UCF Technical Communication Style

University of Central Florida 4000 Central Florida Blvd. Orlando, Florida 32816 www.ucf.edu

Published by University of Central Florida, 2017

Published in the United States of America

ISBN 978-0-9817249-0-1

First Edition

Table Of Contents Introduction 9 Online Communication (Writing Team 1) 10 1. Maintaining awareness of your audience 10 1.1 Utilize non-discriminatory language 10 1.2 Respect cultural differences 10 1.3 Maintain professional conduct 11 2. Verbal vs. non-verbal communication 11 2.1 Absence of body language 11 2.2 Emoticons 11 3. Special considerations in an online environment 12 3.1 Private vs. public 12 3.2 Social media 13 4. How to communicate effectively online 14 4.1 Think before you send 14 4.2 Utilize clear and concise language 15 5. Utilizing online communication tools 15 5.1 Types of online communication tools 15 5.2 Benefits of online communication tools 17 5.3 Pitfalls of online communication tools 17 6. Common issues of online communication 17 6.1 Keeping in touch online 17 6.2 Avoiding/resolving conflict 18 Graphics (Writing Team 1) 19 1. The importance of graphics in technical communication 19 2. Types of graphics used in technical communication 19 2.1 Informational graphics 20 2.2 Identifying graphics 27 2.3 Decorative graphics 27 4

3. Choosing and creating effective graphics 28 3.1 Use of color 28 3.2 Text and background 30 3.3 Alternative text 31 4. Rules for effective use of graphics 32 4.1 Relevance to text 32 4.2 Clarity, size, layout, and labeling 33 5. Ethical and global use of graphics 34 5.1 Unethical use of graphics 34 5.2 Considerations for international audiences 34 6. Citing graphics 35 6.1 Reasons to cite graphics 35 6.2 Creative commons licenses 35 6.3 Citation style 36 Documentation and Citation (Writing Team 2) 37

1. Why citation is important 37

2. Different citation styles and their usage 37

3. How to cite with MLA, APA, and Chicago 37

3.1 Citing in MLA format 37

3.2 Citing in APA format 39 3.3 Citing in Chicago format 39

4. In-line citations 41

4.1 In-line citations in MLA format 41

4.2 In-line citations in APA format 42 4.3 In-line citations in Chicago format 44

5. The works cited section 44

5.1 MLA references page 44

5.2 APA references page 45 5.3 CMS references page 45 5

6. Citing graphics 45

6.1 Graphics in MLA 45

6.2 Graphics in APA 46 6.3 Graphics in CMS 46 7. Fair use 46

Presentation Skills (Writing Team 2) 48

1. Types of professional talks 48 1.1 Informative presentations 48 1.2 Persuasive presentations 48 1.3 Entertaining presentations 48 2. Organizing talks 48 2.1 Knowing your audience 49 2.2 Choosing a presentation method and style 49 2.2.1 Presentation methods 50 2.3 Outlining and organizing information 51 2.3.1 Outlining 51 2.3.2 Organizing information 52 3. Proper attire 52 3.1 Attire and your audience 53 3.2 Some general do’s and do not’s 53 4. Software and equipment 54 4.1 Software 54 4.2 Equipment 55 5. Visual aids and handouts 56 6. Public speaking tips 57 Sources (Writing Team 3) 58 1. Using Search Engines 58 2. Credibility 59 Library Navigation (Writing Team 3) 60 1. Searching the database 60 6

2. Find physical books 60 3. Journals 61 Plagiarism (Writing Team 3) 61 Information (Writing Team 3) 62 1. Non-relevant sites 62 2. Specific topics 62 Punctuation (Writing Team 4) 63 1. Periods 63 2. Commas 64 3. Exclamation Points 65 4. Question Marks 66 5. Parentheses 66 6. Brackets 68 7. Colons 69 8. Semicolons 70 9. Quotations 71 10. Apostrophe 71 11. Hyphen/Dash 72 Technical Writing Genres (Writing Team 4) 74 1.1 Memorandums 74 1.2 Grant Proposals 76 1.3 Research Proposals 80 Diversity in Technical Communication (General Editors) 82 1. Cultural competence 82 2. Culturally appropriate language 82 3. Non-discriminatory language 83 4. Simplified language 83 Grammar (General Editors) 84 1. Voice 84 1.1. Active voice and passive voice 84 7

1.2. Using voice 84 2. Sentence moods 84 3. Structure and wording 85 3.1. Subject/verb agreement 85 3.2. Pronouns 86 3.3. Parallel Structure 87 3.4. Compound words 88 3.5. Positive Phrasing 89 3.6. Informal words 89 3.7. Direct language 90 4. Numerals 91 4.1. General rules for the appropriate use of numerals vs. numerical words 91 4.2. Dates and common acceptable abbreviations for business expressions 92 4.3. How to properly express time, percentages, and monetary references 92 4.4. Page numbering 93 4.5. Phone numbers 94 5. Capitalization 94 5.1 When to use capitalization 94 5.2 Capitalizing job titles 95 5.3 How to not overuse capitalization in technical writing 95 Document Design (Technical Editors) 96

1. Principles of Design 96 2. Document Formats 96 2.1 Print 96 2.2 Electronic 96 3. Document Organization 97 3.1 Front Matter 97 3.1.1 Cover Page 97 3.1.2 Table of Contents 97 3.2 Body Matter 98 3.3 Back Matter 98 3.3.1 Index 98 4. Page Layout 98 4.1 Text Alignment 98 8

4.1.1 Centered text 98 4.1.2 Justified Text 98 4.1.3 Left Aligned Text 98 4.2 Page Margins 99 4.3 Paragraphs 99 4.3.1 Spacing/Indentation 99 4.4 Line Spacing/ Length 99 5. Font and Font Formatting 99 5.1 Font Size 99 5.2 Bold and Italic Font 100 5.3 Font Color and Underlining Font 100 6. Typeface 100 6.1 Typeface types 100 6.1.1 Serif Typeface 101 6.1.2 Sans Serif Typeface 101 6.1.3 Script Typeface 101 6.1.4 Decorative/Display Typeface 101 6.2 Choosing a Typeface 101 6.2.1 Typeface for headings, captions, and titles 101 6.2.2 Typeface for body text 102 7. Graphics 102 7.1 Types of graphics 102 7.1.1 Images 102 7.1.2 Charts 102 7.1.3 Graphs 103 7.2 Graphics Placement and Techniques 103 7.2.1 Text Wrapping 104 7.2.2 “Break the Grid” 104 Glossary 105 Biography 108 Works Cited 110

Introduction Technical writing is writing for a subject that requires distinct guidance or explanation. The content of technical writing must be straightforward and easily understood by your intended audience. A technical writing style guide such as this one, helps explain key elements present in most technical documents. This style guide was created by University of Central Florida (UCF) students in online course ENC4293 to be utilized as a resource for technical writers. This document establishes rules and guidelines for the following topics: language, grammar, numerals, capitalization, online communication, graphics, research and library skills, punctuation, documentation and citation, presentation skills, and document design. This guide’s purpose is to demonstrate effective technical writing and promote consistency in writing style. Use this guide in combination with the requirements set forth by your assignment. When tasked with creating a technical document, consider all the aspects set forth by this style guide before writing, during writing, and when finished writing. Following a style guide can help you produce a more effective and thorough technical document.

