Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe a Community Systems Framework

WORKING PAPER 1

JUNE 2012

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe A Community Systems Framework

Pamhidzayi Berejena Mhongera Global Scholars Pamhidzayi Berejena Mhongera is a guest scholar Program Working of the Center for Universal Education at Brookings. Paper Series

This working paper series focuses on education policies and programs in developing countries, featuring research conducted by guest scholars at the Center for Universal Education at Brookings. CUE develops and disseminates effective solutions to the challenges of achieving universal quality education. Through the Global Scholars Program, guest scholars from developing countries join CUE for six months to pursue research on global education issues. We are delight- ed to share their work through this series. Acknowledgements This paper is dedicated to the orphans, vulnerable children and youth of the Blossoms Children Com- munity (BCC) and Youth in Transition Trust Zimbabwe (YITTZ) of Mufakose, Harare and to all the children in various institutions across Zimbabwe. It has been a great experience watching these children blossom for the last seven years and having the opportunity of sharing their joys and sorrows, their hopes and dreams. As they make the transition to adulthood, it is my greatest desire to see them having positive livelihood outcomes, breaking the cycle of poverty and marginalization.

I appreciate the loving support of my husband, Mus- tafa, whose encouragement has made it possible for me to pursue my dreams. I am grateful to my children, Rutendo, Daudi, Mtuwa and Mutsa, for their patience and the joy they bring in my life. Special thanks to my mentor at The Brookings Institution, Justin van Fleet, and the project coordinator Robin Forner; to, my em- ployer MicroKing Savings and Credit Company and its Managing Director; Tamirira Rusheche and to my PhD Supervisor Antoinette Lombard. CONTENTS

Overview ...... 1 Introduction ...... 2 Educational Outcomes for Orphans and Vulnerable Children ...... 5 Educational Needs and Programs in Zimbabwe ...... 8 Transitional Services ...... 12 Case of the Mufakose Community ...... 16 Intervention: Community Transition Agency ...... 18 Coordinating Transitional Services at the Community Systems Level ...... 20 Conclusion ...... 20 Appendix: Study Method ...... 23 References ...... 24 Endnotes ...... 28

Tables

Table 1: OVC educational barriers and transition services responses ...... 16

Figures

Figure 1: HIV prevalence among young women aged 15-24 ...... 4

Figure 2: Challenges faced by families and children affected by HIV/AIDS ...... 7

Figure 3: Zimbabwe’s programme of support for OVC ...... 11

Figure 4: Casey Family Program Framework for educational attainment ...... 14

Figure 5: Study’s main research findings ...... 17

Figure 6: Community transition agency service model ...... 19

Figure 7: Coordination of transitional services at community systems level ...... 21

Charts

Chart 1: Secondary school enrollment in Mufakose ...... 17

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series i

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe A Community Systems Framework

Pamhidzayi Berejena Mhongerara

OVERVIEW strategies, increased investments in educa- Zimbabwe has one of the highest rates of tion and donor-funding coordination mecha- orphaning in the world with 25 percent of nisms in Zimbabwe (Foster 2010) . all children having lost one or both parents due to HIV and other catastrophic causes A study I conducted in the urban community (UNICEF 2010) . Many of these children lack of Mufakose, Harare, identified the major the educational services they need for aca- barriers faced by OVC, particularly adoles- demic success and to thrive in society . This cent girls, in receiving the educational ser- is mainly due to fractured government agen- vices they require to navigate the challeng- cies along with lack of proper documentation es they encounter in school, home and the of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) community . The study projects that at least and insufficient case management capacity . 787 OVC in the Mufakose Community have Although education provides the knowledge fallen through the cracks of the social ser- and skills needed for child protection and vices system and that more than 124 are out development, most OVC, particularly ado- of school . To ensure that OVC who now fall lescent orphan girls in Zimbabwe are drop- through the cracks instead begin to receive ping out of school due to lack of transitional the education they deserve, this paper rec- services that could address the challenges of ommends service delivery reform through poverty, HIV/AIDS, intrahousehold discrimi- community transition agencies . nation and psychosocial stress . The situation continues despite the availability of multi- Community transition agencies provide tran- sectoral responses, child-friendly policies and sitional services and support that enables

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 1 OVC to meet age-appropriate education girls in Zimbabwe . After the first introductory milestones and to earn high school and section, the paper is organized in six the- post-secondary school diplomas that will en- matic sections . The second and third sections able them to achieve significantly brighter outline the situation of OVC in general and outcomes as adults (Leone and Weinberg Zimbabwe’s educational responses for OVC . 2010) . As community gatekeepers, these The fourth section explores transitional edu- agencies act as buffers to protect and pro- cation needs and programs . The fifth sec- mote the rights of OVC who are at risk of dis- tion describes a case study conducted by the connecting from the social services systems . Blossoms Children Community in Mufakose Community transition agents are service bro- to assess of OVC educational service deliv- kers, ensuring that the educational and psy- ery . And the sixth section highlights the so- chosocial needs of OVC are identified and lution for delivering transitional services for matched to the available resources in the adolescent orphaned girls at the community community, facilitating increased enrollment systems level . The seventh section concludes . and school retention . Overall then, through advocacy and capacity building, transition service delivery by these agencies can bridge INTRODUCTION social services gaps fostering positive school- Orphanhood and Vulnerability ing experiences, academic success and psy- Orphanhood is not a new phenomenon . In chosocial well-being . As affirmed by Atkin- recent years, however, it has become more son (2007:15); pronounced as the population of orphans has grown due to the catastrophic causes of Successful transitions build respect HIV/AIDS, violent conflict and natural disas- for individual differences, encourage ters . Globally, about 153 million children be- understanding of the whole child, low the age of 17 years have lost one or both create a sense of trust and belonging, parents due to all of these causes . And in and reduce child and family anxiety Sub-Saharan Africa, there are more than 56 toward school. Transitions that bring million orphans (UNICEF 2009a) . UNAIDS, together the home, school, and com- UNICEF and USAID (2004) define “orphans” munity continue the collaborative ef- as children under 18 who have lost their fort and promote the common goal mother, father, or both . Maternal orphans of providing successful school experi- are children whose mothers have died, pa- ences for all children. ternal orphans are children whose fathers have died, and double orphans have both Accordingly, this paper advocates a com- parents deceased . Although this phenom- munity systems framework for coordinating enon exists in all societies, different societ- high-quality transitional services to enhance ies have responded differently to it, and their educational attainment for adolescent orphan

