Conflict Management Strategies of Organizations (A Study of Anamco and Capital City Ltd)

TITLE PAGE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES OF ORGANIZATIONS (A STUDY OF ANAMCO AND CAPITAL CITY LTD)

ONOWU MARK CHUKWUEMEZIE PGIMBAl06/46342

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION DEGREE (MBA) IN MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINSTRATION SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ENUGU CAMPUS

SUPERVISOR: CHIEF J. A. EZEH

MARCH 2008

CERTIFICA TION

I Onuwu Mark Chukwuezie, a Post Graduate of Department of management with Registration Number PG/MBA/06/46342 has satisfactorily completed the requirements of the course and research work for the Award of Masters Degree in Management.

The work embodied in this report is original and has not been duplicated in parts or full for any other Diploma or Degree programme.

______CHIEF J. A. EZEH DR. U.J.F EWURUM Project Superior Head of Department

______Date Date

______ONUWU MARK CHUKWUEZIE Student

iii

DEDICATION

This Research work is dedicated to the God Almighty for his love and care

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I want to use this medium to acknowledge those who contributed in way or the other to the success of this research work.

First and foremost, I want to appreciate God for sparing my life with good health, enablement and knowledge throughout this programme and research. Without him it couldn't have been possible for me to do any thing

I want also to show appreciation to my beloved wife Amaka Onowu, unflinching support. Her words of encouragement enabled me to continue during boring situations as a result of data collections and my official engagement in the office.

I remain grateful particularly to my supervisor Chief J. A. Ezeh for the able and professional way he had directed me throughout the academic work. In spite all his schedules, he still found time to go through the pages of the work, making constructive criticizing and corrections.

Let me as well acknowledge the role played by my father Chief

E.M.N Onowu, his fatherly advises was encouraging. Also my friends

Morris Onyibor, Sheriff, Uju Eneh, Chekwas and many others too numerous to mention. May God bless you all.

ONOWU MARK CHUKWUEMEZIE PGIMBA/06/46342

ABSTRACT

This study critically explicates the conflict management strategies of organizations in Nigeria with special references to ANAMCO AND CAPITAL CITY AUTO LTD both in Enugu. The researcher used Survey research method in carrying out the research. During the survey, questionnaires, Personal interviews and physical observation were used, while secondary data was also used to complement. The survey cut across all facts of stakeholders. Data was analyzed using frequency distribution of the respondents' opinion in contingency tables and ranked in percentages. The researcher further reviewed related literatures on the subject matter to sample the opinions of various authors and authorities on the subject. The literature review centered on the key issues involved in conflict management. Several findings were made in this research which includes among others that. A wide range of intervention activities may be utilized to deal with conflicts at various organization levels. In response to the findings made, the following recommendations were made. That to increase cooperation between departments in trying to facilitate mutual communication of needs and minimize the negative attitudes, two strategies should be employed. They are locating a common enemy and locating a super ordinate goal.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...... i CERTIFICA TION ...... ii DEDICATION...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi

CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM...... 2 1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY...... 3 1.4 STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS ...... 4 1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY...... 4 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY...... 5 1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY...... 5 1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS...... 6 REFERENCES ...... 7

CHAPTER TWO ...... 8 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ...... 8 2.1 THE NATURE OF CONFLICT ...... 8 2.2 CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATIONS/ENTERPRISES ...... 11 2.3 ANALYZING ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT ...... 12 2.3.1 SOURCES OF CONFLICT ...... 13 2.4 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ...... 17 2.4.1 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE OF CONFLICT ...... 19 2.5 MANAGING INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT ...... 29 2.5.1 MANAGING INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT ...... 32 2.5.2 MANAGING INTERDEPARTMENTAL CONFLICT ...... 35

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2.6 NEW APPROACHES FOR MANAGING INTERDEP-ARTMENTAL CONFLICT ...... 37 2.7 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND RESOLUTION FOR TEAMS ...... 43

CHAPTER THREE ...... 51 RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY...... 51 3.1 METHODOLOGY ...... 51 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 52 3.3 POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE OF THE STUDY ...... 53 3.4 INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION...... 54 3.5 SOURCES OF DATA ...... 55 3.6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS ...... 56 3.7 DECISION CRITERIA HYPOTHESES FOR VALIDATION OF HYPOTHESES ...... 56

CHAPTER FOUR ...... 59 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ...... 59 4.1 QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTRATION ...... 59 4.2 HYPOTHESES TESTING ...... 65

CHAPTER FIVE ...... 71 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 71 5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS...... 71 5.2 CONCLUSION ...... 72 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS...... 73

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 75 APPENDIXES ...... 79

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION. Conflict is inevitable to any business organization or institution. The

Chinese embraced crisis or conflict as a concept for many centuries. The symbol for their word "crisis called “woi-ji” is actually combination of two words,' "danger and a opportunities" Conflict may be perilous as well as being advantageous to organizations, institutions or states. It all depends on the way and means the organization, institutions or state can play a conflict situation to its advantage or disadvantage. It can destroy organization, institution or state, if it is not properly prevented or managed.

Conflict situations appear with frequency in daily, public and private life. These conflicts may be on a small or large scale; they may occur within and among groups, communities of nations and they be triggered by ethnic, racial, religious or Economic differences, in values, beliefs, and attitudes regarding issues.

It is truism that conflict is part of human nature but the correct thing to do in face of conflict is not to wish that there be no conflict but to plan and be ready to contribute to peace from time to time. The potential for conflict exists whenever and wherever people contact. As people are organized into groups to seek common goal, the probability of conflict greatly increases.

Since only the most serious conflicts make head-lines, conflicts have a negative connotation for many people. All conflicts are not the same. We face conflicts on all levels. We have disagreements with family and co- workers, "Conflicts are rarely resolved easily. Most conflicts are managed as individuals work out differences.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. The biggest problem of enterprises in developing the institution of conflict control is that of catching conflict young. Conflicts situations are frequently allowed to develop to almost unmanageable proportions before anything is done about them by which time it is often too late to resolve them by peaceful and procedural means.

Research into behaviour in organizations can be divided into two categories; normative and descriptive. Normative research is concerned with how things should be, whereas descriptive research addresses itself to what it is rather than what could or should be. This dual perspective is most apparent in approaches to the issues of conflict management in organizations. Normative approach reflect attitudes and beliefs which identify all conflict as destructive and promote conflict elimination as the formula for organizational success.

Descriptive approaches accept conflict as inevitable and consider its proper management the primary responsibility of all administrators. This work is tilted to the descriptive mode of inquiry in presenting a framework for the study of conl1ict in organizations.

But it goes beyond this domain in suggesting that administrators must take the offensive and seek to manage conflict, and also in advocating that traditional methods of dealing with conflict be replaced by a new and more sophisticated approach.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY. The objectives of a study entails what the study is intending to achieve at the completion of the research. The objectives of this particular study include:

1. To determine whether or not conflict disrupts the activities of business

enterprises and whether management of organization could avoid conflict

in the organization.

2. To expose the negative and positive effects of conflicts on organizations

growth.

3. To determine the various way/means and also strategies organizations

could employ' towards handling conflict situation.

4. To determine the various factors that can be related to the occurrence of

conflicts and also when, where and why conflicts is likely to occur.

5. To determine whether or not the proper understanding and management

of conflicts will portray it (conflict) as a strategy in social change.

1.4 STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS H0: The existence of conflict does not hinder organizational goal.

H1: The existence of conflict hinders organizational goal.

H0: Effective conflict management is dispensable if coordinated efforts and

productive achievements are to result.

H2: Effective conflict management is indispensable if coordinated efforts

and productive achievements are to result.

H0: Fostering mutual communication as a strategy does not enhance conflict

management.

H3: Fostering mutual communication as a strategy does enhance conflict

management.

1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY. All organizations in the country cannot be covered in this research,

Because of this; this research is going to restrict itself to two indigenous firms or industries in Enugu. These industries are ANNAMCO and Capital

City Auto Ltd.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study is a thorough research into the conflict management strategies of organizations in Nigeria. The study points out factors or causes of conflicts in organizations and the society at large and the various approaches towards resolving a conflict situation. Therefore by knowing this factors and possible remedies, the management will know how to deal with conflicts.

This research is also important because of its contribution to this growing field of knowledge. Because of peoples misunderstanding of conflict to always be associated with negativity, this study will be an avenue to put managers/employees in the know about the positive aspects of conflict.

1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY. This research work, a lot of constraints and limitations were encountered. Some of these constraints were usual constraints encountered during the course of such academic exercise while some were unusual and boring.

Collections of primary data for this study were a major constraint and some people sampled especially at Capital City Auto Ltd were

6 uncooperative thereby making the availability of data about the company difficult.

Financial constraints also posed a major problem/limitation during the investigation. The researcher would have wanted to carry on the same type of investigation in other enterprise but for financial constraints.