Online Communication 1. Maintaining awareness of your audience 1.1 Utilize non-discriminatory language There are a multitude of reasons why it is important to use non-discriminatory language when you are in an online group setting. The use of discriminatory language can cause other people hurt or pain and creates miscommunication. By using non-discriminatory language, you gain respect from your peers, increase productivity among group members, gain a sense of credibility, and raise the overall team morale. In an online situation, the use of non-discriminatory language becomes more important. It is common to have never met the people you are communicating with. In this situation you know very little about the person’s race, gender or nationality. Therefore, it is very important to be aware of what you are saying because you don’t know what may or may not offend them. To avoid using discriminatory language in any group setting: • Avoid terms or expressions that are patronizing. • Avoid sexist assumptions or comments towards group members. • Avoid irrelevant gender descriptions (ex: a woman teacher). • Avoid racist language. • Do not use terms describing nationalities or ethnic groups because they are often controversial. • Do not use slang or threatening or offensive slogans • Instead of using Miss or Mrs., address them by name or title, such as Professor Smith. • When listing names, try using alphabetical order except in situations when seniority is important. • Avoid using his or her and instead use anyone, someone, or nobody. • Avoid using masculine or feminine terms unless you are specifically addressing a male or female. • Avoid irrelevant gender descriptions—instead of saying a male doctor, use a doctor. • Do not single any one person out; instead try to write sentences in the plural form. • When listing a pair of nouns or pronouns that reflect stereotyped views of status, try varying the order. For example, when using men and women, next time say women and men. 1.2 Respect cultural differences Recognize that there are many people with different cultures and backgrounds all around you. Respecting the cultural differences within your group allows the group to function without hostility. While you are not required to agree with a person’s culture, you can still respect one another and collaborate to have a successful group atmosphere. At the end of the day, the person who is from a different culture is a human being just like you. Instead of promoting hostility or passing judgment based on differences in values and beliefs, promote a healthy learning environment. See the chapter "Diversity" for more information on respecting cultural differences. 11

1.3 Maintain professional conduct Maintaining a professional atmosphere in a group setting can be challenging when different learning styles and personalities are involved. However, the benefits of maintaining a professional atmosphere include building credibility and dependability among group members. A few “golden rules” to consider for being a professional and respectful group member are: • Be honest—honesty is crucial in a group setting. It is the stepping stone to being trustworthy and being a reliable group member. • Be trustworthy—being trustworthy shows you would not lower expectations on getting a task completed in a timely manner. • Be courteous—be gracious, friendly, and polite to your group members. • Act with integrity—complete your work ethically and accurately. • Be competent—show you can complete the tasks at hand with your knowledge and skills. 2. Verbal vs. non-verbal communication 2.1 Absence of body language The absence of body language can help or hinder the group setting. For some, how they interact with others has an extreme impact on how they communicate. Body language, such as facial expressions, gives small clues about how you may feel in a certain situation or about what someone might have said and can be easily missed in an online environment. Body language also adds meaning to your words. In an online environment, you cannot express your feelings through body language. To notice written or spoken queues, consider: • Asking for clarification when needed. • Agreeing on and communicating collective goals. • Ensuring each group member knows who is responsible for which task. • That over-communication is better than under-communication. • Always acknowledging communications from group members • Responding in a prompt, clear manner if a response is required. • Asking for input from all who are in the conversation. • Not cutting people off in the middle of a conversation. Sometimes people need to explain in more detail, so give them time to finish. • Lightening up the conversation with emoticons, showing lightheartedness for less serious conversations. • Being honest about things in the conversation. It is easy to hide your true feeling in an online environment. 2.2 Emoticons Emoticons in an online setting can convey tone. Using emoticons can make people appear more friendly and competent. Many online communications can be interpreted incorrectly, but the use of emoticons can more accurately depict your tone in the communication. There is 12 still room for misinterpretations, so do not overuse emoticons. Using too many emoticons in a message can make you look unprofessional. When communicating in a professional atmosphere, limit your emoticon use to prevent miscommunication. When using emoticons keep these rules in mind: • Before using emoticons in a conversation, know the person or people that will be receiving the message. It is also important to know the tone of the conversation. You do not want to use them when talking to someone about a serious matter. • Use emoticons in moderation. You do not want to use them to the point that you replace actual words. They are only meant to add a bit of emotion to you message. • Only use emoticons that you know and understand. It is best to use simple emoticons to avoid situations where your conversation can be construed as flirtation or anger. • You should consider emoticons as slang—they are too casual to use with formal communication. Example:

Commonly used emoticons (Twitter Emoticons)

3. Special considerations in an online environment 3.1 Private vs. public Private communication is generally communication that occurs between two or more people in a private forum, such as email, direct messaging through social media channels, or closed discussion boards. Public communication occurs in a public forum, such as editorials, blogs, open discussion boards, and social media channels. Know when to communicate privately or publicly. Private communication is important when you are discussing a matter you do not want others to see or if the information does not pertain to them. When in a group setting, you are typically communicating privately amongst your group members about the designated topic. In public communication, the channel is open to more than a select few. Public communication can be positive when wanting to open the line of communication to more than a handful of people. Many people utilize public communication in open discussion boards for common topics, feelings, political stances, and much more. One thing to remember for both public and private communication in an online environment: all communication can 13 and sometimes is recorded. Something you think is private between you and the people you are talking to can easily be shown to someone else. Always be aware of what you say in any conversation. Examples:

Private direct message (Twitter 101)

Public discussion (Markga)

3.2 Social media Social media is one of the fastest growing online communication channels today. It is used to communicate with friends, family, and complete strangers. Social media channels are also a channel to receive information from pop culture to history. They can be utilized in the business world to make connections with potential employers or as leads to other opportunities. Examples of social media channels include: 14

• Facebook—a social networking site that allows you to create profiles, upload pictures and videos, and send messages. • Twitter—a social media application that allows you to send out short posts called tweets. • LinkedIn—a social networking site used more by professionals in the business community to make connections and job leads. • Reddit—a social news site that is crafted and promoted by site members. While these social networks are some of the ways people can communicate in an online setting, there are many other social networks people can use. Commonly, people use Facebook, Twitter, Reddit, and other channels for personal reasons, but some use it to post private information in a public channel. If you are looking to use any of these tools in a professional manner, it is important to keep in mind that just because you set your settings to private, does not always mean it cannot be seen. If you have two separate accounts, one personal and one private, keep in mind that your professional acquaintances could find your personal account. If you are worried about your image on either personal or professional social media websites, keep the following in mind: • Consider how you want your brand identity to appear to others. • Lead with your best foot forward. • Consider the tone you use when posting to social websites. • Avoid any inappropriate or offensive language on professional or personal websites. • Avoid posting any inappropriate or offensive images • Join groups that you find interesting and are in the same industry • Start discussions that display your leadership skills and enhance your credibility. 4. How to communicate effectively online Communicating online with members of a group provides you with the unique benefit of being able to work with numerous people out of multiple locations. By keeping communication clear and being mindful of how you word things, you reduce misunderstanding and increase productivity. Good communication is essential to quality group work. Online communication can offer: • The ability to develop and share ideas. • The ability to get and give feedback. • A more pronounced use of reason, which can settle conflicts and offer constructive solutions to the issues your group faces. • Time to consider what a person will say, helping to reduce miscommunication. • Help at keeping individual group members on or ahead of schedule. 4.1 Think before you send Most formats for online communication lack face-to-face interaction. Without the subtleness of in-person interaction—body language, facial expressions, tone of voice—messages can 15 become misinterpreted. Misunderstandings based on the lack of simple gestures can lead to hurt feelings and tension between group members. Thinking before you send is the golden rule of online communication. Taking the time to carefully consider how you word your message helps prevent unnecessary conflicts. Consider the following: • Is it essential? • Is it respectful? • Could it be misinterpreted in a negative way? Think about revising your message before sending if you are unsure of how it might come across to your recipient—always exercise caution. When responding to a message from another team member, do not respond with your emotions. Conflicts can be avoided by taking time to consider what the other person is really saying. Try not to read into wording too much and assume positive intent. If you find you are having a difficult time responding constructively, talk to the person in charge of moderating your group before replying. 4.2 Utilize clear and concise language Utilizing clear and concise language—including proper punctuation, grammar, and spelling—are key factors in successful online communication. It keeps the focus on your message and increases comprehension, cooperation, and efficiency. Avoid flowery language and humor. Flowery language is filler that has no relevance to the main idea. Keep your message simple and get right to the point. Humor can be misinterpreted easily and should be carefully considered or avoided altogether. The proper use of punctuation—commas, quotations, colons, semicolons, parentheses, etc.— is essential to effective online communication. Simple mistakes can hinder your message and damage your credibility. Grammar must be considered carefully: voice, subject/verb agreement, and wording must be appropriate. Refer to the chapters on punctuation and grammar for more information. Proper spelling is also important in any written communication. Consider using a program with spell-check such as Microsoft Word, and then cut and paste your message into the online forum you are using. This simple trick helps to avoid embarrassing mistakes. 5. Utilizing online communication tools There are several formats available to facilitate communication online including email, messenger, group chat, discussion boards, and video chat. Each system features diverse elements that are beneficial or counterproductive, depending on the circumstances. 5.1 Types of online communication tools Email is the most widespread type of online communication. There are various email servers available for free on the internet. The most commonly used are Google mail (Gmail), Outlook, Yahoo mail, AOL mail and GMX. Universities also provide free email accounts to their 16 student body. To choose between email servers, you need to decide which features are most important to you compared to which elements each server provides. Inbox storage capacity varies across these servers anywhere from 15GB to unlimited storage. If you need to retain emails in your inbox for extended periods, you would want to choose a server with a greater capacity. All five servers provide a mobile app that allows you to access your email account from various devices such as phones and tablets. If you prefer not to use a standalone messaging service, you can utilize the messenger service within the email account. All five servers allow you to import your social media contacts, but only Gmail and Outlook provide social media feeds. Yahoo mail and AOL are the only servers that provide a RSS feed to access news-related web content. Email servers also vary on composition, security, and support features. All five servers provide spell check, but only Gmail and Outlook provide auto reply. Another consideration is the maximum attachment size for each server. Only GMX boasts a 50MB max attachment size, the other four max out at 25MB. All five servers include secure sign-in, spam and phishing filters, and virus scanning. Only Gmail, Outlook, and Yahoo mail allow for account recovery and restrict automatic downloads. Yahoo mail is the only server that does not provide email access to help and support. Paid email services are available which provide extra services and usually exclude ad content. Messenger is just like texting, except you can communicate through any device with internet access, you don't need a phone or phone plan. It also works on data plans, so if you have limited texting capacity or have to pay per text, messenger allows you to communicate without additional cost. Messenger is available within the most popular email servers: Gmail, Outlook, Yahoo mail, AOL, and GMX. Facebook messenger is currently the most popular service. Group chat is a way to communicate with group members at the same time, where everyone has access to the same conversation. This can be live time or scrolling back through messages. Some available free programs include: WhatsApp, Viber, Google Allo, Telegram, and Redbooth. Some of these services have limits on the amount of users for free access. Redbooth only allows up to five group members — over that, there is a fee. Telegram allows chats of up to 200 members. Each service provides differing features. Google Allo provides a Cortana-like assistant that can provide information based on your chat. Telegram provides advanced security features. Some provide personal storage. Redbooth provides 5GB of personal storage and is integrated with Google Drive and Dropbox. Most allow individual or group messages as well as the sharing of photos, emoji, stickers, and gifs. Almost all are compatible with both Android and iOS. There are several paid services that offer advanced chat options. Discussion boards and browser-based services include Facebook, Yahoo Groups, Google+, Omegle, Blackboard, and Webcourse Discussions. These services provide a space for public collaboration and sharing. Most allow photos, emoji, stickers, gifs, and event and file sharing. Video chat allows individuals to speak over webcams. Two popular providers include Skype and Go To Meeting. Both allow individual or group video chats. 17