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 2 A Community Systems Framework responses have shaped child reform policies percent are between 15 and 17 years (Miller, and practices globally . Sawyer and Rowe 2011) . Although about 98 percent of orphans are living with their rela- The History of Orphanhood in tives or kin, poverty fuelled by HIV and other Zimbabwe socio-cultural challenges has caused the safety nets of families and communities to Traditionally, the phenomenon of the social break, relegating children to a cycle of social orphan was not known in Zimbabwe . In the and economic disadvantage (Jackson 2002: Shona culture, one benefit of the extended Powell 2006) . As highlighted by UNICEF family system is that if a man dies one of his (2004:11), “even cultures and communities brothers or even a patrilineal cousin can take with strong social cohesion and traditions of his place as parent with legal and econom- providing support to orphans and other vul- ic responsibility for his children (Bourdillon nerable children can be overwhelmed when 1976) . This form of care is still widely prac- the rate of increase and the overall number ticed today and is referred to as ‘informal fos- of orphans reach such high levels .” tering’ (Powell 2006) . Informal fostering by relatives keeps the orphaned child within the Adolescent Girls and Orphanhood family and community, preserving important cultural norms and values as well as spiritual in Zimbabwe bonds . According to Chizororo (2010), mis- Adolescence spans from 10 to 19 years of sionaries also supported children, especially age marking the beginning of an adult iden- orphans to exchange their labor for educa- tity, roles and responsibilities, as well as de- tion through a concept known as ‘earn and velopment of intimate relationships (Collins learn’ . This practice created the first instance 2001) . The advent of puberty is a major of the “social orphan,” whereby the church physiological event for both boys and girls rather than extended families took care of that transform the human body and mind . orphans . Thus, capturing the physiological, emotional, and social implications of pubertal onset is In contemporary Zimbabwe, orphanhood is critical for understanding the risks and op- shaped by a mixture of influences such as portunities of adolescence (Sommer 2011) . the modern legislation, economic conditions, Orphanhood in the era of HIV brings ad- traditional values and the influence of HIV/ ditional complications to the lives of girls, AIDS (Chizororo 2010) . The AIDS pandemic who have to grapple with multifaceted de- is one of the largest drivers of widespread velopmental processes . As they approach poverty and the major cause of the increase sexual and physical maturation, they are at in the number of orphans in Zimbabwe . Out increased risk for HIV, sexual abuse, exploita- of 1 .4 million orphans, 73 percent are be- tion, illness, early pregnancies and marriag- tween the ages of 10 and 17 years and 36 es (Bruce 2007) . UNAIDS and others (2004)

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 3 report that the 15- to 24-year-old age group resulting in increased school dropout rates accounts for half of all new cases of HIV infec- (UNICEF 2010) . In Zimbabwe, “25 per cent tion globally and three-quarters of HIV infec- girls affected by HIV are exposed to sexual tions in this age group are borne by adoles- violence before their 18th birthday, 22 per cent girls and young women . In Sub-Saharan cent of children report experiencing abuse by Africa, more women than men are living with a caregiver, 36 per cent of women have ex- HIV, and young women age 15 to 24 years perienced physical violence since they were are as much as eight times more likely than 15 years old, 13 per cent of girls report be- men to be HIV positive (UNAIDS 2010) . ing sexually harassed by teachers and/or fel- low pupils . Of these, 7 per cent report having A study conducted among married women been forced into sex at least once” (UNICEF, between the ages of 14 to 19 years in urban CASS and GOZ 2011) . According to the Harare, half of whom were orphans, found World Bank (2002), in urban Zimbabwe that 18 percent were infected with HIV and half of all reported rape cases involved girls 42 percent with Herpes Simplex Virus Type younger than 15, who were most likely to 2, compared with a 6 percent prevalence for have been abused by male relatives, neigh- both sexually transmitted infections among bors, or schoolteachers . those who had never been married (Hallfors et al 2011) . Furthermore, intrahousehold ex- In 2010, 2 .2 million adolescents worldwide periences of abuse, exploitation, violence and between the ages of 10-19 were living with discrimination are causing unsafe migration HIV . In Zimbabwe, the rate of HIV infection of a large number of OVC in Zimbabwe, for adolescent girls is higher than boys both

Figure 1: The Prevalence of HIV among young women age 15-24 years in urban and rural areas. 30%

25% Rural Urban

20%

15%

10%

0% female male female male female male female male female male female male Lesotho Malawi Mozambique Swaziland Zambia Zimbabwe Source: UNICEF 2012

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 4 A Community Systems Framework in urban and rural areas (figure 1) . HIV in- learning is also viewed as a ‘social vaccine’ fection is highest for adolescent girls living for HIV . However, in high prevalence areas, in urban areas . This situation, according to OVC are frequently unable to attend school UNICEF (2012:22), is because, “during a regularly and thus are being deprived of the critical period of childhood, many of these very thing they need for protection from in- adolescents were left without access to ap- fection (Pridmore 2008) . propriate information, treatment, care or support, including age-appropriate sexual According to USAID and CRS (2008:4), edu- and reproductive health care and prevention cational barriers can be categorized as: services ”. Hence, there is a greater need for • within the child, through impaired innovative solutions that will surround an ad- health, including faulty development, olescent girl with a protective developmental and through emotional stress; net, especially as she approaches puberty • within the family, including the child (Bruce 2007) . but adding the dynamics of the family’s functioning as a group; • within the community; and EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES • within the school system and the FOR ORPHANS AND school . VULNERABLE CHILDREN According to UNICEF and others (2011:14), Education Transition Status in recent studies show that many orphans live Zimbabwe in extremely poor households and are less Globally, the net level of attendance for sec- likely to access health care, attend school ondary school is one third lower than that or have basic clothing, shoes and bedding for primary school . According to UNICEF than other children from the same com- (2011), 1 in every 3 girls in the developing munities . OVC are also more likely to suf- countries is married before the age of 18 . fer from psychological problems and to be A study conducted in Zimbabwe by Gunder- subjected to abuse, including forced sex in sen, Kelly and Jemison (2004), reveals that adolescence, which increases their likelihood school attendance for orphans is lower than of contracting HIV . Education offers hope for non-orphans and lowest for orphan girls for better life chances for OVC and leads to of ages 11 to 16 . School enrollment for or- increased productivity of labor, reduced fer- phan girls also starts to decline at the age tility, improved health outcomes and enables of 10 and is at its lowest at age 16 . The net them to participate fully in the economy and enrollment rate for orphaned girls is 74 per- the development of their societies (UNAIDS cent compared to 87 percent for non-orphan et al 2004) . But alas, like health care and so- girls . An analysis of these statistics proves cial support services, education is not easily that adolescent girls in Zimbabwe are at an accessible to OVC . Access to education and