Time was another limitation encountered during the course of the study. Time constraints have forced the study researcher to limit this study on conflict management strategies instead of spreading the study on the entire phenomenon of management in organization.

Sometimes, secondary data collected were not reliable, hence they were rejected. A lot of time was spent on the selection and examination of secondary data for the study.

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS. 1. CONFLICT:- Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitude, beliefs, values or needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and personality differences. 2. STRATEGY:-

A strategy is a large scale action plan that sets the direction, for an organization. It represents an educated guess about what must be done in the long term for the survival or prosperity of the organization or its principal parts.

REFERENCES Campbell, A. (2002), The Private Sector and Conflict Impact Assessment Tools for Multinational Corporations. (CIFP), p.4.

Dudley, W. (1992), The Eight Essential Steps to Conflict Resolution: Preserving Relationship at Work, at Home and in the Coml1iunity. New York; S1. Martins press.

Katz, D. and Kahn R. L. (1976), The Social Psychology of Organizations 2nd Ed; new York: Wiley.

Lawrence, and C, Jeffrey S. (1987), Breaking the Impasses: Consensual Approaches to Resolving Public disputes; New York: Basic Books.

Mitchell, C. R. (1981), The Structure of International Conl1iet. London. Macmillan.

Pondy, R. L. (1967), Organization Conflict: Concepts and Models, Administrative Quarterly. http://www.Clic.purduc.cdu/kvw/brochurcs/managcconflict.htm1.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE In every serious research work, the importance of laying a theoretical foundation by which the entire research will be based cannot be over emphasized. For the purpose of giving the study a theoretical frame of reference and focal direction, it is pertinent to take an in depth into the work of scholars, authors and writers that are closely re1ated to the subject matter.

This we strongly believe will enable organizations and individuals who are involved to be aware of conflict management strategies that exist.

2.1 THE NATURE OF CONFLICT Mention the term conflict and many people envision shouting and fighting. But as a manager, during a typical work day you will encourage more subtle, non-violent types of conflict: Opposition, criticism, arguments.

Thus, a definition of conflict seems fairly mild: Conflict is a process on which one party perceives that its interest are being opposed or negatively affected by another party. (Williams and Kinicki; 2003).Conflict is simply disagreement, a perfectly normal state of affairs. Conf1ict is endemic to all social life. It is an inevitable part 0 f living because it is related to situations of scarce resources, divisions of functions power relations and role

9 differentiations (Fearon, 1998). Because of its ubiquity and pervasive nature, the concept has acquired a multitude of meanings and connotations presenting us with nothing short of a semantic jungle. Like other terms, conflict generates considerable ambivalence and leaves many scholars and administrators quite uncertain about (1) its meaning and (2) How best to cope with it.

The normative conception of conflict, strongly influenced by a preoccupation with stability and equilibrium in organization design, links conflict to violence, destruction, inefficiency and irrationality. This form of intellectual myopia was especially invidious in suggesting that administrators have the responsibility of avoiding, controlling or eliminating conflict (Wescott, 1998).

Descriptive approaches challenge the whole basis and rationale of these assumptions. They permit us to depart from an outmoded parading by suggesting that any social interaction in which the parties (however they may be structured or defined) compete for scarce resources or values has potential for conflict (Williams & Kinicki, 2003). Using the term in a abroad sense, we suggest that conflict refers to all kinds of antagonistic interactions.

More specifically it can be defined in which two or more parties have incompatible objectives and in which their perception and behaviour are

10 commensurate with that incompatibility (Thompson, Aranda and

Robinson’s, 2000).

This definition is purposely broad. It suggests that conflict is a social phenomenon that is found in personal, group or organizational interaction.

As such it comprises several dimensions. Fink (1968) distinguishes between

(1) antagonistic - honour, whereas Pondy (1967) observes that conflict is made up of (1) antecedent conditions (2) affective condition (3) cognitive conditions and (4) behavioural conditions. Jacob Bercovitch advances a conception of conflict which emphasizes its three, interrelated dimensions, namely (1) conflict situation (the basic in compatibility), (2) conflict attitudes (range of psychological factors) and (3) conflict behaviour (set of related behaviour).

Administrators often feel that discussions of fundamental terms are merely academic. This is not always the case. Effective action and sensible responses depend upon clear thinking and systematic analysis. understanding must precede action if management considers the problem stem from ineradicable human qualities and are related to situations of interdependence, scarce resources and perceptions of incompatibility, they might readily accept conflict and recognize its values - provided that they are properly aware of 'conflict management’ and the need to find a solution.

Both conflict management and satisfactory solutions are easier to when it is accepted that what we normally call conflict is a complex, multi dimensional phenomenon. It is not caused by inadequate structures, nor is it undesirable. It is natural and inevitable and if properly managed, it is productive, relevant and creative.

2.2 CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATIONS/ENTERPRISES Organizations are living systems consisting of interacting units arming a task in a mutually dependent manner within a structure of scarce resources.

It seems commonplace to suggest that conflicts would present in such a setting. The parties in an organization may have a conflict about the distribution of resources, or they may have a more fundamental conflict about the very structure of their organization and the basic nature of their interaction.

Once the parties are in a situation of goal incompatibility, their conflict develops in a dynamic fashion, initiating valuable and much needed constructive changes or leading to escalating strategies and destructive consequences.

As there is nothing pre-determined about its course or seems erroneous to view conflict from a negative perspective only - as destructive or dysfunctional. It is true that conflict may be uncomfortable, it may even

12 be a source of problems, but it is absolutely necessary if change is to occur, if organizations are to survive and adapt. Organizational change and innovation does not just happen, it requires a stimulant. That stimulant is conflict.

Administrators must accept the need to influence the developmental dynamics of a conflict so that the parties' attitudes and actions will lead to better coordination and a more appropriate interdependence. They must seek to stifle or eliminate organizational conflict for that is hardly a realistic goal.

As Rico noted, an organization devoid of conflict "may indicate autocracy, uniformity, stagnation and mental fixity”, it will also be protecting only the vested interests of the Administrators must accept and indeed occasionally courage conflict, because change and other desirable consequences are products of conflict.

The challenge administrator's face is to utilize such conflict management techniques that would ensure that as a conflict passes from a latent manifest phase, it proceeds towards its potential and realizes its constructive values.

2.3 ANALYZING ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT Three distinct criteria define the role of an administrator in an organization; planning, resources al1 al1ocation and conflict management.

There is no doubt that managing conflict permeates every aspect of administrative role. Awareness of the various form of conflict management that can be employed at different stages of the development of a conflict is vital if administrations are to organize efforts towards influencing the conflict situation, the parties’ attitudes or their behaviours. In addition to that, effective conflict management requires recognition of the sources that generate a conflict. What then are the sources or basis of organizational conflict?

2.3.1 SOURCES OF CONFLICT Organizational conflict appears in a variety of forms and has varying causes. These can generally be separated into several categories. Katz (1964) identifies three sources of conflict. These are:

1) Structural conflict (conflict arising out of the need to manage the

inter-dependence between different organizational sub-units).

2) Role conflict (conflict arising from sets of prescribed behaviour) and

3) Resources conflict (conflict stemming from interest groups competing

for organizational resources)

Robin (1974) identifies three sources of organizational conflict and indicates that an understanding of the source of a conflict improves the

14 probability of effective conflict management. The main factors which serve as sources of conflict are identified as

(1) Communicational (conflicts arising from misunderstandings etc)

(2) Structural (conflicts related to organizational roles)

(3) Personal (conflicts stemming from individual differences.

Methods of conflict management which are appropriate in one case may not necessarily be appropriate when applied to a conflict generated from another source.

Another perspective traces the source of organizational conflict to unit of analysis involved. Units of analysis are the parties to a conflict. They perceive, initiate and sustain conflict. Their characteristics specify the conditions, which affect the source of conflicts and determine the mode of its management. Thus we have conflict; that originate in the individual person, conflicts that have their basis in the relationship between individuals, and conflicts that occur as a result of interactions between groups. These may be described as (1) intrapersonal conflict (2) interpersonal conflict, and

(3) inert - departmental conflict.

Each of these categories asks different questions about the three interrelated components of conflicts and each emphasizes different aspects of conflict management.

INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT

Intrapersonal conflict is internal to the individual (though its effects can profoundly influence organizational functioning) and is perhaps the most difficult form of conflict to analyze and manage. Intra–personal conflict is basically a conflict between two incompatible tendencies. It arises when a stimulus evokes two different and incompatible tendencies. In such a situation it is common for individuals to experience tendencies. In such a situation it is common for individuals to experience frustrations and to allow their conflict situation to be expressed in a range of behavioural strategies ranging from apathy and boredoms to absenteeism, excessive drinking or destructive behaviour such behavioural consequences are to be avoided, then it is essential to diagnose individual perception and utilize some techniques that would reduce anxiety - eliciting stimuli and increase consonance between individual behaviour and organizational requirements.