With these different applications, you must weigh the positives and negatives of each type to decide which is appropriate for your communication purposes. 5.2 Benefits of online communication tools Email is a private communication between a sender and receiver. It can be sent and received at any time—you do not need to wait for the other person to be present—and it can accommodate large attachments compared to chat and messenger. Most email is available through multiple electronic devices, making it more accessible. Email is easy to use, efficient, nonintrusive, and can be accessed at leisure. Video conferencing software such as Skype and Go To Meeting allow individuals to see one another and conduct meetings no matter where they are in the world. These video conferencing systems eliminate some of the possibilities for miscommunication that are common with text only examples, such as email, messenger, discussion boards, and chat. Discussion boards and group chats offer a virtual space where group members can communicate. As with email, you do not need all members present to communicate. You can type and reply to messages at any time, which is often beneficial to people with busy schedules. 5.3 Pitfalls of online communication tools With email, chats, discussion boards, and messengers you do not get the visual contact that is normal for human interaction. The lack of visual cues can cause misunderstandings. This can lengthen the communication process. Also, video conferencing requires others to be present at the same time. This can cause scheduling difficulties. Discussion boards and group chats are public spaces. There may be multiple "talkers" which can be difficult to follow. Browser-based services are sometimes accessible through basic web searches. To protect the privacy and integrity of your members and projects, it is important to be familiar with the security features of any online service used. 6. Common issues of online communication Online communication presents its own unique challenges. With careful consideration, most difficulties are easy to overcome. 6.1 Keeping in touch online It is important to encourage consistent interaction when collaborating with an online group to avoid lulls in communication. Having a designated group member send out reminders and prompts helps keep the group on schedule and connected. Since a large part of communication is visual, some of the human element is lost without face-to-face interaction. Following the rules outlined in section 4 of this chapter will make group interactions more successful. Scheduling a video chat is a good method to get and keep members connected, boost morale, and increase productivity. Having a consistent online group chat or discussion board that every group member knows how to access and utilize allows members to check in quickly without having to make much effort. This is especially convenient when members live in different regions or have vastly different schedules. 18

6.2 Avoiding/resolving conflict Methods to avoid unnecessary conflict include: • Encouraging consistent communication from the beginning of the project. This promotes accountability and presents frequent communication as a baseline standard for the group. • Using clear communication and considering what you write. Could the message be misread to mean something unintentional and possibly create conflict? • Using proper grammar to prevent undermining your message or credibility. Stay out of your own way. Oftentimes, conflict is inevitable. In this situation, it is essential to resolve the conflict as quickly and fairly as possible. Unresolved conflicts can derail schedules and ruin entire projects. The longer unresolved conflicts continue, the more damage they can do. Some effective ways you can work to resolve conflicts, whether you are involved directly or are attempting to mediate, include: • Considering all sides of the conflict. Present ways in which the conflicting parties can compromise on the issue. Be sure to focus on the positive aspects of the conflicting messages. • Introducing or acting as a neutral party. Have a group member act as a moderator between the conflicting members and work to reach a compromise that is fair and healthy to the group. • If you are personally involved in a conflict, consider what you are sending. Take time to consider whether the messages you send help resolve or escalate the issue.

Graphics 1. The importance of graphics in technical communication When reading a technical document, a person can get lost in a paragraph only to realize once they have reached the end, they cannot recall what was read. Cue graphics to the rescue. Graphics in a technical document are a valuable way to engage your audience, since over half of all people are visual learners. This means most of the population primarily utilizes "images, pictures, colors, and other visual media to organize and learn information" (Successfully Using Visual Aids).

Example: When you read "sixty-five percent of the population are visual learners" it does not have the same impact as seeing sixty-five percent compared to the rest of the population, illustrated in this pie chart from the University of Alabama's School of Medicine (Successfully Using Visual Aids).

Graphics are easier to remember than text alone and are used to support ideas, compare data, and organize information. Because graphics are more specific than text, they condense critical data into a format that is easy to understand and more readily absorbed. Benefits to using graphics include: • Processing information easier and quicker than text. • Emphasizing essential information. • Increasing reader comprehension and interest. • Illustrating, supporting, or explaining text visually. • Organizing information and comparing data. • Crossing language barriers, helping non-native speakers comprehend text. • Making the text more accessible to those who have difficulty reading. 2. Types of graphics used in technical communication Three primary types of graphics are usually used in technical communication: • Informational graphics organize information or support ideas within the text. • Identifying graphics convey ownership, or authorship, and demonstrate affiliation. • Decorative graphics make a document visually appealing and convey a tone or sentiment. 20

2.1 Informational graphics Informational graphics are the most commonly used type of graphic in technical communication. They explain or support an idea. There are three main types of informational graphics: illustrations, tables, and charts and graphs. Illustrations represent how something looks or works. They define structures, describe mechanisms, and explain concepts. The two primary types are photographs and representational illustrations. Photographs, including screenshots, require less skill to create. However, photographs capture an abundance of detail which can distract the reader and obscure important information. Examples:

A radiology photograph (left) is used to identify the muscles of the thigh

(Richardson).

A satellite photograph (right) from 2004 shows Hurricane Charley over the state of Florida. Notice how difficult it is to determine its exact location

(Charley Makes Landfall).