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 5 increased risk of poor educational outcomes Orphanhood is an extremely emotional event compared with their peers . This situation jus- in the life of a child and it produces different tifies the need for transition services to facili- outcomes in terms of schooling, health, eco- tate increased school retention and ensure nomic and social participation (Gundersen successful transitions from primary to post- et al 2004; Chirwa 2002) . Figure 2 shows secondary education . the challenges faced by families and children affected by HIV/AIDS . In the context of HIV/ An overview of education transition status AIDS, poverty and psychosocial distress are in Zimbabwe notes that although net atten- the major drivers of negative outcomes for dance rates for primary schools in Zimba- both families and children . bwe have remained high (with less than 90 percent absenteeism), the declining grade 7 Poverty examination pass rate of 39 percent demon- As noted by Beegle et al (2010), poverty af- strates deterioration in education quality . Ac- fects the developmental trajectories of chil- cording to UNICEF Annual Report for Zimba- dren, exposing them to a myriad of risks . Ac- bwe (2010:2), “more than 1 million children cording to AIDSTAR-One (2011), OVC are at and young people of secondary age are out risk of poor health and nutrition, limited edu- of school, with few educational or employ- cational and vocational opportunities, devel- ment options . Disparities in education are opmental delays, and inadequate social and growing; children from the top wealth quin- emotional support . The effects of orphan- tile are three times more likely to attend sec- hood on education include “delayed school ondary school than children from the bottom enrollment, an increase in the drop-out rate, quintile . Although there is gender parity at erratic attendance, lack of concentration primary levels, girls represent only 35% of and poor performance in school and be- pupils in upper secondary schools . Financial havioral disturbances,” Rembe (2006:237) . barriers are increasingly constraining access Recent statistics in Zimbabwe suggests that for both the disadvantaged .” approximately 78 percent of the population is absolutely poor and 55 percent live be- OVC in Zimbabwe have low educational at- low the food poverty line (Schubert 2010) . tainment for the following reasons: Thus, according to Newton (2009), strengthening families and their protective capacities • a lack of parental love and support, can prevent children from dropping out of household composition, household school, being abandoned, abused and ex- chores, care-giving roles;1 ploited . • psychosocial challenges due to orphan status;2 • poverty; and /or 3 • physical and sexual abuse . 4

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 6 A Community Systems Framework Figure 2: The challenges faced by families and children affected by HIV/AIDS

HIV infection

Children may become caregivers Increasingly serious illnesses

Psychosocial distress Economic problems Deaths of parents and young children

Children withdraw from school Problems with inheritance

Inadequate food Children without adequate adult care

Problems with shelter and Discrimination material needs Exploitive child labor Reduced access to health services Sexual exploitation

Life on the streets

Increased vulnerability to HIV infections Source: Williamson (2000)

Psychosocial Distress suffer following the death of a family mem- ber . Other OVC experience discrimination in In Zimbabwe, low educational attainment for the families to which they are fostered out, OVC can be attributed to the challenges of being treated poorly compared with their anxiety, grief, trauma, depression, stigma and peers who still have living parents (Case et discrimination (Chitiyo et al 2008:386) . Ac- al 2004) . Although counseling and guidance cording to Gilborn and Nyonyintono (2000), are critical in addressing the psychosocial some OVC do not wish to attend school be- challenges that OVC face, many schools lack cause of the stigma and scorn they experi- the resources to offer comprehensive coun- ence coming from AIDS affected households seling programs (Rembe 2006: Chitiyo et al and the psychosocial trauma and shock they 2008) .

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 7 EDUCATIONAL NEEDS AND The Basic Education Assistance PROGRAMS IN ZIMBABWE Module (BEAM) Government Responses to OVC Although educational services are admin- Education—Addressing Poverty istered by the Ministry of Education, Sports, Recognizing the educational barriers that Arts and Culture and the Ministry of Higher girls and OVC face, Education for All: To- Education, the Basic Education Assistance wards 2015-National Action of Plan Zim- Module (BEAM), a national program is be- babwe adopted strategies to ensure that all ing administered by the Ministry of Labour children, especially girls and those in difficult and Social Services . This program targets circumstances, have access to and complete children who are in school but are failing to primary education and are thus provided pay fees, children who have dropped out of with life skills and HIV/AIDS education . Also school and children who have never been to the plan mandated improvements in educa- school . BEAM is one of the five components tion quality through the provision of learning of the Enhanced Social Protection Project . and teaching resources for all schools . This Other components include the Public Works response is in line with Article 28 of the Con- Component, the Children in Especially Dif- vention on the Rights of the Child, where state ficult Circumstances Module, the Essential parties recognize children’s right to education Drugs and Medical Supplies Component and and commit to achieving this right progres- the development of a longer term Social Pro- sively and on the basis of equal opportunity . tection Strategy . BEAM does not address ar- The Education Act of 1987 makes attending eas like food, housing and clothing . Its main school a fundamental right for every child in support is in the providing for the payment of Zimbabwe, ensuring that no child is excluded tuition fees, examination fees, building fund from the public education system (Chitiyo et and school levies (Marongwe 2007) . al 2008) . However, because education is not free in Zimbabwe, the need to pay fees pre- Although the process of selecting BEAM ben- vents many children from poor and vulner- eficiaries is decentralized and is done by able family backgrounds from entering and community selection committees, the pro- staying in school (Chitiyo et al) . Government cess is marred with inefficiencies that make charges school fees with the exemption of 80 it complicated for OVC to access school fees . percent of primary schools categorized as According to Rembe (2006) and Marongwe P3 . However, all schools charge levies and 2007), the challenges in the implementation these are determined at school level . Accord- of BEAM include the following; ing to the Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture (2011), these levies can be used • There are low levels of implementa- as incentives to supplement teachers’ low re- tion in some regions and districts . muneration . • There are often delays in processing applications and disbursements .