INTER PERSONAL CONFLICT

Interpersonal conflict emphasizes the interaction of human factors in an organization. Here we are concerned with these factors as they appear in a dyadic relationship. We can broadly suggest two class’s of factors as conflict sources. These are:

1. PERSONAL. Individuals are not identical, constant or consistent.

When two individuals are brought together and kept together, each

with his own qualities, needs and skill, a conflict may ensue if their

attributes are not meshed together in a coordinated way. Interaction

between individuals with different attitudes, values and need cam

produce conflict behaviour and affect organizational performance.

2. FUNCTIONAL. Individuals in organizations have rotes which are

expected sets of behaviour associated with their position. In theory,

individuals are not expected to engage in any discretionary behaviour.

Such specification would be consisted with organizational preferences

for consistency and predictability.

3. INTERDEPARTMENTAL CONFLICT. The third major cause of

organizational conflict is structural. Organizations are designed

around product lines, regions or technical specialties. These activities

are assigned to departments that often have mutually exclusive

structured interests and goals and that interact within a frame work of

scarce resources and task dependence. When resources are relatively

fixed and when one departments gain is at the expense of another,

conflict should be expected. Two sub-units in an organizational

system have differentiated goals and are functionally interdependent,

conditions exist for conflict. Interdependence produces the need for

collaboration, but it also presents occasions for conflict.

Other contextual factors which affect the interaction structure between departments and create the conditions for interdepartmental conflict include: different attitudes between line and staff units, organizational size (directly related to level of conflict), physical or communicational barriers between departments, unequal access to authority, rewards or organizational resources and ambiguity or uncertainty in assigning tasks or reward to different departments.

These, then, are the sources of conflict situations in organizations.

How a conflict situation will change over time, how its interrelated components will alter and the environment, in which it occurs, is dependent upon the administrators' efforts to manage or influence it. This, in turn, is related to ones understanding of the source of a specific conflict situation.

2.4 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT Ways of managing organizational conflict are as varied as its causes, origins and contexts. The purpose of conflict management, whether involving the intervention of an outside party, is to affect the entire structure of a conflict situation so as to contain the destructive components in the conflict process and help the parties possessing incompatible goals to find

18 some solution to their conflict. Effective conflict management succeeds in

(I) minimizing disruption stemming from the existence of a conflict, and (2) providing a solution that is satisfactory and acceptable. We describe efforts directed towards containing or limiting some aspects of behaviour as strategies of conflict settlement and efforts directed towards the parties' attitudes, situations as well as behaviour as strategies of conflict resolution.

Skilled administrators are aware of these methods and techniques and know how to utilize then effectively.

All organizations, however simple or complex possess a range of mechanisms or procedures for managing conflict. These are built into the organizational structure and are consciously employed by administrators both at ANAMCO AND CAPITAL CITY to influence the course and development of a conflict. The success of effectiveness of such procedures can be gauged by the extent to which they limit conflict behaviour and the extent to which they help to achieve a satisfactory solution. It is in the contention of this study that strategies of conflict avoidance, conflict prevention or institutionalization of conflict will change or replace coercive behaviour, but that only the injection of a behaviour social scientist, acting in a facilitative, non-directive and non evaluative fashion, will achieve a resolution with respect to the basic issues, attitudes and structure of

19 interaction. If administrators care for optimal methods of conflict management, they should give their strongest support to a strategy that can end a conflict in a satisfactory and self perpetuating manner.

All this is not to contend, however, that conflict resolution is the immediate outcome of any intervention. The outcome of a conflict depends upon many aspects of the conflict process prior to the efforts to manage it

(e.g. issues in conflict, relative power of actors, degree of proximity etc).

2.4.1 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE OF CONFLICT Regardless of your worldview, whether Marxist, realist, liberal or another view, conflict is universal. Consequently, there are many theories on the topic of conflict management. While you will find no single definition of conflict management, many theories have been produced that attempt to explain conflict and ways to avoid or resolve conflicts.

As explained earlier, Western conflict management is ultimately based on cooperation. Each contending worldview falls somewhere along this cooperation continuum. Most teams have individual members who fall into each category.

On one extreme, a realist who believes in conflict as a zero-sum game without compromise would see team conflict as war. From a realist worldview, teams submit ideas and fight until a clear winner emerges. To a

20 realist, this is the only true method of resolving conflict. A liberal worldview, however, would advocate compromise or mediation to address team conflict. Others holding a more extreme liberal viewpoint might prefer to avoid conflict altogether to ensure that conflict resolution is not necessary.

Recent scandals in corporate America illustrate the shortfalls of this

“commercial” liberal viewpoint. Rather than face potentially acrimonious disputes, corporate boards quietly signed off or ignored the abusive and illegal actions of executives. This avoidance of conflict at all costs led to the exacerbation of corporate abuses at companies like Tyco International and

Enron.

Given these contending worldviews, and others, we can explore how

Western societies may approach conflicts and conflict management. We can gain a better understanding of these approaches through international relation theory, since the international arena is the largest “team” and accounts for some of the most pointed conflicts.

According to Professor Joseph Nye, “Since recurrent armed conflict are frequently the product of enduring rivalries between pairs of hostile states, addressing and resolving animosities and problems in particular relationships is clearly a way to avert violent conflicts” (Nye, 1987).

Prussian war theorist Carl von Clausewitz wrote in his 1832 treatise. On War

21 that war is an instrument of policy, and that a nation’s aim is to impose this policy on another nation or group of nations (Rosinski, 1976).

This dearly realist theory can be applied to corporate boardrooms as well. Conflict is an instrument by which decision markers impose their will on other team members. Clearly, this theory is based on a realist's zero-sum game. Using Clausewitz's theory, one team member’s ideas must win” and other team member’s ideas must “lose” in order to resolve conflict.

Western conflict resolution explores the idea of achieving mutually beneficial terms to resolve a dispute through cooperation. This means that each team member must hear and understand the position of each other team member not only from their own perspective, but the of other team members as well. If emotional conf1ict emerges, members may try to impose their will on others. Team members who are embroiled in emotional conflict will feel as though they are yielding ground if other team members overrule their suggestions.

Likewise, if a team member is less concerned about their ideas and goals an others, that team member will avoid conflict because the costs outweigh the benefits. In between these two extremes is cognitive and constructive conflict, where team members balance the ideas, goal and concerns of all team members in reaching a negotiated resolution.

International arena, both realists who subscribe to Clausewitz’s war theories and liberals would agree that cooperation between states results in mutual benefit. However, realists and liberals disagree on the situations where multilateral cooperation is beneficial. Realists point to empirical results that show cooperation is only useful when setting limited standards, such as in telecommunications with various networking international shipping with the INCOTERMS conventions. These results show that when multilateral actions, such as economic sanctions, fail, their failures are due to enforcement (i.e. conflict resolution) problems and not bargaining or conflict management issues (Fearon 1998).

The ultimate, albeit rarely attainable, conflict resolution is one where all team members achieve their goals and where the conflict has been permanently resolved. Robert Axelrod, a leading author on conflict management, offers a compelling theory on the importance of cooperation in resolving conflicts. Robert Axelrod’s Prisoner's Dilemma demonstrates the power of cooperation in leading to successful and permanent resolutions of conflict (Axelrod, 1984). Axelrod set up a game theory around a seemingly simple scenario. In Axelrod’s Dilemma game, two players are given the choice to "cooperate" or "defect" Axelrod’s game, two players are given choice to cooperate or defect. Axelrod’s game got its name from a

23 hypothetical situation where two alleged criminals are detained for questioning in a crime. The police do not have enough evidence to convict either criminal. The two prisoners are isolated from each other and interrogated. The police offer both men a deal: offer evidence against the other detainee and go free. If neither accepts the offer but cooperate with each other through silence, both will receive only a small punishment due to the lack of evidence. However, if one betrays the other by confessing, he will gain the most by being freed and given immunity. The prisoner whose silent cooperation was not returned by the other prisoner will face the full punishment for the crime. If both prisoners betray the other, then both will be punished. This case, both will be punished less severely than if they had refused to talk at all. The dilemma is that both prisoners have a choice between a good and bad decision. But cannot make the good decision without knowing what the other prisoner will do.

In the prisoner’s Dilemma, only cooperation, and placing the importance the other person's interests, can avoid the lose-lose situation of punishment. This cooperation forms the foundation of Western conflict management theory. To achieve this cooperation, each team member must understand each side’s positions, interest and needs (Miall, Ramsbotham, and Woodhouse, 1999). Teams can sometimes have difficulty developing

24 this understanding. Each member's understanding is coloured by his or her views, personal agendas and objectives. Third leaders or outside mediators can often intervene to help bridge the different ideas and goals among team members, leading to better understanding and the ultimate goal of cooperation. These third parties must be able to identify and manage potential conflicts to achieve successful resolution.