Representational illustrations—including line drawings, cartoons, and 3-D images— require more skill to create but are primarily focused on the features that need to stand out. Examples:

A radar image shows Hurricane Charley in 2004. Compared with the previous satellite photograph, it is much easier to discern the exact location of the storm

(Images of Hurricane Charley).

A line drawing illustrates the parts of a flower

(An Aquatic Plant).

Interactive 3-D illustrations can be embedded into PDFs and "readers can interact with the 3-D model in Acrobat or Reader"

(Vashishtha).

Tables display numeric and written data by organizing and representing relational data. They are designed in rows and columns allowing for rapid processing of information and easy comparison. Microsoft Word, Word Perfect, and OpenOffice all contain their own table- generating tools. Tables are an excellent way to display large amounts of numeric data because: • Rows list items being measured. • Columns list item qualities or variables. • Titles are centered. • Column headings are centered over numerical data. • Words in columns are left aligned. • Numbers in columns are right or decimal aligned. Example: Annual Nationwide Animal Shelter Statistics Type of Pet Admitted Adopted Euthanized Dogs 3,900,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 Cats 3,400,000 1,300,000 1,400,000 Totals 7,300,000 2,700,000 2,600,000

Created in MS Word utilizing data from the ASPCA

Charts and graphs convey relationships, depict processes, sequence data, and reveal patterns over time. Graphs have a horizontal X-axis, which shows known data, and a vertical Y-axis, which shows measured data as categories or numbers. There are grid lines at regular intervals, and legends or keys to define meaning. 23

Bar graphs show relationships between different data. Bars can run vertical or horizontal. Histograms are bar graphs where both axes are ranges of numbers. Example:

This bar graph compares two sets of data, dominant vs. recessive traits in a classroom

(Schiraldi).

Line graphs are useful for representing trends over time. Cartesian graphs have numbers on both axes and are widely used in mathematics. Example:

This line graph shows the average annual high and low temperatures in the Tampa area

(Climate for Tampa).

Pie charts reveal how the whole is broken down into parts by illustrating the percentage of distribution, each part using the same unit of measurement. Example:

This pie chart displays the results of animal- assisted therapies on children with autism spectrum disorder

(IAN Research Findings).

Venn diagrams show relationships between different data or concepts using spatial proximity or overlap. Example:

This Venn diagram shows the similarities and differences between animal and plant cells

(Sanborn).

Process diagrams outline stages in a process. Example:

This process diagram shows the procedure for extracting vegetable oil from algae

(DuByne).

Pictograms are pictorial symbols for a word or phrase which convey meaning through its resemblance to the object or idea. Example:

This pictogram warns of occupational hazards (WHMIS 2015 - Pictograms).

Maps show relationships through proximity. Example:

Share of each country's population that is enslaved

(Noack).

Gantt charts show what must be done and when. It is a combination of a table and a bar chart, where tasks are listed on the left and timeframes are listed across the top. This allows for two or more activities to be scheduled at the same time across different timeframes. Example:

This Gantt chart shows the schedule for a residential construction project. "Relationships and dependencies between tasks are shown graphically by the positioning of the bars" (Bar or Gantt charts).

2.2 Identifying graphics Identifying graphics are used to display identity or affiliation. They include personal, business, and institutional logos and trademarks. Familiarize yourself with the rules of using an organization's brand name before including them in your text. Example:

The primary identity mark of the University of Central Florida intended to represent UCF to a broad public audience. UCF and other organizations have rules governing the use of their logo.

UCF Pegasus Logo (Logos and Identity)

System)

2.3 Decorative graphics Decorative graphics are ornamental items that do not convey information. Utilize them sparingly, as graphics in technical communication are rarely employed for aesthetics. Using graphics unrelated with the content decreases "the ability of a text to clearly communicate information," and it is distracting to your reader (Albers 353). Additionally, lettering can be decorative but this is also discouraged in technical communication. Example:

(Created by Diane H. in Word)

3. Choosing and creating effective graphics As the writer, you must decide what points are most important and how you want to present these to the reader utilizing graphics. When using graphics, consider that: • Objects are best represented by photographs, line drawings, and schematic diagrams. • Numerical data are best represented by tables, bar charts, pie charts, and line graphs. • Concepts are best represented by Venn diagrams, organization and flow charts, Gantt charts, and process diagrams. • Words are best emphasized by being set apart in a text box with a different background color. • You should be able to convey information at a glance. 3.1 Use of color Color in technical communication is used for emphasis, never decoration, which distracts from the text. Use a color scheme and limit the number of colors applied. Different colors should only be utilized when they correspond to different values. Use color for small segments such as portions of graphs and important words. The symbolic meanings of colors can be used to create visual cues or patterns that repeat throughout the text, examples include red for danger or heat and green for money. Remember, cooler colors such as blues and greens are more subtle, whereas warmer colors such as reds and yellows tend to stand out more. Use soft, natural colors for most purposes and bright or dark colors to draw attention to specific details. Additionally, combining green and red in the same graphic image can cause issues for readers who are colorblind, so consider using another pairing such as blue and red. 29

Examples: Improper use of color in a graph

The first graph utilizes a different color for each bar on the map, though the different colors have no meaning as each bar reflects the same type of data. This is confusing to the reader and makes the graph more difficult to read. The second graph utilizes one color for each of the bars and is easier to interpret. The rule for color in

technical communication is, "If it serves no useful purpose, avoid using it" (Few).

Proper use of color in a graph

This avalanche danger scale utilizes color to distinguish threat levels: red for the most dangerous conditions, orange and yellow for cautious conditions, and green for safe conditions (Avalanche Danger Scale).

3.2 Text and background Use dark and textured backgrounds sparingly or not at all. A color's visibility is dependent on the background against which it appears. There should be a high contrast between the text and the background. Using the wrong color combination can obscure the text making it blend into the background. The contrast between black and white and black and yellow are the strongest. It is important not to overuse color, so if black and white will work better, stick to the basics. Examples:

What you think, you become. In the first text box, the background color is too dark and the text recedes What you feel, you attract. into it. It is difficult to decipher the words (Created by Diane H. in Word). What you imagine, you create.

The second text box utilizes a What you think, you become. much lighter background with the What you feel, you attract. same dark font. It is much easier to distinguish the words from the What you imagine, you create. background (Created by Diane H. in Word).

3.3 Alternative text Alternative text is the text equivalent of an image used in a webpage. A code is added to the graphic using the alt attribute. It is displayed in place of the graphic if the file is not loaded properly or when the user has chosen not to view images. It also provides a description that can be cataloged by search engines. Readers who are sight-impaired use screen readers which cannot interpret graphics and rely on the alt text feature. The text linked to the graphic using this function should be as descriptive as possible unless this information is provided in text adjacent to the image. Disabled users rely on these descriptions to help them understand the main text. Example:

The alt text for the photo on the left does not contain enough information

to convey the purpose of the image. The alt text for the photo on the right explains in detail the contents of the image — this is the proper format (Writing effective ALT text). 32

4. Rules for effective use of graphics Keep in mind these basic rules when applying graphics to technical communication: • Graphics should always be appropriate to the audience, subject matter, and purpose. • Discuss the graphic in the preceding text. Tell readers what you want them to conclude from the graphic, and provide an explanation for the illustrated information. • Arrange a graphic near its reference. Graphics should be directly relatable to the passage. • Keep graphics simple. Just a glance should convey your purpose. • Provide titles or a summary of information contained in the graphic in a caption. • Label graphics clearly and appropriately. • Intersperse graphics with text. • Graphics should enhance the document and not add any unnecessary clutter. • Avoid images that could be considered obnoxious or offensive. • Colors should enhance the writing and serve a purpose. They should not be used for decorative purposes. • Avoid using visual effects in graphs such as shadow and light. 4.1 Relevance to text In any professional document, graphics play an important role of highlighting and clarifying results and data, aiding the reader’s comprehension of the text, and conveying relationships clearly. Graphics should not be used just for decoration. The graphics that are used should help the reader or audience better understand the material being presented. When using graphics in a professional document, it is important to use the correct graphic for the right situation. • Tables should be use to display numerical information. • Pie charts should be use to compare a part to a whole. • Bar charts and line graphs are used to compare one element with another, elements over time, demonstrate correlations, and to illustrate frequency. • Drawings or diagrams are used to draw attention to details. • Maps are used to show a location or to demonstrate spatial relationships. • Photographs are used to depict a scene that cannot be described with the text alone. 33

4.2 Clarity, size, layout, and labeling There are a number of different things to consider when it comes to image size and clarity. First thing to consider is the image file itself — a small image that is enlarged beyond its size limits can look blurry. If an image looks too fuzzy at the size you need it to, you should look to replacing the image. Example:

Image before and after enlargement (Blue question mark, edited in Paint by Charles B.)