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 8 A Community Systems Framework • Socio-cultural and political influenc- policies and strategic plans; the manage- es can cause bias in the selection of ment structures for planning; and by man- beneficiaries . aging, coordinating and providing a range • There can be a lack of flexibility in the of support programs by the government, in- selection process, resulting in the non ternational nongovernmental organizations, -processing of late applicants . domestic nongovernmental organizations • Secondary and special learners are and community-based organizations (Rembe being left out due to logistical prob- 2006) . In the education sector, the OVC in- lems especially if learners are attend- terventions seek to provide up-to-date and ing school outside their community . relevant information on prevention, impact • The BEAM program is not monitored mitigation, care and support . However, at the adequately in terms of expenditures, school level, teachers lack the capacity to pro- beneficiaries (gender-based selectivity) vide comprehensive psychosocial programs and current systems of disbursement . for OVC . They lack counseling skills and the psychosocial programs in most schools have The Bulawayo Progressive Residents Associa- been haphazard, ad hoc and without proper tion (2012), argues that BEAM has not been coordination (Rembe 2006) . able to serve disadvantaged children due to corruption, a lack of transparency and the To address this challenge, some schools have politicization of the selection of beneficiaries . formed partnerships with NGOs and commu- The “unavailability of information on who the nity-based organizations to implement pro- beneficiaries of BEAM are, means that there is grams that enhance OVC motivation for aca- leeway for inequitable distribution of the funds demic progress and build resilience to help to deserving people among the provinces” them cope with the psychosocial challenges (BPRA 2012:1) . Therefore, the association associated with orphanhood . Good examples proposes increased monitoring and evalua- of empowerment programs include intervention mechanisms to ensure accountability and tions from the Girl Child Network, CHIPA- transparency in the selection of beneficiaries WO, CAMFED, Catholic Relief Services, and and also increased allocations of funds so FAWEZI (Zimbabwe National Strategic Plan that many OVC can have access to education . 2005-2010) . The Masiye Camp Initiative, developed by the Salvation Army in 1994, NGO responses—Addressing is another example of psychosocial support Psychosocial Challenges service provision for OVC (World Bank n .d .) . The government of Zimbabwe has tak- However, these and other programs could en measures to reduce the prevalence of not be scaled up at the community level due HIV/AIDS and mitigate the impact of the to coordination and funding challenges . As epidemic through the development of sectoral asserted by Coombe (2003), strengthening such interventions is dependent on how NGO

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 9 partners’ programs are integrated into the strengthening of district-level coordination sector’s strategic planning and resource al- structures through provision of clear policies location and whether they can be scaled up regarding membership, roles and respon- effectively . sibilities . However, putting this strategy into practice has been difficult in Zimbabwe due Multi-sectoral Coordination in to both the varying needs and priorities of Zimbabwe donors and also local stakeholders’ varying capacities . The lack of capacity of district The government of Zimbabwe recognizes committees to collate data and report to na- the importance of partnering with NGOs tional structures presents a major challenge, in managing and coordinating responses which affects the delivery of evidence-based for children affected by HIV/AIDS (Foster OVC strategies and programs . If case man- 2010) . Zimbabwe’s Programme of Support agement systems are not effective and data for Orphans and Other Vulnerable Children from communities are inaccurate, what will is an innovative mechanism for coordinat- be the basis for informing policies, strategies ing responses ensuring predictable funding and programs at district, provincial and na- and improved policy dialogue between do- tional level? Unless a dedicated communi- nors and the government (UNICEF 2008), as ty-level agency is responsible for OVC case shown in Figure 3 . The Education Transition management, how will government and Fund, which was established in 2009, offers non-governmental educational responses be a platform for donors to align their contribu- monitored for effectiveness? tions with government priorities . As of 2010, 50 million dollars has been raised to sup- Assessing the Government port the ailing education sector (Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture 2011) . Agencies Capacity (Social and Recently, the United Kingdom’s Department Education Services) for International Development has commit- The capacity of social services in Zimbabwe ted 10 million pounds (more than 15 million has been badly affected by “out-migration, dollars) to support the BEAM (Scott 2012) . limited funding, reduced numbers of qualified social workers in post, poor working con- Although nearly all donor funded interven- ditions, and perceived high workloads . For a tions are channeled through non-state actors, country with an estimated population of 12 .5 the effectiveness of programs targeting vul- million, there are only 118 Social Workers nerable populations has been compromised providing specialized social services to 5 mil- due to poor coverage, fragmentation and lion children, a ratio of 1:42,273” (UNICEF coordination of services along with lack of et al 2011) . According to Rembe (2006), the reliability and transparency (Schubert 2010) . provision of high-quality educational servic- Therefore, Foster (2010) recommends the es for OVC is also affected by government

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 10 A Community Systems Framework Figure 3: Zimbabwe’s Programme of Support for Orphans and other Vulnerable Children Donor 1 Donor 2 Donor 3 Donor 4 Donor 5 Donor 6 Donor 7 Donor 8

Ministry of Public Labour UNICEF and Social Welfare

Partner Partner Partner Partner Partner Partner organisation 1 organisation 2 organisation 3 organisation 4 organisation 5 organisation 6

CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO CBO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Communities reached Communities not reached