As mentioned above, conflict is universal and occurs in all workplaces regardless of culture or industry. A leader must know how to identity the warning signs of conflict, and competently resolve the conflict so that individuals and teams can be productive. A successful leader, however, also knows how to recognize and leverage constructive conflict, which can be turned into an opportunity to gain new insights on a particular issue, or even find a creative solution to a difficult problem. In order to resolve conflict, it is important to fully understand the principal elements that characterize conflict. One description of these elements is interdependence interaction, and incompatible goals (University of Phoenix, 2001). Conflict, then occurs when interdependent individuals or teams interact and perceive differences in goals and values. The other party is often viewed as “obstructing these goals or otherwise impending progress” (p. 237). These perception leads to conflict. This interaction between individuals, groups and organizations

25 should be the focus of managers who wish to resolve conflict.

Communication is the conduit for resolving conflicts, as it is only way to articulate conflict and define the issues at stake.

Sometimes teams can easily address conflict without intervention from management. For example, if there is a simple miscommunication, about basic facts and data, teams can resolve conflict by communication the correct information to all involved parties. However, complex conflict involving fundamental issues such as goals and values may require intervention. In these cases, according to Johnson & Johnson (1994),

Leaders and mediators should follow a prescribed sequence of phases.

Following this sequence will increase the likelihood of success, especially in difficult conflicts. These phases are:

1. Collect Data: Obtaining the facts critical, Leaders should also analyze

the behaviours of all parties objectively.

2. Probe. By asking involving questions, leaders will encourage parties

to communicate and listen to each other's viewpoint.

3. Save Face. Humiliating or embarrassing either party is counter

productive. Successful managers work towards a solution that is

beneficial to the entire team.

4. Discover Common Interest: Discovering common interest

establishes a common ground among team members. This common

ground is the first step to an amicable solution.

5. Reinforce. By supporting common ground, leaders drive discussion

toward a mutually agreeable resolution. Leaders must recognize the

appropriate time to use the data collected in phase one.

6. Negotiate. In this phase, partial solutions or compromises should be

formulated and presented to the parties involved. Leaders must

continue reinforcing common ground toward a successful resolution.

7. Solidify Adjustments. Leaders should review and confirm areas

where the team reaches agreement. This is the final step in securing

the approval of all team members and helps to solidify the final

compromise.

Following this sequence of phases allows the parties in conflict to arrive at a successful resolution. Otherwise, discussion may show down or stop at some point, frustration will increase and emotional and destructive conflict can occur.

As this sequence of phases implies, managers often must act as mediators to facilitate conflict resolution. Mediators, however, must have a clear strategy in order to assist in resolving conflicts. Among the strategies

27 mediators can use in coping with conflict are taking two roles a mediator may take: ally and adversary (Johnson and Johnson, 1994).

As an ally, a mediator can use several strategies. The first strategy is

Collaboration. In this strategy, mediators identify the concerns of both parties, and develop alternative solutions that satisfy both sets of needs. The primary advantage of collaboration is that it encourages teamwork among both parties. The resolution is not a victory for one camp over another; instead it is the product of the collective creative energies of the teams.

Often the best solutions are developed by collaboration. However, collaboration is time intensive and requires trust, and consequently may not always be the best approach. Collaboration is usually not appropriate when time is limited or animosity exists between both parties.

In these cases, a mediator acting as an ally can use compromise.

Compromise involves finding a mutually suitable agreement for both parties.

If both parties are willing to be flexible, a mediator can achieve resolution relatively quickly through compromise. All parties both gain and lose something, since successful compromise is mutual. Compromise is also useful as a backup tactic when collaboration fails. However, this strategy requires commitment to compromise from the outset.

As an adversary, a mediator can use competition to achieve resolution.

Competition strategy places individual values above that of the other party.

When using this strategy, a clear winner emerges. This realist strategy should be given careful consideration prior to implementation. Mediators must believe that a single side winning the conflict is in the best interest of the group. A mediator must also consider whether resolution through competition is worth the inevitable reduction in cooperation. While this strategy can ensure a quick decision, mediators must balance this outcome with the potential for reduced teamwork and damage to the integrity of the team as a whole.

Mediators can choose from numerous other methods of managing conflict that do not necessarily adhere to the above models. Often, it is possible to address potential issues before they become serious connects.

Proactively managing potentially contentious issues through open discussion can allow teams to address these issues in an efficient and productive fashion. In these discussions, ensuring open and frank communication between all parties is the most vital task.

Other steps, such as choosing the right time to resolve conflict and avoiding threatening or insulting behaviour also contribute to resolution.

Even humour is useful for diffusing a tense situation (Wescott, 1998). A

29 joke at the right moment can relieve the tension in the room, allowing participants to return to the negotiations at hand. Laughter helps individuals to accept the other parties' differences, and makes the experience more enjoyable. Although it is usually appropriate for mediators to use themselves as the target of humour, the jokes should never belittle or insult anyone.

Humour should support the talents of the never belittle or insult anyone.

Humour should support the talents of the individual or group, not point out their faults. Conflict is inevitable within teams. Many people will handle conflict differently, some may take it personally, where others may withdraw or use conflict constructively and grow from the experience. Once teams identify conflicts and the responses to them, the group will need to take action to resolve the conflicts. Cooperation is the ultimate key for successful, permanent resolutions.

These methods and strategies are key components in a team’s collective portfolio of conflict management skills. Combining an understanding of the nature of conflict, the range or responses in the culture of conflict, and the strategies associated with leveraging conflict to produce opportunity teams can turn into an opportunity.

2.5 MANAGING INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT Interpersonal conflict is predicated upon an incongruity between

30 individual needs and organisational requirements. Interpersonal conflict unfolds over time and manifests itself in complex and multi form range of attitudinal and behavioural consequences. These may vary from psychosomatic consequences (e.g. frustration emotional instability) to physical consequences (e.g. absenteeism, destructive behaviour). As such consequences are obviously correlated with decreased performance and work motivation managing interpersonal conflict will hell the individual to promote incapacity for adaptation and attain an equilibrium in his relationship with the organization. Personal existence is, inevitably, punctuated by conflict and other emotionally charged experiences. When a person experiences an inner conflict and facts that can not master his situation, or change his environment, a number of methods of conflict management can be employed. These are convenience sly divided into (1) cognitive strategies and (2) behavioural strategies.

Cognitive Strategies often called defense mechanism, help an individual to falsify, distort or deny a particular conflict. Cognitive strategies represent an attempt to control or manage negative and disturbing feelings associated with conflict and to allow an individual to carry on with his normal activities. Cognitive strategies include repression (an attempt to push conflict out of existence) rationalization (hiding the truth from oneself),

31 fantasy or even denial of reality.

Behavioural Strategies for coping with interpersonal conflict include escape, withdrawal and aggression (especially against convenient targets).

These strategies can not resolve interpersonal conflict in any permanent way.

They can be successful in the short-run. They can help an individual to reduce his level of anxiety and diminish his tension. They can prevent or avoid disruptive behaviour' but then can not generate a solution. This can come about through the involvement of an expert consultant, acting in an accepting manner and encouraging the individual to evaluate his situation practically and decide upon more effective responses. Interventions in intrapersonal conflicts entails consideration of substantive issues, discussions and self - observations, helping an individual to unload his burdensome thoughts and reactions and reorienting his thir0dng towards a more benevolent and self - maintaining pattern of behaviour. The strength of this approach to conflict management is that it helps the individual to concentrate on his situation and on ways to evaluate alternatives that may have gone unnoticed. The consultant remains detached from an individual, but his intervention, listening, probing, interviewing and explicit confrontation of the conflict issues sets the basis for self - diagnosis and improved performance. It eliminates distortion and increases self -

32 knowledge. It is a method which seeks not merely an amelioration of the surface symptoms, but a successful change in the situational (e.g. re- evaluating a conflict situation) attitudinal (e.g. reduced anxiety, increased self-esteem) and behavioural (erg stimulate productive behaviour) components of a conflict. Consultants may be internal to an organization, or they may be 1ntroduced to an administrator when circumstances require it.

When organizations experience difficulties as a result of intrapersonal conflicts, administrators would be well - advised to manage such conflicts by leading their organization to seek professional help from persons who are trained to fulfil the role of organizational consultants. Successful organizational change does, after all, depend upon a strong commitment to conflict resolution.

2.5.1 MANAGING INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT

Interpersonal interactions are extra ordinarily complex Individual are brought together and kept together because of personal attraction or complementary needs. A great deal of individual behaviour takes place in organizations (university, hospital, factory) in which they occupy various positions. Such positions are interlocked or interdependent so that the attitudes and behaviour of one individual affect the attitudes and behaviour

33 of another. Indeed, we may describe organizations as networks of repetitive, reciprocal and predictable interactions between individuals.

Although persons in an organization interact in a relatively Consistent along Stable-Cooperative dimension way a (organizations develop norms to ensure stable interactions), interpersonal conflict is an essential aspect of organizational life. The causes of Interpersonal conflict in organizations can be ascribed to personal differences (interaction between dissimilar people maximizes conflict potential), perceptual differences (individuals perceive an unfair allocation of organizational resources) and functional differences

(conflicting arising from incompatible role requirement).