The next thing to consider is using an image that is too large to fit a space you are trying to fill. Taking an image and forcing it to fit into a space lowers its quality. In this situation you should crop the image to make it the right size. Example:

Image before and after resizing (Blue question mark, edited in Paint by Charles B.)

The layout of images in a document is just as important as the clarity or size of the image — you must be aware of how people perceive grouping. Things that are close together are perceived as linked, so be purposeful about your grouping and use it to your advantage. 34

Trying to fit too much information on an individual page can be hard to read when the content and graphics are too close together. In this case, it is best to add more whitespace to a page and to space out the graphics and text. It is better to have a document that is longer and easier to read than a document that is shorter, cramped, and harder to read. Graphics in a document should have a label, number, caption, and source information. The label and number help identify the image for better referencing in the document, appear in two places: in the main text and near the graphic. The caption appears near the image, and it is used to provide titles and additional information about the graphic. Source information is still necessary even if the source is the author of the document. The purpose of source information for a graphic is to inform the audience on where the graphic was obtained and to credit the individual responsible for the graphic. 5. Ethical and global use of graphics 5.1 Unethical use of graphics The use of pictures and graphs is often important to help convey a message. When used correctly, graphics can enhance information and help the audience understand the material. However, when incorrect or misleading graphics — such as charts with false information — are used, it detracts from the material and lies to the audience. The following is an example of a misleading graphic:

Though the chart shows The Times sells more than Daily Telegraph, the gap in numbers is not as large as the chart makes it seem. This is an example of a deliberately misleading chart designed to bend facts (Andale). 5.2 Considerations for international audiences When considering design choices for a global audience you can encounter issues with design choices that do not seem problematic at first. For example, white is a common color used in design and is not negatively considered with a western audience. However, in countries such as China and Japan, white is the color used in mourning, similar to how many western countries use black. 35

You also need to consider a more complicated or simplistic design based on the audience and their customs. Research when you use pictures of animals because animals represent different things in different cultures. In our culture, the owl is seen as a wise and regal animal. In India, however, it often represents the opposite as they consider the owl's stare to be dimwitted. Pictures and symbols can inadvertently be considered an insult if used for an audience of another culture. 6. Citing Graphics 6.1 Reasons to cite graphics Citation adds credibility to any document. The same logic applies to utilizing graphics in technical communication. Graphics have creators who must be given credit the same as the author of a written source would be given credit. Citing graphics shows respect for the effort of others and gives readers the opportunity to follow up on your references. It is recommended that graphics be cited in-text or adjacent to the graphic. Also, include full citations in the bibliography. It is unethical to use someone else's creative property without permission — it is considered plagiarism and can be punishable by law. Stealing creative content can result in severe consequences. These include, but are not limited to: loss of reputation, loss of income, and payment of fines and damages. Payment to an author of creative content is likely if a profit was received as a benefit of using their plagiarized material. As a student, plagiarism can cause you to fail an assignment or, in some circumstances, result in expulsion from school. 6.2 Creative commons licenses Creative commons (CC) is an organization that assists individuals in licensing their creative content for sharing purposes, and also makes it easier to find creative content to use. Under a CC license, the creator retains the copyrights and decision making authority concerning their creation. As the author or creator, you can delineate which parts are available to the public and under which circumstances they are available. Creative commons provides free software to make the process easier. Copyright notices are not required to protect creative products, but it is a helpful way to identify your work as your own and let the public know the rules contingent for usage. Violation of the terms of a license revokes the right to use the work. Only those who wish to share their creative content with the public should use CC licenses. Creative Commons' mission is to build "a vibrant, collaborative global commons" (Creative Commons). Example:

The symbol for creative commons is CC enclosed in a circle (Creative Commons).

6.3 Citation style There are several different formats for giving credit to your source, with MLA and APA being the most prevalent styles. Know the preference of each individual organization for whom you are writing and adjust your style accordingly. See the chapter "Documentation and Citation" for more information about citation style and examples.

Documentation and Citation 1. Why citation is important Citation provides proof to the reader that work has been put into researching and understanding what you are writing. It accredits your work by backing it with reliable and scholarly sources that a reader can consider, and it acknowledges the source that you obtained information from for their hard work and ideas; most importantly, citation is important because it avoids the risk of plagiarism. 2. Different citation styles and their usage Each citation style focuses on different parts of the information you retrieve, such as the date of publication or the author; therefore, certain styles are favored in specific courses or fields. • MLA, or The Modern Language Association style, is used by the Humanities. • APA, or The American Psychological Association, is used by Psychology, Education, and Sciences. • CMS, or The Chicago Manual of Style, is used by History, Business, and the Fine Arts. Example:

Green represents the author, purple represents the publication year, orange represents the article title, blue represents the journal title, red represents information on the volume, issue, and pages (Choosing & using sources). There are noticeable distinctions between these three styles when cited such as the order of publication, the capitalization, and the punctuation. This distinction is entirely intentional as it represents the values that matter the most according to the type of citation style. For example, APA places high value on timeliness and how up-to-date the sources are; therefore, the in-text citation in APA includes the year of publication. 3. How to cite with MLA, APA, and Chicago Citing your sources is critical. You must give credit where credit is due. There are many ways to cite your work, but this style guide focuses on MLA, APA and Chicago formats. 3.1 Citing in MLA format The Modern Language Association format is primarily used for literary criticism, English, and writing related topics. It is the most commonly used format for high school and college writing assignments. For books, you need the author’s name, the title of the work, the city where it was published, and the year and medium of publication. Authors are represented by last name, first name. 38

The title is written in italics if it is a book or website and in quotation marks if it is a periodical or a piece of music or song. Examples: Gleick, James. Chaos: Making a New Science. Penguin, 1987. Nirvana. "Smells Like Teen Spirit." Nevermind, Geffen, 1991. For a book with more than one author, the first given name appears in last name, first name format while subsequent author names appear in first name last name format. Example: Gillespie, Paula, and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring. Allyn and Bacon, 2000. For a book with three or more authors, list only the first author followed by the phrase et al. in place of the rest of the authors’ names. Example: Wysocki, Anne Frances, et al. Writing New Media: Theory and Applications for Expanding the Teaching of Composition. Utah State UP, 2004. When a book has no author, list the title of the book and add the entry into the bibliography alphabetically just as you would with works that include an author name. Example: Encyclopedia of Indiana. Somerset, 1993. Version numbers follow if applicable and if the text is a number in a collection, it follows the version number. Then state the publisher, the date it was published, and where you can find the work—like a page number or website URL- respectively. For a scholarly journal, you need the author’s name, the title of the article in quotations, the title of the journal in italics, the volume (“vol.”), the issue number (“no.”), the year, and the page numbers. Example: Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature, vol. 15, no. 1, 1996, pp. 41-50. When an article has an anonymous author, you cite the article title first and finish the rest of the citation the same way you would cite a periodical.