Source: UNICEF (2008) . overlapping structures and mandates, unclear tors alike can collaborate to make educa- understanding of roles and responsibilities, tional services and resources available and poor coordination, supervision, accountabil- accessible to girls and other OVC (Bote ity, and support at national and local levels, 2012) . This entails strengthening of the child a lack of accurate and up-to-date data to in- protection system as a critical component form priorities and policies and insufficient of the overall child welfare system . Through equipment, supplies, infrastructure and ve- effective case management systems, im- hicles . The challenges in planning and coor- portant information is collected, providing dination between agencies and stakeholders evidence for future OVC programming . Ac- has resulted in the disaggregation of services cording to Foster (2010:95), this ensures and many inefficiencies in the delivery of es- “increased coverage of services, access to sential social services for vulnerable groups in difficult-to-reach areas and less duplication, Zimbabwe (Capacityplus 2011) . Thus, effec- better access of implementers to external tive coordination of multiple agencies can resources, networks and capacity building, help ensure that vulnerable children are able improved national information systems with to benefit fully from policies and services . reduced reporting burdens, improved services through better access of implementers Systemic hurdles in the delivery of social to good practice articulation and increased and educational services can be addressed cost efficiency .” Therefore, well-coordinated through public-private partnerships, where service delivery systems by community transi- the government and non-governmental action agencies are able to break the cycles of

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 11 vulnerability by facilitating the optimum use educational support services, facilitating the of resources in improving the quality of life of identification of success factors and good children and families at the community level . practices needed to formulate responsive education policy and programming (Carna- by et al 2003) . According to Wesley (2001), TRANSITIONAL SERVICES successful transitional services benefit chil- The Case for Transitional Services dren, families and schools . Agencies The recent literature on service perspectives For children, successful transitions ensure views the provision of transitional services as a process that seeks to meet the needs • that activities, resources and expec- of young people with special needs as they tations work to build enhanced self- move from childhood to adult services (Stew- esteem and confidence; art et al 2012) . Other studies have indicated • improved peer-group relation; how holistic and life-long views of transitional • greater efficiency and enjoyment in services are being regarded as an important learning; and principle of service and support for young • positive regard for teachers and re- people with special needs . Nevertheless, the duced stress . management transitional services are critical For families the benefits include whenever there is a change in status and/or circumstances (Halpern 1994) . Transitional • active participation in planning and services are coordinated sets of activities de- carrying out transition services; signed within a results-oriented process facil- • help in developing an understanding itating movement from school to post-school of the phases of child development activities including postsecondary education, and education; vocational training and employment (Wehm- • increased confidence in communicat- an 2011) . In education, “transition” refers to ing with educational personnel; and a passage from one grade or form to an- • a positive outlook about collabora- other as one progresses through the education with schools and an enhanced tional structure (Wesley 2001) . According to self-esteem regarding parents’ com- Wesley, educational transition teams work to- munication and advocacy skills . ward bridging the gaps between each transition level, facilitating educational attainment . For teachers and schools, the benefits include

The Benefits of Transitional Services • collaboration eases the child’s transi- Community transition agencies are respon- tion experiences between home and sible for coordinating essential social and school and the school can expect and

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 12 A Community Systems Framework an enhanced ability to meet individu- ‘At risk’ children need structured programs al needs of children; and learning experiences that help them to • increased efficiency in program plan- become socially, morally, emotionally, physi- ning and implementation; cally, financially and cognitively competent • better community support; and (Collins 2001) . Such programs enhance mo- • enlarged professional support net- tivation and build resiliency enabling children work and a wider pool of resources . to cope with change and adversity . Failure to cope can have life-shaping consequences for Transition Services for ‘’At Risk” the child and also social and economic costs Children for the community at large (Atkinson 2007) . Thus communities should support the transi- In the United States, special education pro- tion process to ensure success across all life grams have been influenced by federal and domains, particularly for children with distinct state education reforms (Johnson et al 2002) . developmental needs . According to Casey These have provided comprehensive strate- Family Programs (2009), the provision of edu- gies for improving public school programs cation transitional services in communities is for all students, including those from diverse, not only expedient but also should be a priori- multi-cultural backgrounds and situations of ty because it affects school stability and attain- poverty . The re-authorization of the Individu- ment for children in the child welfare system . als with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1997, strategies to encourage the involve- The Casey Family Program Model- ment of state and local education agencies and community services agencies to address Interagency Collaboration the transition service requirements of all Studies showing poor educational outcomes students . According to Johnson and others for children in the foster care system in the (2002), this entails the development of indi- United States have increased in recent years . vidualized education plans as well as curricu- According to Casey Family Programs (2009), lum and instructional strategies relevant for children in foster care face many disruptive all students with special educational needs . experiences that affect their school conti- Education transitional services provide nuity and stability, causing them to fall be- needs-based services through building of hind socially and academically . Children in community relationships . However, research the foster care system have higher drop-out indicates that fragmented services, varying rates, are less likely to complete high school, eligibility criteria, different funding mecha- and are less likely to complete post-second- nisms, and distinct philosophies across the ary educational pursuits . However, through child and adult systems pose challenges for stable home placements and school atten- obtaining appropriate services for ‘at risk’ dance, educational outcomes can improve children (Clark 2004) . significantly (Casey Family Programs 2007) .

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 13 Children in the foster care system have poor across states and counties across the United psychosocial outcomes compared to the States, providing services and developing general population, due to histories and ex- tools to nurture all children and youth in care periences of dysfunctional families, rejection, and helping parents to strengthen families . neglect, abuse and poverty along with the Casey Family Programs facilitate increased stigma of being called a ‘foster child’ (Collins access to education-related and mental 2001) . According to Courtney and Heuring health support services through advocacy (2005), foster children experience a higher and comprehensive school counseling pro- level of depression and suffer from behav- grams for children in both elementary and ioral disorders that require the provision of secondary school children . specialized mental health services . Using collaborative and person-centered ap- Casey Family Programs have come up with proaches, service-providers work to address a framework (Figure 4), which seeks to im- systemic and individual barriers that affect prove educational outcomes for children in educational attainment and the successful out of home care . For more than 40 years, transitions of youth out of child welfare sys- Casey Family Programs (2007), have worked tems . According to Casey Family Programs

Figure 4: The Casey Family Program’s Framework for educational attainment

Empower Implement youth, family, Improve best practise to community maintain school stakeholder stability and involvement, manage training transitions education Improve Establish educational school stability continuity and Advocate and seamless school stability and influence transition for children in policy and procedures Out-of-home legislation care

Develop measurable Ensure equal systems of agency/ access to interagency education Improve and support accountability courts’ knowledge, Engagement, oversight

Source: Casey Family Programs (2009) .