On the whole, Interpersonal conflict generates new idea and work patterns, but when it is augmented by personal distrust, misperception and competition, it can very easily be transformed into destructive and costly behaviour. To avoid detrimental effects on Individual as well as organizational functioning, administrators need to identify the causes of interpersonal conflict and take appropriate action to deal with it.

Following Blake and Moulton (1979) there are five possible modes of conflict withdrawal, Smoothing, management: compromise, forcing and problem solving. Withdrawal is an attempt to manage interpersonal conflict by avoidance. Smoothing involves emphasis of common, organizational

34 interest and yielding by one or both parties. Compromise is an attempt to manage conflict by expecting each person to give up something. Forcing occurs when interpersonal conflict is managed in a fashion which compels one person to acquiesce. Problem-solving is an attempt to achieve close collaboration and integrative decision-making between individuals.

Under the prevailing influence of behaviourism, Interpersonal conflict management has been directed mainly toward~, the behavioural components of a conflict situation. Attitude and perceptions have been considered beyond the realm of Conflict management. As a result of this, conflict management has tended to force Individuals to choose between fixed and simplified behavioural alternatives defined in terms of two rigid behavioural goals, winning or loosing. The choices and Incentives associated with this orientation of victory versus defeat were strongly constrained, forcing individuals into relatively primitive modes of interaction and providing administrators with an untrustworthy vehicle for potential conflict management.

Of the five methods of managing interpersonal conflict it appears that problem solving is the only method that is directed towards the process to achieve a high-quality, integrative and satisfying outcome. Empirical

Support for the notion that problem solving is the most effective method for

35 dealing with the underlying problems and feelings of Interpersonal conflict and generating a sound resolution may be obtained from a number of studies. Lawrence and Lorsch (1967) examined the use of the various conflict management methods in six organizations and concluded that the highest performing organizations used probe solving to a greater extent than other organizations. Organizations that can increase the use of problem - solving in interpersonal conflict can offer a better working experience, more constructive consequences and a more creative conflict resolution.

2.5.2 MANAGING INTERDEPARTMENTAL CONFLICT

Conflict between departments is a natural consequence of organizational activities. As organizations move to wards greater differentiation and completely, as they change or adapt to new circumstances, the stage is set for incompatibilities of goals or competition for scarce resources. The resulting conflict between departments may have ambivalent consequences from organization. On the other hand it may have a dysfunctional and counter productive effect on the organization, and on the other hand it can be highly functional and stimulate intra–organizational creativity. For conflict to be a vehicle for organizational growth and creativity there must exist an appropriate method of conflict of management

36 between departments. A manager should know when he is faced with inter departmental conflict and be informed of the process for coping with it or resolving it.

Traditional approaches to managing interdepartmental conflict emphasized such method as (1) conflict avoidance (separating departments by relocating them physically) (2) regulating a conflict by introducing new rules and procedures (3) seeking a form of "legalistic" solution (by appealing together organizational authorities) (4) using departmental representatives to reach a compromise agreement (5) seeking mediation or arbitration from an outside body. Such conflict management methods may indeed produce an agreement. They may reduce the level of conflict behaviour between departments and even legitimize new levels of performance. They cannot, though reflect, perpetuate and occasionally aggravate a win - lose pattern of interactions. Separation, withdrawal, institutionalization, bargaining or legal approaches are essentially forms of a win - Lose confrontation. They all start with a polarized adversary orientation, in which each department tries to attain as much as possible by outsmarting the other. They bring a conflict, ignore it, produce power - based decisions or allow departments to withdraw from it. They do not stimulate a search for conflict resolution.

2.6 NEW APPROACHES FOR MANAGING INTERDEP- ARTMENTAL CONFLICT A range of new approaches to managing interdepartmental conflict may be suggested. These approaches acquire new significance because they become integral parts of an interaction process between departments, because they move away from win-lose type of strategies and because they can meet the need for conflict resolution more effectively. They are best summarized in terns of the social psychologists out of whose experiments these approaches evolved:

1. Sherif et al. 40

Sherif and his associates suggest two broad strategies which are designed to increase cooperation between departments facilitate mutual communication of needs and minimize the effects of hostility and negative attitudes. Both strategies are broad in their scope. Their target of change is the organizational structure, but changes in individual attitudes and improvement in interpersonal competence may also be involved.

1. Locating a common enemy. When departments are engaged in a conflict,

their incentive structure (i.e. Conflict of interest) may be changed and a

mutual understanding as well as favourable attitudes may be promoted if

they perceive a threat from a competing organization. Shifting the level

of interdepartmental conflict to the higher level of inter-organizational

conflict will produce a new structural relationship within each

organization, relationship that would harness departmental efforts and

help them to compete more successfully against another organization.

The perception of an external threat or the identification of common

enemy supersedes any conflict that departments within an organization

may have. As a strategy of conflict management within an organization,

it operates on two levels. First, it affects individual attitudes, perceptions

and feelings of trust and distrust. Second, it influences organizational role

structure. It transforms interactions which are characterized

predominantly by differentiation to accommodative inter-actions of a

collaborative and integrated orientation.

2. Locating a super ordinate goal. Super ordinate goals are goals which arc

greatly desired by several departments and can only be achieved by

combining the energies and resources of all involved. The introduction of

super ordinate goals (e.g. developing a new product line which would.

attract great customer demand) will create a cooperative context in which

departments may interact on problems of joint interests, develop

favourable attitudes and seek to achieve solutions that are mutually

satisfactory. The introduction of a super ordinate goal converts a conflict

between departments to friendly interactions.

The logic of introducing a super ordinate goal is related to the very definition of a conflict. If conflict develops from the perception of incompatible goals, then cooperation would be promoted from common goals.

To be successful in resolving interdepartmental conflict, a super-ordinate goal must be of such importance that departments can forget their differences and work together. It must involve several episodes taking into account the time dimension and it must be introduced by a third party. The cumulative efforts of developing cooperative activities are an important determinant of successful conflict management between departments.

Blake and Mouton

Blake and Mouton accept that the most important aspect of a successful conflict management strategy is the attempt to shift the behavioural and attitudinal components of a relationship from a competitive to a cooperative orientation. They do, however, suggest that both the common enemy and the super ordinate goal approaches fall short of the need to achieve a genuine conflict resolution. This is because both can be seen as

(1) being mainly temporary in character, (2) both are primarily defensive and (3) both strategies may widen a conflict by externalizing it. They offer an approach which emphasizes consultation-based interventions, openness

40 of communication, and greater participation in decision-making and problem-solving interactions.

Blake and Mouton accept that traditional conflict management strategies can only deal with the behavioural component in conflict and bring about a patchwork solution. They suggest an approach to conflict management which involves interventions by organizational consultants

(usually applied behavioural scientists), who have no vested interest in the conflict itself, but who have the competence and experience to generate a productive mode of conflict management. They avoid the pitfalls of adjudicating or evaluating which department is “right” or “wrong” (so often the hallmark of traditional conflict management). Nor do they seek to impose a solution. They intervene in order to generate creative thinking and to establish a problem-solving attitude. Consultation-based approaches to interdepartmental conflict accept conflict situations as inevitable and see them as useful occasions which permit departments to disagree and to work out the disagreements and ultimately to understand each other better. The general functions of a consultant usually consist of (1) avoiding power-based outcomes, (2) providing knowledge and skills regarding conflict processes,

(3) inducing an emotional cognitive change as a prelude to collaborative interactions and (4) providing a supportive, informal and learning

41 environment well-suited to creating the requirements conducive to problem- solving. The technologies of consultation consist of educational activities so designed as to engage individuals as whole persons, not merely as segmented individuals striving to cope with their role demands.

Conflict management-and indeed all forms of organizational behaviour - is determined by the interaction of (1) information, (2) skills, (3) values and (4) situation. Each of these factors acts as a precursor of some consultation-based activities. Behavioural consultants provide parties in conflict with more information and an understanding of the complexities of conflict interactions. They promote social interaction skills (which should be recognized as important as technical skills). They promote values of cooperation and help to create a situation in which people can interact freely and feel that they are as important to an organization as are its resources or products.

The sequence of consultation activities commences with upgrading individual skills and abilities, moves on to team-building activities and then to restructuring inters group and interdepartmental activities. The institutionalization of these activities consists of four steps. The first step- bringing in the consultant-represents an administrative response to a felt need for effective conflict management. The second step-entry–is associated

42 with various information-giving activities. The third step is aimed at attitudinal change through data-feedback, team-training, sensitivity and T-

Group training or Grid development. The final step involves a structural change in the relationship between departments and a move towards integrative interactions and conflict resolution.

Effective conflict management is quite a major undertaking. There are not too many guideposts to indicate where we are or how to move towards conflict resolution. It is, therefore, a task which demands attention to attitudinal and behavioural elements, to outcome and emotional needs and to interpersonal as well as interdepartmental requirements. The intervention strategies of a behavioural consultant can, we have argued, move us towards that direction. We can not be certain that the intended effects will always be achieved. We can suggest, with some certainty, that such interventions move us forward in the direction of effective conflict management and success in problem-solving. With this consideration in mind, administrators should encourage such intervention and help to produce more effective programmes.

