a decision, it is necessary to evaluate and balance the options and related outcomes (value-outcome association) (Bechara, Tranel, et al., 2000). It is also necessary to learn form previous experience and change expectations and decision strategies when needed (reversal learning) (D'Cruz, Ragozzino, Mosconi, Pavuluri, & Sweeney, 2011). In this context of uncertainty it is known that human behavior is regulated through emotional anticipation mechanisms that enable us to recognize and avoid negative situations (danger) and anticipate but also identify positive situations. These abilities offer an opportunity to choose among alternatives and make decisions with beneficial results that ultimately aid survival (Bianchin & Angrilli, 2011). Also, memory enables us to keep track of previous experiences, good or bad, and use it to guide future decisions, when common features can be detected (Zeithamova, Dominick, & Preston, 2012). In summary, decision-making relies largely on mechanisms of risk assessment, learning and the formation of anticipatory mechanisms (Bechara, 2004; Wang, 2008). These processes will be the focus of this study. 7 1.2 Measuring decision-making: The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) The ability to anticipate the outcome of a decision, whether positive or negative is a crucial part of the decision-making process. The most widely recognized method to examine decision-making behavior together with risk anticipation and learning in a laboratory setting is the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), a test developed by Bechara and colleagues in the 1990s at the University of Iowa (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994). This test has been utilized primarily to explain decision-making impairment in patients with brain lesions and has subsequently been used in various clinical populations (Gorlyn, Keilp, Oquendo, Burke, & John Mann, 2013; Kim, Lee, & Kim, 2006).
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