Example: "Business: Global Warming's Boom Town; Tourism in Greenland." The Economist, 26 May 2007, p. 82. For an entire website, you need the editor, author, or compiler name, the name of the site, the version number, the name of the institution/organization affiliated with the site, the date of 39 resource creation if it is available, the URL or digital object identifier (DOI), and the date of access. Example: The Purdue OWL Family of Sites. The Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and Purdue U, 2008, owl.english.purdue.edu/owl. Accessed 23 Apr. 2008. For a single page on a website, list the author or alias followed by the rest of the citation information needed for entire websites listed above. Only list the publisher once if it is the same as the website name. Examples: "Athlete's Foot - Topic Overview." WebMD, 25 Sept. 2014, www.webmd.com/skin- problems-and-treatments/tc/athletes-foot-topic-overview. Lundman, Susan. "How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow, www.ehow.com/how_10727_make-vegetarian-chili.html. Accessed 6 July 2015. 3.2 Citing in APA format The American Psychological Association format was designed specifically with social and behavioral science fields in mind. For APA, the authors’ names are presented last name followed by the first and middle initials, the year published in parentheses followed by a period, the title of the work italicized, the city and state followed by a colon, and finally the medium of publication. Last names and initials are required for all the authors up to the seventh author. Examples: Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10. Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., Harlow, T., & Bach, J. S. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204. If a work has more than seven authors, list the first six then use ellipses in place of the names and include the last author’s name at the end. Example: Miller, F. H., Choi, M. J., Angeli, L. L., Harland, A. A., Stamos, J. A., Thomas, S. T., . . . Rubin, L. H. (2009). Web site usability for the blind and low-vision user. Technical Communication, 57, 323-335. When there is no known author, list the source’s title in place of the author and finish the citation following the same rules covered above. Example: Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam- Webster. 40

With an online source, you must use a DOI in place of a URL if the DOI is available. Online sources are cited author, date, page title, site title, page numbers (if any), and the DOI or URL. Examples: Brownlie, D. (2007). Toward effective poster presentations: An annotated bibliography. European Journal of Marketing, 41, 1245-1283. doi:10.1108/03090560710821161 Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8. Retrieved from http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html Present full titles of all works and keep the punctuation and capitalization the same as it is presented in the original title. You must italicize titles of longer works like books and journals but do not italicize underline or put quotes around the titles of essays or journal articles. There are sources the APA manual does not provide you with examples on how to cite, in this case you must find the source most similar to your format and use that style. 3.3 Citing in Chicago format The Chicago Manual of Style format is used predominantly for manuscripts, technical documents, literal works, and is favored for editing. CMS has two documentation styles: the Notes-Bibliography System (NB), and the Author-Date System. This style guide will focus on the Notes-Bibliography System. Books are cited by author name, title, publication city, publisher, and year, in that order. The title of the book is italicized and there is a colon following the place of publication. Notes example: 1. William Faulkner, Absalom, Absalom! (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 271. Corresponding bibliography example: Faulkner, William. Absalom, Absalom! New York: Vintage Books, 1990. For books with multiple authors, invert only the first author’s name and list the remaining names in first name, last name format. Use “and” before the last name. Notes example: 1. Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns, The War: An Intimate History, 1941–1945 (New York: Knopf, 2007), 52. Corresponding bibliography example: Ward, Geoffrey C., and Ken Burns. The War: An Intimate History, 1941–1945. New York: Knopf, 2007. When there is no author, use the title instead. If you cite a periodical, you need to include the article title, publication title, publication date, and the issue. Notes example: 1. Susan Peck MacDonald, “The Erasure of Language,” College Composition and Communication 58, no. 4 (2007): 619. Corresponding bibliography example: 41

MacDonald, Susan Peck. “The Erasure of Language.” College Composition and Communication 58, no. 4 (2007): 585-625. If your source was accessed online you will need to provide the URL. With an online source you need the URL listed at the end but not the date it was accessed unless the information is time sensitive. Notes example: 1. Mister Jalopy, “Effulgence of the North: Storefront Arctic Panorama in Los Angeles,” Dinosaurs and Robots, last modified January 30, 2009, http://www.dinosaursandrobots.com/2009/01/effulgence-of-north-storefront- arctic.html. Corresponding bibliography example: Mister Jalopy. “Effulgence of the North: Storefront Arctic Panorama in Los Angeles.” Dinosaurs and Robots. Last modified January 30, 2009. http://www.dinosaursandrobots.com/2009/01/effulgence-of-north-storefront- arctic.html. When using a web page with both an unknown author and unknown publication date, use the title of the work in place of the author and list the date you accessed it. Notes example: 9. “Band,” Casa de Calexico, accessed January 30, 2009, http://www.casadecalexico.com/band. Corresponding bibliography example: “Band.” Casa de Calexico. Accessed January 30, 2009. http://www.casadecalexico.com/band. 4. In-line citations In-line citations provide a brief pointer where they can find a citation later in your bibliography. They serve as a bookmark or reference number for you to use to make sure all your sources are attributed properly and so the reader can easily find your sources. 4.1 In-line citations in MLA format For basic in-text citations, include the author’s name and page number(s) somewhere in the sentence. For example, you can include the page number(s) and author’s last name in a parenthetical citation, or you can name the author in the same sentence as the quote you are citing. Examples: Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (263). Romantic poetry is characterized by the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" (Wordsworth 263). If two authors share a last name, put the first initial before the last name. Example: 42

Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (R. Miller 12), others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (A. Miller 46). When a source has two authors, list the authors’ last names in the text. Examples: Best and Marcus argue that one should read a text for what it says on its surface, rather than looking for some hidden meaning (9). The authors claim that surface reading looks at what is “evident, perceptible, apprehensible in texts” (Best and Marcus 9). If the work has more than two authors, put the first author’s name followed by “et al.” Example: According to Franck et al, “Current agricultural policies in the U.S. are contributing to the poor health of Americans” (327). The authors claim that one cause of obesity in the United States is government-funded farm subsidies (Franck et al. 327). If the source does not have a known author, use the title—or a shortened version of it—and the page number(s). Example: We see so many global warming hotspots in North America likely because this region has "more readily accessible climatic data and more comprehensive programs to monitor and study environmental change . . ." ("Impact of Global Warming" 6). When you cite a work with more than one volume, include the number of the volume followed by a colon and the page number(s). However, when you cite only one volume, do not do this. Example: . . . as Quintilian wrote in Institutio Oratoria (1: 14-17). For web sources, do not use URLs inside the parenthetical reference; instead, include the name of the author and the article title if there is more than one entry for that specific author. If there is only one author, you can just include the name of the author at the end of the in- line citation. Examples: One online film critic stated that Fitzcarraldo "has become notorious for its near-failure and many obstacles" (Taylor, “Fitzcarraldo”). The Purdue OWL is accessed by millions of users every year. Its "MLA Formatting and Style Guide" is one of the most popular resources (Russell et al.). 4.2 In-line citations in APA format If you quote from a work, you must include the author, year the work was published and the page number, preceded by “p.” Introduce the quotation with a phrase that will give the 43 author’s name and the date of publication, and, at the end of the quote, put the page number in parenthesis along with the year of publication. Examples: According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199).

Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers? If you paraphrase an idea, you must still include the author and date of publication, but the page number is not required. Example: According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners. For a work with more than two authors, include both authors in the phrase or in parentheses the first time you cite the source using the word. Examples: Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) supports... (Wegener & Petty, 1994) For a work with three to five authors, list all authors in the phrase or in parentheses the first time you are citing the source. After citing the source for the first time, use only the first author’s name follow by “et al.”. Examples: (Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993) (Kernis et al., 1993) If the author is unknown, cite the source by its title in the signal phrase or use the first word or two in parentheses. Example: A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers ("Using APA," 2001). For electronic sources, you can cite the document the way you would any other document using the author-date style. Example: Kenneth (2000) explained... If both the author and date of an electronic source is unknown, use the title of the work in the signal phrase and use “n.d.” (for “no date”). Example: Another study of students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.). 44

4.3 In-line citations in Chicago format In CMS, an in-line citation is indicated by a number corresponding to an endnote. The endnote at the end of the paper for a book includes first and last name in that order, the title of the book in italics separated by a comma, the publication information in parenthesis and the page number again separated by a comma. Cite it in this way with books unless a piece of information is unknown such as the author name; if that is the case simply omit that and put the work title first. Cite every different work by an author as a different endnote. If a work has more than four authors write the first author followed by et al. If you cite an entire work, you do not have to include the page number, and if you wish to include multiple works in the same endnote, you must separate them via semicolon. With media sources, you put the title first then followed by the director, and then publishing information. 5. The works cited section The works cited section, reference page, or bibliography consists of a list of all the works you have cited within your text. This section is located at the end of your text and the format is dependent upon which type of citation style you are using. Some general rules for a reference list that apply to all of the citation styles include: 1. Begin your works cited page on a separate, designated page at the end of your text. 2. Label the title of the page, (i.e. Works Cited, References, etc.), at the top of the new page and center it. 3. Indent the second and subsequent lines of citations by 0.5 inches to create a hanging indent. 4. Order entries with unknown authors by their title. 5. Entries should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name or by the title of the entry. Authors’ names are written last name first. 5.1 MLA references page 1. Label the page Works Cited. 2. The page should be formatted the same way as the rest of your paper in regards to margins and a last name, page number header. 3. The page must be double spaced—do not skip spaces between entries. 4. If you cite more than one work by the same author, order the entries alphabetically by title and use three hyphens instead of using the authors name for every new entry by the author. Example:

Burke, Kenneth. A Grammar of Motives. […]

---. A Rhetoric of Motives. […] 5. If you cite an article or publication that you retrieved from an online database that was originally issued in print form, you should type the online database in italics. 45

6. List page numbers of sources efficiently, for example: “225-50” instead of “225-250”. 5.2 APA references page 1. Label the page “References”. 2. Double-space all text. 3. List journal titles in full. 4. Italicize titles of longer works like books and journals—this does not apply to shorter works such as journal titles or essays in edited collections. 5. If there are multiple works by the same author, list them in chronological order starting with the earliest work. 5.3 CMS references page 1. Label the page “Bibliography” if you are using the Notes and Bibliography style or “References” if you are using the Author Date Style. 2. Leave two blank lines between the title of the page and your first entry. 3. Leave a blank line between each entry. 4. Order each entry alphabetically letter-by-letter according to the first word in each entry. 5. For two to ten authors write out all names, and use “and” instead of “&”. 6. If you cannot name a specific page number when called for, you can use: section (sec.), equation (eq.), volume (vol.), or note (n.). 6. Citing graphics 6.1 Graphics in MLA The general structure of a citation for an image found on a website is: Creator’s Last name, First name. “Title of the digital image.” Title of the website, First name Last name of any contributors, Version (if applicable), Number (if applicable), Publisher, Publication date, URL. Example: Vasquez, Gary A. Photograph of Coach K with Team USA. NBC Olympics, USA Today Sports, 5 Aug. 2016, www.nbcolympics.com/news/rio-olympics-coach-ks-toughest- test-or-lasting-legacy. The general structure of a citation for an image found on a database is: Creator’s last name, first name. “Title of the image.” Title of the journal or container that the image was found on, First name Last name of any other contributors responsible for the image, Version of the image (if applicable), Any numbers associated with the image (such as a volume and issue number, if applicable), Publisher, Publication date, Location. Title of the database or second container, URL or DOI number. Example: Huanca Barrantes, Angela. “Questions and statements posted on the wall are reminders for Ms. Huanca’s students.” English Teaching Forum, U.S. Department of State, vol. 53, no. 2, 2015, p. 41. ERIC, eric.ed.gov/?q=english+teaching+forum&id=EJ1065702. 46

When citing a table in MLA you must label the table with an Arabic numeral, then provide a caption flush left with the margin. Below the title signal the table with the descriptor source then followed by a colon. 6.2 Graphics in APA Citing graphics in APA requires you to put a caption underneath the graphic then list it in your references page. Example: [image] Figure 1. Short-term memory test involving pictures. Reprinted from Short-term Memory Loss (p. 73), by K. M. Pike, 2008, New York, NY: Mackerlin Press. Copyright 2008 by the Association for Memory Research. Reprinted with permission. 6.3 Graphics in CMS To cite a photo in CMS you should cite it with all other sources at the end of a page with a footnote relating to the bibliography. Example : Bennett, Peter. Antique Shop, East Village. In New York City: A Photographic Portrait. Rockport: Twin Lights, 2007. 7. Fair use Fair use ensures that we can properly communicate our ideas and prevents copyright owners from overextending and censoring when they should not be able to. When deciding if something falls under fair use there are four factors that judges consider: 1. The purpose and character of your use o Has the material that you are using been transformed by adding new expression or meaning? o Was something added to the original material by creating new information, new aesthetics, new insights, and new understandings? 2. The nature of the copyrighted work o You will have more leeway if you use factual works instead of fictional works. o You will have a stronger case if the work that you use is published versus unpublished. 3. The amount of substantiality of the portion taken o The less you take from the original material, the better; however, this point does not apply if you take something that is the “heart” of the work, no matter how small. o The less is more rule does not apply in the case of parody, where you can use a substantial portion of the material as well as the heart of the work. 4. The effect of the use upon the potential market 47

o Will your use of the work deprive the copyright owner of income or undermine a new or potential market for their work? (Stim, "Measuring Fair Use: The Four Factors.") It important to consult these four factors before you think of using or referencing someone else’s work to avoid complications.

Presentation Skills Presentation skills are a set of skills that will help you adequately prepare and communicate your message to your audience. Taking the time to develop and apply your presentation skills gives you the confidence to deliver effective and engaging presentations when speaking in public. Two of the most important elements to keep in mind when preparing for a presentation are the purpose and the audience. 1. Types of professional talks Identifying the various types of presentations and the purpose for each one is important when choosing which one to use for your speech. The different types of presentations are designed to help you meet specific goals—choosing the right one for your presentation is essential in aiding you to achieve your objectives. Alternatively, you can also choose to use more than one type of presentation. When making your choice, it’s important to know the purpose and goals of your presentation. 1.1 Informative presentations Informative presentations’ main objective is to educate, provide instructions, and share information with an audience. Informative presentations are based on facts and provide supporting details. They convey the message in a neutral, non-biased tone. Some examples of where an informative presentation can be used are in university lectures, conferences, business meetings, and Ted Talks. 1.2 Persuasive presentations Persuasive presentations are commonly used to sell a product or service. The main purpose is to persuade the audience to do something. Persuasive presentations reveal a problem and the benefits of the solution, which is either the product or service. Many communications today are persuasive in one form or another. Often, the message prompts an emotional response from the audience to act. This type of presentation is used in political speeches, television commercials, news stories, churches, sales meetings, and training presentations. 1.3 Entertaining presentations Entertaining presentations’ purpose is to entertain the audience. This type of presentation is casual and fun, frequently filled with humor, funny stories, or jokes. It can also serve more than one purpose; for example, it can provide information on a fact-based topic or persuade someone to purchase a certain product or service. It can also create goodwill in a business meeting or the launch of a new product. In one form or another, entertaining presentations are used in combination with other types of presentations. Telling a story in an informative or persuasive presentation entertains the audience. Some examples of entertaining presentations are comedians at a comedy show, weddings or milestone event speeches, and sporting events. 2. Organizing talks What is the purpose of the presentation? What does your audience expect? Why were you asked to make this presentation? Or, why are you giving this presentation? Knowing the answers to these questions is an important part of designing an effective presentation. It will 49 also help you to know what the objectives of the presentation are and how you can provide value to your audience. Overall, being well prepared will aid you to be more confident in your presentation and project that confidence to your audience. 2.1 Knowing your audience When preparing for your speech, having a clear picture of your audience is vital to the success of your presentation. By identifying your audience, you can establish rapport, encourage interaction, and increase participation. Most importantly it will prevent you from saying or doing something inappropriate or offensive. For example, knowing how familiar your audience is with the topic will assist you in choosing what information to present. Here are several ways to gather audience information: • Contact the presentation organizer • Provide audience questionnaire prior to presentation • Online research of the intended audience for that type of presentation Important information to know about your audience: • Size of your audience • Major demographics: age, gender, background, culture • Educational level • Religion • Language Some additional questions to ask: • How familiar is the audience with the topic? • What benefits the audience will receive from coming to your presentation? 2.2 Choosing a presentation method and style When deciding on which style or method to use for your presentation you should take some information into account. • Venue size • Audience size • The occasion • Your experience in presenting • Your knowledge of the topic • Your preference It’s important you choose a style that is suitable to you because this will help you feel more comfortable during your presentation. It’s also important you keep in mind your audience’s expectations. When choosing a style, it is important to know how comfortable you are with yourself while presenting to an audience as this will help you give an effective presentation. Knowing your strengths and weaknesses will ensure you figure out the best way to portray yourself to your audience. Presentation styles are somewhat associated to your own personality traits.