2.7 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND RESOLUTION FOR TEAMS

“Conflict is the gadfly of thought. It stirs us to observation and memory. It instigates to invention. It shocks us out of sheep like passivity, and sets us at noting and contriving.”-John Dewey.

When a group of individuals with varying experiences, thought processes and expectations work together as a team, conflict is inevitable.

While many people see conflict as a sign of failure, teams can potentially use conflict as an 8.5Set. Understanding conflict dynamics and cultural approaches to conflict management help teams to distil key points vital to a successful and productive resolution of team conflict.

There are four basic types of conflict: emotional, cognitive, constructive and destructive. Emotional and destructive conflicts lead to an inability to resolve issues. Cognitive and constructive conflicts are a necessary part of finding successful solutions as a team. Emotional conflict is "personal, defensive, and resentful” (Thompson, Aranda, and Robbins,

2000) and is based on anger, personality clashes, ego and tension. Emotional conflict occurs when individual interests trump the interests of the team as a whole. This type of conflict interferes with the effort of a team to resolve a problem.

Cognitive conflict occurs when team members voice different ideas and is

“largely depersonalized” (Thompson, Aranda, and Robbins, 2000). As opposed to emotional conflict, this type of conflict is based on arguments about the merits of ideas, plans and projects. Because cognitive conflict is not based on personal feelings, it forces team members to rethink problems and arrive at a collective decision.

Constructive conflict, as the name suggests, help teams resolves problems and uncover new solutions to old issues in a productive manner

(Thompson, Aranda, and Robbins, 2000). It allows changes and growth to occur within a term environment.

Destructive conflict, like emotional conflict, causes dysfunction when a “lack of common agreement leads to negativism” (Thompson, Aranda, and

Robbins, 2000). This disrupts the progress of all group members.

Destructive conflict in teams diminishes the possibility of any problem resolution.

Understanding and defining conflict terminology and conflict management is a first and important step in successful conflict management.

Since conflict is inevitable in any team or group situation, groups must cooperate to reach a successful resolution of any issues. Western conflict management theory places an emphasis on understanding and cooperation

45 for the successful and permanent resolution of conflict.

Since more than one issue, and more than one type of conflict, often is involved in the conflict, successful conflict management and resolution depend on a number of factors. Among them, teams must understand the different responses to conflict among team members.

CONCLUSION

Organizations are social entities segmented into hierarchies of departments and individuals. The basic realities of organizational life cannot but stimulate comparisons, competitions and conflicts between departments and individuals. Conflict is an omnipresent feature at each of these organizational levels. Since conflict may have functional as well as dysfunctional consequences, it is essential that administrators explore various methods and techniques of conflict management. Effective conflict management is indispensable if coordinated efforts and productive achievements are to result. I have suggested above that the planned intervention by behavioural scientists represents the most effective method since it can produce organizational change and a sense of personal accomplishment.

A wide range of intervention activities may be utilized to deal with conflicts at various organizational levels. It is beyond the scope of this

46 article to provide a manual that can possibly foresee all the contingencies or to evaluate the effectiveness of different types of intervention.

This study purported to view conflict management as an integral part of the administrative process. Administrators should be able to ascertain the presence of a conflict, its basic sources, the level at which itself, its degree of intensity and the ways of furthering the objective of conflict resolution.

From a pragmatic viewpoint administrators should direct their attention to four issues: Is there a conflict? Where; the conflict? Does it require to be managed? How best to implement an effective conflict management strategy? With these issues in mind the main features of this study may be summarized by developing a conceptual framework for conflict management in organizations.

Conflict and conflict in organizations has only recently begun to receive the attention it deserves. In this study I have sought to address ourselves to the two most important issues in this field, namely, the determinants of conflict and the effectiveness of different methods of conflict management. Working from a conceptual basic this study represents only an initial step in the direction of systemizing our understanding of conflict and conflict management. Our task lies in stimulating a more thorough analysis to fill the gap between our knowledge and the realities of

47 organizational life. The administrators’ task lies in accepting conflict evaluation as part of their role and in developing the creative abilities that are necessary to deal with it.

REFERENCES

Assail, H. (1969), "Constructive Role of Interorganizational Conflict”, Administrative Science Quarterly, 14.

Aubert, (1963), "Competition and Dissensus”, Journal of Cnat1iet Resolution, 7: 26-42.

Blake, R. R., Mouton J. S. and Shepard H. A. (1964), Management Intergroup Conflict in Industry.

Boulding, K. E. (1957), “Organizations and Conflict”. Journal of C;"1t1iet Resolution 1: 122-134.

Brown J. S. (1967), “Principles of Intrapersonal Cont1ict”, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1:135-154.

Corwin, R. G. (1969), “Patterns of Organizational Administrative Science Quarterly, 14: 507-520.

Deutshch, M. (1969), “Cont1icts: Productive and Destructive”, Journal of Social issues 7-42.

Deutshch, M. (1973), The Resolution of Conflict. (New haven: Yale University Press, and C. R. Mitchell (1981) the Structure of International Conflict. London: Macmillan.

Dutton, J. M. and Walton R. E. (19660, “Interdepartmental Conflict and Cooperation: two Contrasting Studies”, Human Organization, 25: 207-220.

Fink, C. F. (1968) “Some Conceptual Difficulties in the Theory of Social Conflict”, Journal of Cont1ict Resolution, 12412-460.

Galtung, J. (1969), “Conflict as a way of Life" Progress in Mental Health ed. By h. Freeman London: Churchill.

Janis, 1. L. and Mann L. Decision Making: (1977).

Katz, D. (1964), “Approaches to Managing Conflict”, in Power and Conflict in Organizations, ed, By Kahn R. L. and Boulding K. E. pp. 105-114.

Katz, D. and Kahn, R. L. (1976), The Social Psychology of Organizations 2nd ed. New York Willey.

Kelly, J. (1949), Organization Behaviour. Homewood 11: Dorsey Press.

Kelly, J. (1970), “Make Conflict Work for You”, Harvard business Review, 48: 499-505.

Kriesberg, L. (1973), The Sociology of Social Conflict (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Prentice Hall.

Litterer, J. A. (1966), “Conflict in Organization: A Re-examination’, Academy of Management Journal, 9: 178-186.

Mark, R. W. (1965), “The Components of Social Conflict”, Social Problems, 12: 388-397.

Pietrofessa, et al J. J. (I 978), Counselling: Theory, Research and Practice.

Pondy, R. L. (1967), “Organization Conflict: Concepts and Models,” Administration Science Quarterly, 12, 296-320.

Rico, L. (I964), “Organization Conflict: A Framework for Reappraisal”, Industrial Management Review, 5: 67.

Robbins, S. P. (1974), Managing Organization Conflict: a Non-Traditional Approach.

Sanford, R. N. “Individual Conflict and Organizational Interaction” in Power and Conflict in Organizations, ed. By Kahn and Boulding pp. 95-104.

Schmidt, S. M. and T. A. Kochan (1972), “Conflict; Towards Conceptual Clarity”, Administration Science Quarterly, 17 359-370.

Singer, K. (1949), “The Meaning of Conflict”, Australian Journal of Philosophy. 27: 141-157.

Thomas, K. W. and Schmidt, W. h. (1976), “A Survcy of Managerial Interests with Respect of Conflict”, Academy of Management Journal, 19:315-318 (Harmondsworkth, Middx: Penguin, 1976)

Themas, K. W. and Schmidt, W. H. (1967), “A Survey of Managerial Interest with Respect of Conflict”, Academy of MANAGEMENT Journal 19: 315-318. (Harmondswroth, Middx: penguin, 1976).

Thompson, J. D. (1969), “Organization Management of conflict, Administration Science Quarterly, 4: 389-409.

Walton, R. E. et al., (1969), “Organization Context and Inter-department Conflict”, Administrative Science Quarterly. 14 (522-542).

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 METHODOLOGY

The research objectives and problems of this project have to a reasonable extent determine the method employed in this research, on this note the survey method has been employed in carrying out this research. The research set out to assess the conflict management strategies of organizations. Thus the use of survey research was considered logical to be employed in this study.

By survey research, we mean the task of asking questions in order to acquire information from the population under study. This is the most commonly used by social scientists. It has to do with drawing up a set of questions on various subjects or on various aspects of a subject to which selected members of a population are requested to react. (Unyimadu 2005).

A good number of reasons accounted for the preference of this method in the study. These reasons include the following:

a) It is more realistic than the experiment in that it investigates

phenomenon in their natural setting.

b) It Interprets, Synthesizes, integrates data and points to Implications

and Inter-relationships.

c) Such an approach is consistent with one of the aims of qualitative

research, which is to expose the range and depth of the phenomenon

in order to develop theory (Eisenhardt: 1989)

d) Surveys are particularly versatile and practical especially for the

administrator in that they identify present conditions and points to

present needs.

e) These methods often generate both qualitative and quantitative

elements and generate hypotheses and ultimately concepts and

theories (Strauss 1987).