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 14 A Community Systems Framework (2009) and Atkinson (2007), the benefits of they must deal with pain from the past and interagency collaboration include: uncertainty about the future . Children in both contexts need to navigate through multiple • shared ownership and responsibility agencies to access specialized social services for problem-solving; administered by multiple agencies to address • enhanced advocacy and communi- their distinct educational and psychosocial cation on transitional barriers and needs (Greene and Uebel 2006) . Although opportunities; there are many similarities between the two • increased resource mobilization groups, the situation of OVC in Zimbabwe (funding, skills, experience and ex- is more desperate considering that foster pertise) from multiple educational parents do not receive child care subsidies stakeholders; from the government like their peers in the • capacity building of all stakeholders; West . The effects of poverty and HIV/AIDS • participation of families in transition on families along with the lack of capacity of planning and parental involvement government agencies to provide transitional in children’s education; and services also complicate the lives of OVC in • development of self-determination Zimbabwe compared with their counterparts and advocacy by children through in America . participation in transition planning, goal setting and tracking . The Transition Needs of Orphans and Vulnerable Children Relevance to the Zimbabwean’s According to Kohler and Field (2003), tran- Context sition-focused planning encompasses all as- The Casey Family Programs model can pects of education, focusing on student out- be adapted to Zimbabwean communities comes . It is able to connect curricular and because of the similarities in the experienc- extracurricular activities, strengthen family es, challenges and outcomes between chil- and community’s capacity to respond to the dren in the foster care system of the United educational needs of the student at the same States and the OVC in the informal foster time focusing on the improvement of the care system of Zimbabwe . These include quality of life outcomes (Kohler and Field) . the instabilities caused by changes in child- Because the challenges of OVC are multi-di- hood identities, household composition and mensional, responses should support the ho- dynamics and the lack of support from the listic development of the child, paying special school and community . As both pertain to the attention to age and gender-based vulner- transition from childhood to adulthood, they abilities (Engle 2008) . As noted by Halfors often lack the psychosocial support needed and others (2011), gender inequalities make to enhance their coping mechanisms; thus, adolescent orphaned girls in Zimbabwe vul-

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 15 nerable to dropping out from primary and THE CASE OF THE MUFAKOSE secondary school, early sex, increasing their URBAN COMMUNITY vulnerability to HIV and sexually transmitted Background infections (STIs) . To address this challenge, Blossoms Children Community, a communi- one of the goals of the Zimbabwean Nation- ty-based organization providing OVC servic- al Strategic Plan (Ministry of Education, Sport es, conducted a primary study to assess the and Culture 2005-2010) is to close the gen- OVC education service delivery system in the der gap in secondary school completion and poor urban community of Mufakose, Harare reduce the vulnerability to abuse and exploi- in March 2012 . Established in the 1960s, tation of children of both primary and sec- Mufakose is an African urban township with ondary school age . In this regard, education full general families from Malawi, Mozam- transitional responses for adolescent girls in bique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe Zimbabwe focus on the issues and responses (Constituency Profile 2006) . It is situated 14 highlighted in Table 1 . kilometers outside the Central Business Dis- trict of Harare and shares its boundaries As can be seen in Table 2, poverty and psy- with Budiriro, Kambuzuma and Kuwadzana . chosocial distress are the cross-cutting issues Mufakose has 4 wards (Wards 34, 35, 36 facing OVC in their education transition . Due and 37) and a population of 100,292 (52% to these issues, Pridmore and Yates (2005) females and 48% males) . Mufakose has 14 argue that adolescent girls are most likely to government schools, 9 primary schools and get abused or engage in unsafe sex increas- 5 secondary schools . ing their vulnerability to HIV .

Table 1: OVC Educational Barriers and Transition Services Responses

Category OVC Issues/Barriers Transition Services/Responses Primary Stigma, discrimination, abuse, adult School fees assistance, feeding pro- roles, poverty grams and psychosocial support (HIV/ AIDS education) Secondary Low self-esteem, stigma, discrimination, School fees assistance, food security, abuse, adult roles, STIs, poverty psychosocial support (mentoring and HIV/AIDS education) Post-Secondary Low self-esteem, stigma, discrimination, School fees assistance, food security and abuse, adult roles, STIs, exclusion from psychosocial support (mentoring and formal employment, poverty HIV/AIDS education), livelihood skills Girls Sexual risks, increased demand for Gender-sensitive policies and practices, labor, low self-esteem, fear of violence scholarships, flexible learning options, (home and school), gender inequali- sanitary wear, financial incentives, (men- ties, perceived irrelevance of education, toring and HIV/AIDS education), liveli- poverty hood skills Sources: Subbarao and Coury 2004, Caroll and Boler 2003

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 16 A Community Systems Framework According to the Constituency Profile (2006), • There was alleged corruption in OVC the 9 secondary schools have a combined selection and administration of BEAM enrollment of 7,593 students out of which funds . 3,969 are boys and 3,624 are girls . One • The BEAM funds were insufficient to Secondary School (Mufakose 1 High) pro- meet the high demand for assistance vides advanced- level education and in with school fees assistance, thus 2006, its enrollment was 2,184 (974 girls OVC, are failing to pay fees . and 1,210 girls) . Chart 1 shows gender dis- • Schools were not providing counsel- parity in terms of enrollment . In fact the sec- ing services . ondary school enrollment is the opposite of • There was limited information and the constituency’s population . knowledge on available services and support in community . Figure 5: The study’s main research findings OVC in Mufakose Community OVC Registers 1,600 1,419 1,400 1,200 According to the study, focal persons selected 1,000 800 632 from the community are responsible for col- 600 400 lecting OVC information . The information 200 124 0 includes the name of the child, date of birth,