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN Questionnaire is the Survey research design of this study. The questionnaire in this study is carefully structured and designed in order to achieve the objectives of the study. The questionnaire: is both close and open ended.

The open ended questionnaire allows the respondents to answer the question the way he or she likes with fewer restrictions or non in some cases.

The close ended questionnaire restricts the range of answers available to

53 respondents.

The researcher made available a set of response categories after each question from which the respondent will be expected to choose one or any number of appropriate responses. The researcher asked questions and supplied the possible answers and Instructed the respondents to tick one of the available respd1se which best expressed his feeling, attitude or perception. For the puq10se of making sure of high degree of Information reliability to be collected through questionnaire, the researcher made the questions very clear in a way that it will not bring confusion among respondents. The researcher also made use of random sampling method.

3.3 POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE OF THE STUDY The populations of this study include the staff of ANAMCO AND

CAPITAL CITY AUTOMOBILE both in Enugu. But due to some obvious constraints, the purposive sampling technique was used to determine the sample size.

In this sampling technique also called the judgmental sampling, the researcher uses his/her own judgment about which respondents to choose and picks only those who best meet the purpose of the study. The sample units here are selected with some special objective in mind.

Out of the 338 questionnaire copies administered for the surveyor study, 168 were correctly filled and returned while 170 were rejected. To determine the optimum sample size, the researcher applied the Taro Yameni model of sample size determination calculated at 95% Confidence level of significance and 5% standard error using the formula:

n = N I+N(e)2 n = Sample Size

N = population size

E = error assumed

Assumed error = 0.05 (5%)

Population Size = (N) => 338

Therefore j n = 338 1 + (350) 0.052 n = 338 2.01 = 160 Therefore the population Size is 168

3.4 INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION The researcher used questionnaires in data collection. The questionnaire was designed for the respondents in the area of study. The questionnaire helped the researcher to obtain Information from respondents

55 bout their perceptions, opinions, attitudes and satisfaction of the subject under study.

However, the questionnaire helped the researcher in the following ways;

1) It permitted more considerable answers

2) It was less expensive compared to the wide area it covered

3) It was more adequate in situations in which the respondents have to

check their Information.

4) It ensured that the structure is used to observe the respond,

3.5 SOURCES OF DATA The two main sources used in this study to collect data are:

(A) PRIMARY DATA: - The primary data include the data collected from the questionnaire administered by the researcher. The primary data also

Include Information collected from direct survey which involves direct contact with the respondents.

In this study the researcher used questionnaire as the main tool for the primary data collection. The researcher distributed the questionnaire to potential respondents who filled and returned them.

(B) SECONDARY DATA: - These are data collected from publications and articles on works of other researchers and writers which are closely related

56 to the study.

3.6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS In this study, the research analyzed, Interpreted and presented the data collected in meaningful and simplest form for the understanding of the readers, (Ikeagwu: 1998).

The data collected were analyzed with tables and percentages. The percentages were used to analyze the data collected so as to make them more understandable to readers while chi-square was used to test the hypotheses based on its scientific nature and also widely used by social scientists. The formula for the chi-square used in this study is as follows: x = (0-E) 2 

Where X = Computed chi-square

O = Observed frequencies

E = Expected frequencies

E = Summation Sign.

3.7 DECISION CRITERIA HYPOTHESES FOR VALIDATION OF HYPOTHESES The decision criterion is that if the calculated chi-square (X2) value is greater than the critical value, the null hypotheses will be rejected and the

57 alternative hypotheses will be accepted. Conversely, if the calculated values less than the critical value, the null hypotheses is accepted.

REFERENCES

Unyimadu, S. O. (2005) Research Methods and Procedures. Benin: Harmony Books.

Ikeagwu, E. K. (1998) Groundwork of Research Methods and Practice. Enugu: Institute for Development Studies.

Eisenhardt, K.M (1989) Building Theories from case study Research. New York: Times publishing.

Strauss, A and Corbin. S (1990) Basic Qualitative Research. Califorma: SAGE.

Osuala, E. C (1982) Introduction to Research Methodology. Onitsha: Africana - Fep Publishers.

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

For the analysis of data collected, this chapter is divided into two parts. The first part is the presentation of the responses from the questionnaires administered and the second part is the test of hypothesis.

These two parts are hereby presented in a chronological sequence in line with the research objectives and hypothesis. This study is aimed at determining those Conflict management strategies of organizations.

4.1 QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTRATION

SEX AND AGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

This is necessary because the opinion of almost every age and category of those directly involved or affected with operations and activities in he organization need to be sort. This was considered in the design of the questionnaire, as there could be a relationship between the age of respondents and their perception and reaction towards conflict and conflict situations.

The table below summarizes the distribution of respondents by age:

TABLE 4.1: SEX AND AGE DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

Age Range (Yrs) Male % Female % Total % 15 – 29 46 23.47 30 22.47 46 23 30 – 40 55 39.32 38 25.22 63 31.5 41 – 50 60 36.03 38 31.46 83 34 51 – above 57 15.31 14 6.74 23 11.5 218 100 120 100 200 100 SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

TABLE 4.2: RETURN OF QUESTIONNAIRES

Allocation of Questionnaires Respondents Percentage Filled and Returned 168 168 Unreturned - - SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

In Table 4.1, a summary of the distribution of questionnaires by age consideration was tabulated. The table indicated that 218 questionnaires were distributed to men while 132 questionnaires were distributed to women. The analysis further revealed that male respondents represented

59% of the questionnaires distributed while 41% represented the female respondents of the questionnaires distributed.

TABLE 4.2 EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS OR RESPONDENT?

Response Variables No of Responses % of Response FSLC - - WASC/GCE - - OND/NCE 21 12.5 HND/B.SC/BA 101 60.11 MBA/M.SC 46 27.4 Total 168 100 SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

DESCRIPTION

Table 4.2 above indicates that 60.11% of the respondents hold

B.Sc/BA/HND certificates. 27.4% hold masters degree certificates, while another 12.5% hold NCE/OND certificates. This shows a high level exposure among workers of both organizations.

TABLE 4.3 POSITIONS OR LEVEL IN YOUR ORGANIZATION

Response Variable No of Respondents % of Respondents Line staff 94 56 Supervisor 40 24 Middle level Manager 22 13 Senior Manager 12 1 Total 168 100 SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

Table 4.3 above shows that 94 of the respondents are of the line staff, supervisor 40, 22 of them are managers, while 12 of them are senior managers.

TABLE 4.4: EXISTENCE OF CONFLICT IN YOUR ORGANIZATION.

Response Variable No of Respondents % of Respondents Agree 140 83 Strongly agree 28 17 Disagree - - Strongly disagree - - Total 160 100 SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

Table 4.4 indicates that all the 140 or 83% of respondents acknowledged that conflict exist in their organization while 28 or 17% strongly agree that conflict exists in their organization. This shows that there is an existence of conflict in their organizations.

TABLE 4.5: WHAT FORM OF CONFLICT EXISTS IN YOUR ORGANIZATION?

Response Variable No of Respondents % of Response Intrapersonal - - Conflict - - Interpersonal - - Conflict 168 100- Interdept. Conflict All of the above 168 100 Total 160 100% SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

The table above indicates that all forms of conflict exist in the organizations under study. This is because all 168 agreed to the fact that interpersonal, intrapersonal, and inter departmental conflict do exist.

Table 4.6: what form of conflict have you experienced?

Response Variable No of Respondents % of Response Intrapersonal Conflict - - Interpersonal Conflict 146 87 Interdept. Conflict 22 13 All of the above Total 160 100% SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

The table above shows that all the respondents have experienced one form of conflict or another. Supervisors and Managers said they have experienced both interpersonal and intrapersonal conflict. The line staff said they always experience interpersonal conflict form time to time in their work place.

TABLE 4.8: YOUR PERCEPTION OF CONFLICT?

Response Variable No of Respondents % of Response Positive 140 83 Negative 28 17 Total 168 100% SOURCE; FIELD SURVEY

The table above shows that 28 or 175 of the respondents have the opinion that conflict is all about negatively while 140 or 835 of them believe in conflict exist opportunities that might help organizations in the long run.

TABLE 4.9: YOUR ORGANIZATIONS STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICT? Response Variables No of Respondents % of Response Mutual - - Communication - - Dialogue/arbitration - - Rules/regulation - - All of the above 168 100 Total 168 100% SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

The table above shows that the organizations under study encourage the use of mutual communication during interpersonal conflict situations.

They also engage the use of dialogue/arbitration in managing conflict and put rules and regulations on the ground to be able to manage conflict situations appropriately from the above description, it is evident that the organizations employ all the mentioned strategies and many more is managing a conflict situation.

TABLE 4.10: IMPACT OF EFFECTIVE CONFLICT

MANAGEMENT?