OVC address, nearest schools, name of deceased school schools register OVS in 6 OVS parents, name of care-givers and any particu- community OVC out of OVC Source: Blossoms Children Community (2012) lar problems the child is facing . Although this information is critical for evidence-based OVC Figure 5 shows that in the Mufakose Com- programming in the community, the focal per- munity sons have not been collecting information for a long time due to a lack of incentives . Cur- • The community register had 632 OVC; rently, there are no mechanisms for tracking • Six schools’ registers had a total of 1, OVC who have moved out of the community . 419 OVC; • 124 OVC were not in school (52 girls, 74 boys) . School Fees Payment for OVC in Mufakose Other Research Findings: BEAM is the main government school fees There was increased absenteeism among assistance program assisting OVC in the adolescent OVC . community . Capernaum Trust is the second local organization providing scholarships • There were limited services and sup- and food hampers for OVC registered with port for orphaned girls . organization in the community . Community • Late payments and non-payment of churches and individual philanthropists are fees were a problem .

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 17 also assisting with the payment of school fees who are out of school and those in school . and school uniforms . There are other NGOs Thus, the absence of an effective community working with children, youth and women in case management system and comprehensive the community on health and food security, counseling services affect educational attain- cash transfers, sustainable livelihood proj- ment for OVC in Mufakose . An analysis of the ects and microfinance programs . However, community also highlights critical gaps in the the community lacks comprehensive infor- coordination of services, resulting in OVC not mation of these organizations and how OVC accessing the required educational services . can benefit from their programs . The study shows that poor coordination exists between governmental and non-governmen- Psychosocial Support tal agencies who are working in a parallel on Three out of the six schools in the study the education of OVC . Inadequate collabora- provide psychosocial support for children tion, monitoring and evaluation at the com- through school clubs, even though the ac- munity level expose OVC to protection and tivities are not structured or well coordinated . development risks, where vulnerable children The five schools that participated in the study are not identified and reported by the case do not offer any special services for girls . management system . In that regard, there is One secondary school provides guidance an urgent need for a community-based ser- and counseling services for girls . The teach- vices agency responsible for the coordina- ers lack the capacity to provide counseling tion of educational services and resources for services for OVC . OVC in the community .

Community Service Delivery THE INTERVENTION: THE Analysis COMMUNITY TRANSITION Findings from the Mufakose case study con- AGENCY firm that at least 787 OVC are falling through The community transition agency is able ad- the social services cracks and 124 OVC are dress the challenges of coordination of OVC out of school. The community register, which is educational programs at the community supposed to record all OVC in the community, level . The agency is responsible for ensuring has only 632 listed compared to 1,419 OVC that protective and developmentally-appro- recorded by the survey in six schools . Consid- priate services and supports are accessible ering that only six schools out of 14 partici- for the orphan girl to pursue her goals across pated in the study, there is a high likelihood all transition domains . Through capacity of hundreds of OVC that the community case building, the agency strengthens the capacity management system has not been able to of community safety nets including teachers, identify . The community lacks a strategy to ad- families and other education stakeholders to dress the educational needs of orphaned girls be able to respond to age and gender-based

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 18 A Community Systems Framework Figure 6: The Community Transition Agency Service Model.

Community Case Advocacy Community Management Transition Agency (Referral and Direct services) Capacity Building Counseling

Source: Berejena (2012)

OVC needs, providing high quality educa- dren are supported in school registration, pay- tional services and support (Figure 6) . ment of fees, psychosocial support, tutoring and access to vocational training and employment . The model provides both direct and referral education services . This means that transition coordinators might provide counseling ser- Case Management: The vices and in a referral role, may link children Empowerment/Advocacy Approach to specialists like child lawyers or psycholo- Case management is a process that assists gists . The agency shall be responsible for OVC traverse the community child welfare data collection, the identification and mobi- and protection system . It focuses on systems, lization of community resources (human and structures and resources (human, financial other), service mapping (identifying gaps in and technological) in the community . Case education services and communicating with management can be categorized as falling guardians, teachers and other government into three models . The broker model is where departments (Wehman 2011) . the case manager makes referrals and link- ages in an effort to achieve intersystem or Advocacy interagency cooperation among agencies . Advocacy harnesses stakeholder involvement in Assertive outreach is where the case manag- the community, fostering change and participa- er facilitates the attainment of the treatment tion through meetings, the sharing of informa- plan . And the empowerment or advocacy ap- tion, policy making, planning, implementing, proach is a client-driven path where the case monitoring and evaluating educational pro- manager has a dual commitment to meet- grams (Brown 2008) . It ensures that the spe- ing vulnerable clients’ needs and challeng- cial needs of vulnerable children are identified, ing dysfunctional service delivery systems support groups and counseling services are (Greene and Uebel 2006) . The intervention availed, curricula are flexible and responsive, proposed in this paper follows the empower- anti-stigma programs are supported and chil- ment or advocacy approach .

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 19 Capacity Building and small group counseling, consultation, coordination, case management, guidance, Capacity building is able to strengthen program evaluation development and aca- the educational responses across systems demic program planning . through the implementation of training programs targeting all critical education stakeholders . As asserted by Franco and others COORDINATING (2002), capacity development should be able TRANSITIONAL SERVICES AT to identify the areas that need improvement, THE COMMUNITY SYSTEMS explain the problem, hypothesize the change LEVEL and test the solution to assess outcomes . It Figure 7 provides a logical sequence for enhances the community’s capacity to per- coordinating transitional service delivery at form tasks and meet set objectives . Service the community systems level (Brown 2008) . delivery capacity confers the appropriate It provides a systematic framework detailing knowledge, skills, competencies, systems the steps of information gathering and action and mechanisms needed to meet the needs needed for transitioning orphaned girls who and aspirations of OVC . Therefore, capac- are both in and out of school, starting from ity building in this context entails the provi- primary to post- secondary school . Transition sion of comprehensive counseling training service assessment is an ongoing and coor- programs for children, parents, teachers and dinated process, which provides information other educational stakeholders to increase for decision-making and advocacy . Assess- their knowledge, skills and competences in ments will help in identifying girls who are supporting the OVCs’ psychosocial well-be- struggling in school and facilitate the devel- ing and educational attainment . opment of relevant instruction and learning interventions that address the educational Counseling needs (Atkinson 2007) . Comprehensive counseling programs are both preventive and developmental in scope and their aim is to enhance academic suc- Conclusion cess, provide career guidance, encourage In Zimbabwe, greater opportunities exist to self-awareness, foster interpersonal commu- strengthen the links between the education nication skills and impart life skills for all stu- and social service systems to ensure that dents (deFur and Patton 1999) . Counselors girls, orphans and other vulnerable children provide support to deal with crises such as have access to support for educational at- parental loss, trauma, abuse, emotional dis- tainment and psychosocial well-being . These tress, behavioral disorders and other family, opportunities are capable of addressing school and community problems . Compre- systematic and individual barriers that hinder hensive school counseling involve individual successful transitions from primary to post-

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 20 A Community Systems Framework Figure 7: Framework for Coordinating Transitional Services

Identify orphaned girls in need of school services (From primary school to post-secondary school)

Identify barriers to education

Work with child, family, school and community to remove barrier

Support enrollment and registration of child

Provide direct referral services and support as needed

Track attendance and progress

Transition to vocational training/employment Source: Brown (2008) secondary education for adolescent girls . Community transition services can provide Interagency collaboration facilitated by com- the evidence-based practice and strate- munity transition agencies fosters increased gies necessary for the development of age advocacy and capacity building, addressing and gender-appropriate OVC responses . cross-cutting issues affecting OVC’s educa- Through effective community case manage- tional outcomes . They also give the opportu- ment systems, the impact of current and fu- nity to tackle other long-term health and so- ture programs can be assessed based on ac- cial issues that have a bearing on livelihood curate information, making the monitoring outcomes for adolescent girls as they make and evaluation of OVC interventions easier the transition to adulthood . Through the at the systems level . If service reform starts empowerment of children, families, teach- at the community level, bottlenecks in service ers and communities, agencies are able to delivery at the district, provincial and national meet the educational needs of OVC through levels can be removed, improving OVC ac- the allocation of available resources and by cess to resources, transparency and account- building community relationships that facili- ability . The education of OVC will cease to tate safe learning and living environments . be ‘someone else’s baby’ when a dedicated agency is available to coordinate services The challenges of coordinating effective re- across multiple agencies . The challenges sponses to address the effects of orphan- of poor identification, under-reporting and hood, HIV/AIDS, poverty and other socio-cul- under-representation of OVCs’ educational tural issues on educational attainment can be needs and other overarching challenges af- eliminated at the community systems levels . fecting the overall development and well-

Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 21 being of orphaned girls can be dealt with OVC, through the Programme of Support in- at community level . Thus, the agency is the novation in Zimbabwe, more effort is needed missing link in promoting and protecting the to build local expertise to develop commu- rights of adolescent orphan girls; and by nity service delivery strategies and programs strengthening the public-private partnerships that will transform the service culture across at the community level, the OVC education agencies by strengthening human, financial service delivery gap can be closed . and technological capacities . In Zimbabwe, there is an urgent need to invest in commu- The government’s failure to deliver high- nity-based service models that are able to fill quality educational services for the poor on the OVC service delivery gaps at the com- its own and the market’s failure to address munity level, taking cognizance of the trajec- social inequalities call for innovative and col- tories of all OVC, especially those in institu- laborative efforts to ensure that essential ed- tional care systems or orphanages who are ucational resources are managed effectively . more vulnerable to poor livelihood outcomes Therefore, effective multi-sectoral collabora- as they make the transition out of institutional tion enhances sound governance at the com- care . Therefore, innovative models such as munity systems level . Central to this is the the community transition agencies are criti- building of a service delivery system that will cal for ensuring that no OVC, particularly not fail orphaned girls, the poor and children adolescent orphan girls, are lost in education with disabilities, who have special needs that transitions or fall through the social services need specialized social services and support . cracks .

Although much progress has been made in channeling resources to organizations serving

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 22 A Community Systems Framework APPENDIX: STUDY METHODS The Respondents Study Method The Blossoms Children Community coordi- The author conducted a case study to as- nator, (a qualified child social worker), ad- sess educational service delivery in the ur- ministered questionnaires to school heads ban community of Mufakose, Harare . The and/or their deputies, who responded and study’s hypothesis was that OVC, particularly stamped the forms to authenticate the pro- adolescent girls, have poor educational out- cess . Due to time constraints, four primary comes because they are falling through the schools instead of nine and two secondary cracks of the social service systems and are schools out of five participated in the study . getting lost in education transitions . All six schools received the same questionnaires, which consisted of both closed and Sampling open-ended questions to provide quantitative and qualitative data, respectively . The second The research used the purposive sampling reference group of key informants consisted technique, which excludes certain types of of three senior district officials drawn from respondents and considers the specific needs the Ministry of Labour and Social Services, that the research needs to satisfy . Against this the Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture; background, this study concentrated on pri- and the Mufakose Municipal Council . Differ- mary and secondary schools as well as the ent structured interviews were used to pro- key stakeholders responsible for education vide up-to-date and in-depth information re- service delivery in the Mufakose community . garding their experiences and viewpoints on education service delivery for Orphans and Vulnerable Children in the community .

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Global Scholars Program Working Paper Series 27 ENDNOTES

1 Lack of family support and love deprives children of a family system of support necessary for affection, self- esteem, spiritual guidance, economic provision, daily care, socialization, recreation and education (Chitiyo et al 2008).

2 OVC experience anxiety, grief, trauma, depression, stigma and discrimination, which make their educational needs exceptional (Chitiyo et al 2008).

3 The increase in the number of households headed by children has resulted in high drop-out rates, erratic school attendance, poor concentration and behavioral disturbances (World Bank 2006).

4 Girls in Zimbabwe are abused by relatives, neighbours, peers and school teachers. Corporal punishment is still being used by teachers in school (UNICEF et al 2011).

Coordinating Education Transitional Services for Adolescent Orphan Girls in Zimbabwe 28 A Community Systems Framework

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