Response Variables No of Respondents % of Response Productive 140 83.3 Unproductive 28 16.7 Total 168 100 SOURCE; FIELD SURVEY

In the table above, 140 of the respondents representing 83.35 agreed that effective conflict management is indispensable if productive achievements are to result while 16.7% the respondents thought otherwise.

TABLE 4.11: DOES CONFLICT HIDER ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS? Response Variable No of Respondents % of Response Disagree 140 83.3 Agree 28 16.7 Total 168 100 SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

The table above indicates that the existence of conflict does not hinder organizational goals. This is because only 28 or 17% of the respondents disagreed to the fact that conflict does not hinder organizational goals.

4.2 HYPOTHESES TESTING

4.2.1 HYPOTHESIS ONE H0: The existence of conflict does not hinder organizational goal.

H1: The existence of conflict hinders organization goal.

TABLE FOR HYPOTHESIS ONE

The contingency table information for analyzing hypothesis one is got from the data in table 4.11 as follows.

TABLE 4.11: DOES CONFLICT HIDER ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS? Response Variable No of Respondents % of Response DISAGREE 140 83.3 AGREE 28 16.7 Total 168 100 SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

DESCRIPTION

From the table above, 140 of the respondents agreed that existence of conflict does not hinder organizational goals.

DECISION RULE OF CHI-SQUARE

A decision rule is the statistical objective procedure, which guides the research as to whether a particular hypothesis is accepted or rejected from a set data.

In testing the above hypothesis, the decision rule states that at 0.5 level of significance with 2 degree freedom; if calculated value of chi-square

2 2 2 is X > X 0 reject H0 and accept H1 when X 0 is the table value of 5.991.

The formula for chi-square used in testing the hypothesis is stated as follows:

(0  E) 2 X2 =  E

Where X2 = the computed chi-square O = Observed frequency E = the expected frequency = The summation sign

TABLE 4.12: CALCULATION OF CHI-SQUARE IN RESPECT OF HYPOTHESIS ONE Response Variable 0 E 0-E 0-E2 2 0.E E Agree 140 83 57 3249 39.14 Disagree 28 17 11 121 7.11 Total 46.25

Computed chi-square or calculated value X2 = 46.25

Table value = 5.991

DECISION TAKEN

The chi-square shows that the calculated value of 46.24 is greater that the table value of 5.991 at 2 degree of freedom and at a probability level of

0.5. This result shows that the alternative hypothesis (H1) that represents positive response tested statistically significant and it was accepted that the existence of conflict does not hinder organizational goals.

4.2.2 HYPOTHESIS TWO Ho: Effective conflict management is dispensable if coordinated efforts and productive achievements ate to result.

H2: Effective conflict management is indispensable if coordinated efforts and productive achievements are to result.

The contingency table for hypothesis two is got from table 4.10

TABLE 4.10: IMPACT OF EFFECTIVE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT? Response Variables No of Respondents % of Response Productive 140 83.3 Unproductive 28 16.7 Total 168 100 SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

DESCRIPTION

From the above table on the impact of effective conflict management on organizations. 140 of the respondents agreed that effective conflict management is indispensable if coordinated efforts and productive achievements are to result.

DECISION RULE OF CHI-SQUARE

The decision rule states at 0.5 level of significance, with 2 degrees of

2> 2 freedom, if computed chi-square or calculated value X X 0 is the table value of 5.991.

TABLE 4.13: CALCULATION OF CHI-SQUARE IN RESPECT OF HYPOTHESIS TWO 2 Response Variable 0 E 0-E 0-E 0.E 2

E Productive 140 83 57 3249 39.14 Unproductive 28 17 11 121 7.11 Total 46.25 Computed chi-square or calculated value X2 = 46.25, Table value = 5.991.

DECISION TAKEN

The chi-square shows that the calculated value of 46.25 if greater, than the table value of 5.991 at 2 degrees of freedom and at a probability level of 0.5. This result shows that the alternative hypothesis (H2) that represents the positive response tested statistically significant and it was accepted that effective conflict management is indispensable if coordinated efforts and productive achievements are to result.

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS THREE

H0: Fostering mutual communication as a strategy does not enhance conflict management

H3: Fostering mutual communication as a strategy does enhance conflict management.

The contingency table information for analyzing hypothesis three is got from the data in table 4.9 as follows.

TABLE 4.9: YOUR ORGANIZATIONS STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICT? Response Variables Number of Respondents % of Response Mutual - - Communication - - Dialogue/arbitration - - Rules/regulation All of the above 168 100 Total 168 100% SOURCE: FIELD SURVEY

DESCRIPTION

From the above table on mutual communication as a strategy for enhancing conflict management. 168 of the respondents agreed that fostering mutual communication can effectively enhance conflict management.

DECISION TAKEN

The chi-square shows that the calculated value of 46.24 is greater, than the table value of 5.991 at 2 degrees of freedom and at a probability level of 0.5. This result show that the alternative hypothesis (H3) that represents the positive response tested statistically significant and it was accepted that fostering mutual communication as a strategy does enhance conflict management.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS. The basic aim of this study was to investigate into the conflict management strategies of organizations in Nigeria. The study covered some enterprises in Enugu metropolis and its environs. Above 338 questionnaire copies were administered but 168 were successfully returned showing that

80% of the questionnaire administered were successful returned. Data received from the exercise were analyzed based on the frequency distribution of respondents' opinions. This is shown in the tables, which were also analyzed in percentages shown in chapter four of this study. As a supplement to questionnaires, personal interview was conducted to elicit some additional interviews not covered in the questionnaire.

Related literature were extensively received, covering such areas as ingredients of conflict, types of conflict, sources of conflict, conflict management etc.

Below is the summary of findings during the field interviews and data analysis;

a. That conflict situations appear frequently in daily public and private

life

b. That conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or

groups that differ in attitude, beliefs, values or needs.

c. That lack of effective communication can contribute to conflict

situation negatively.

d. That effective conflict management requires recognition of the

sources that generate a conflict.

5.2 CONCLUSION The conclusions are derived from the responses of respondents. We can observe clearly from respondents that conflict in inevitable in any going concern. They also confirmed that they experience one form of conflict from one time to another in the cause of performing their tasks.

The researcher also observed that respondents erroneously view conflict from a negative perspective - as destructive or dysfunctional. It is true that conflict may be uncomfortable, if changes are to occur if organizations are to survive and adapt.

The researcher also observed that all organizations, however simple or complex must posses a range of mechanism or procedures for managing conflict.

A wide range of intervention activities may be utilized to deal with conflicts at various organizational levels. Therefore administrators should be able to ascertain the presence of a conflict, its basic sources, the level at which it manifest itself, its degree of intensity and the ways of furthering the objectives of conflict resolution.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS. Based on the findings of this project report, the following recommendations are made:

Organizational changes and innovation does not just happen, it required a stimulant which is conflict. Therefore, managers should embrace conflict not only negatively but positively to enable them meet up with challenges.

Administrators or managers must accept the needs to influence the developmental dynamics of a conflict, so that the parties' attitudes and actions will lead to better coordination and a more appropriate interdependence.

The managers should apply the situational approach to conflict management because methods of conflict management which is appropriate in one case may not necessarily be appropriate when applied to a conflict generated from another source.

That to increases cooperation between departments in trying to facilitate mutual communication of needs and minimize the effects of hostility and negative attitudes, two strategies should be employed. They are locating a common enemy and locating a super ordinate goal.

That the cumulative efforts of developing cooperative activities are important determinants of successful conflict management between departments.

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APPENDIXES APPENDIX 1 Department of Management, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus,

October 23, 2007. Dear Sir/Madam,

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

I am a postgraduate student of the above named institution undertaking a research project on “conflict management strategies of organizations”.

Therefore, your reply to the questions raised is meant for the purpose of enriching the study. All information furnished by you would be treated in strict confidence and utilized exclusively for this study.

Thanks for you co-operation.

Yours faithfully,

ONOWU MARK CHUKWUEMEZIE.

APPENDIX 11 QUESTIONNAIRE Instruction: Tick (√) the appropriate option or fill the blank spaces as required. 1. Sex Male Female 2. Age in years 15 – 29 30 – 40 41 – 50 51 above 3. Marital Status: Married Single Divorced Separated Widow Widower 4. Education: Primary Secondary Tertiary

5. Position in the organization: Line staff Supervision Middle Manager Senior Manager

PART B To identify various health hazards in cement production causes and their prevention

QUESTIONS 6. Existence of conflict in your organization? Agree Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

7. What form of conflict exists in your organisation?: Intrapersonal Interpersonal Interdept All of the above

8. What form of conflict have you experience? Intrapersonal Interpersonal Interdept All of the above

9. Your Perception of Conflict? Positive Negative

10. Your Organisations strategy for managing conflict? Mutual Communication Dialogue/Arbitration Rules/Regulation All of the Above 11. Impact of effective conflict management? Productive Unproductive

12. Does conflict hinder organisation goals Disagree Agree