Examples: Storyteller: Has a natural gift at creating well thought-out stories filled with details and depth. Are usually extroverts. Counselor: They are also great storytellers, and they talk about ideas that are accurate and well organized and easy to follow. Are usually extroverts Coach: Are energetic and charismatic and easily create rapport with people by doing roleplaying. Are usually extroverts. Teacher: Have the ability to simplify complex ideas, often using figures of speech and metaphors. Are usually extroverts. Coordinator: Is very good at having well-organized and structured presentations, yet is uncomfortable presenting. Are usually introverts. Inventor: Is the genius behind the idea of the presentation, and they are very good at connecting the ideas and building the logical sequence. Yet, they are also uncomfortable presenting and can get stuck during the presentation. Are usually introverts (Gavin).

2.2.1 Presentation methods Presentation methods are mostly determined by audience size, the occasion, and the formality of your presentation. The chart below will help you with deciding which method would be the most applicable for your presentation; it provides a summary of the various 51 kinds of elements that influence presentation methods.

(Deciding the presentation method).

2.3 Outlining and organizing information Organization is essential when creating an effective presentation. It will help your audience understand your message and the benefits of your presentation. Outlining your speech will aid you in ensuring all the key elements of your presentation are discussed in a coherent and well thought-out message. A few things to always keep in mind when preparing your speech are your topic, your purpose, how both are relevant to your audience, and your presentation objective/goal. 2.3.1 Outlining A simple outline can help structure your speech in an organized and unified format. It can assist you in presenting your ideas in a logical and clear manner as well as ensure that you achieve your objectives. Basic speech outline: • Introduction: thesis statement—what you are going to talk about. • Main content: supporting facts that are relevant to your statement. • Conclusion: summarize your thesis statement and facts.

2.3.2 Organizing information There are several common patterns of organizational arrangements for speeches. Some common patterns are designed for specific types of presentations: • Chronological: arranges information in a progression of time occurring sequentially. • Sequential: arranges information in a step-by-step pattern in a particular order. • Compare-contrast: arranges information on either comparing or contrasting two or more things. • Cause-effect: arranges information on the cause and effect of a problem or condition. • Problem-solution: arranges information into two parts, one explains the problem and the other explains the solution. • Advantages-disadvantages: arranges information by providing the pros and cons of an issue. Informative presentations’ main objective is to educate the audience on the topic, provide instructions, and provide information. Commonly used organizational arrangements for this type of speech are chronological, compare-contrast, cause-effect, and/or sequential organizational pattern. Persuasive presentations’ main objective is to convince the audience to do something, either by selling a product / service or by convincing them to accept a different viewpoint. Commonly used organizational arrangements for this type of speech are a cause-effect, problem-solution, compare-contrast, and advantage-disadvantage organizational pattern. 3. Proper attire Your audience has an opinion of you even before you start speaking. What you wear reflects who you are, your personality and your integrity. Researching your audience’s demographics, ages, social norms, and expectations, is a good way to prevent the audience from developing a negative impression of you.

(Women’s dress codes). (Men’s dress codes). It is also important that you know the purpose of your presentation when preparing your attire. The purpose may be entertaining an audience of financial bankers, where the purpose could be distinct from the audience. As a result you may choose to wear a more casual, fun outfit to reflect a relaxed presentation. 53

Above all it is vital you ensure whatever choices you make in clothing they are clean and professionally suited for the occasion. These tips will help ensure you avoid any embarrassing situations and make a good first impression. Dressing the part is a visual display of your self-confidence. 3.1 Attire and your audience Having a clear picture of your audience will help you make the right choices for your attire. While it is important to dress professionally, it is also crucial you do not send out a negative message to your audience. As you coordinate with your audience’s style, you are also building rapport and credibility as a speaker. For example, if your presentation is on a new cancer drug at a medical convention, wearing a Hawaiian print shirt and shorts will damage your credibility as an expert in the field. Also, when speaking in a foreign country or to a foreign audience, it is important that you know the proper way to dress in front of them. Keep in mind, proper attire is usually relative to an individual’s norms. 3.2 Some general do’s and do not’s It is essential you understand what is and is not appropriate for all presentations. Most importantly, ensure whatever you choose to wear is comfortable. A tight fitting blouse or slacks can distract you from your presentation and undermine your credibility. For clothing, do: • Dress for your audience and the purpose of the presentation. • Wear well fitting, in good condition, and wrinkle-free clothes. • Skirt and dress length should be knee-length or slightly above. • Choose neutral colors and subtle patterns. • Wear clean and polished shoes. • Have one simple bag for documents and personal items. • Make sure that there are no runs in your stockings. • Keep jewelry to a minimum, with no more than one interesting piece. • Aim for matching shoes and belts. For clothing, do not: • Wear noisy heels or shoes. • Wear funky eye glasses. • Wear distracting prints or bright colors. • Wear flip-flops. • For women, no-low cut blouses or dresses. • Wear hats unless the presentation and audience warrant it. • Wear distractors such as flashy jewelry and oversized accessories. For personal appearance, do: • Wear light and neutral make-up. • Keep your hair out of your face and eyes. • For men, keep facial hair groomed and neat. • Keep nails clean and an appropriate length. 54

For personal appearance, do not: • Wear strong perfumes, colognes or after shave. • Have wild colored hair. • Wear body piercings or excessive earrings. • Forget to brush your teeth. 4. Software and equipment There is no way to guarantee you will have a presentation free of disasters or malfunctions. However, being prepared will ensure you deliver a presentation that is remembered by your audience because it is engaging and compelling, not because of a preventable misfortune. 4.1 Software Presentation software consists of applications that are used to design and display information to support a presentation. They afford you the ability to create slides that incorporate text, graphics, audio, and video into your presentation. There are plenty of options to choose from, and some of them are perfect for a specific audience or presentation. At the same time, you can choose software by how you want to organize or display your information. With so many choices, it’s important to use the right tools to deliver your presentation. There are hundreds of different kinds of software available, which can be overwhelming when deciding which one to use. This is an overview of the three most commonly used software, their costs, some of their features, and their ease of use. Presentation software have three main functions: • Text editor—used to add information to your slides • Import function—used to add media files to your presentation • Presentation mode—used to display your completed slideshow Microsoft (MS) PowerPoint is part of the MS Office 365 office suite and one of the most widespread presentation tools used. It can be accessed both online and offline. Microsoft PowerPoint is sold as a bundle and includes other software. The prices differ and are dependent on your various needs. Office Home is a one-time-up-front price of $149 and is licensed for use on only one PC. Office 365 Personal has an annual subscription of $69.99 for one PC or Mac. Office 365 offers the additional software in the office suite bundle, as well as 1TB cloud storage and sixty minutes of Skype calling. In addition, it includes regular software updates. PowerPoint Slideshows provides a classic, linear presentation and contains hundreds of free templates. It’s relatively easy to learn and use. PowerPoint lets you add photos, videos, audio files, and embed YouTube videos to your slides. PowerPoint is the most widely used program and has the largest number of templates to choose from. It allows you to share and collaborate your presentation(s), even if you purchased the offline Office Home version. You can save your presentation to your OneDrive cloud service, which is included in the purchase price, and then access it via the web. This is a useful tool if you are collaborating with other people. It lets you see where other people are working on your presentation and has chat capabilities through the Skype for Business button. PowerPoint makes it easy to compare changes made to your presentation by either yourself or anyone else. 55

Apple Keynote is part of the iWork suite for Apple and runs on the iOS operating system. Apple iWork bundle is included with any new iOS device purchase. If you have an older device, you can purchase Apple Keynote for $19.00. Although it is supported by iOS Mac, you can use it on a PC by using iWork for iCloud on the web. It has both an online and offline version as well. Similar to PowerPoint, Keynote slideshows are created in a classic, linear slide. Keynote is also relatively easy to learn and use, and it is compatible with many of PowerPoints features. Keynote allows you to add photos, video, audio, and embed YouTube videos or PowerPoint files into your slides. Keynote also has a feature called Keynote Live, where you can invite your audience to watch your presentation in real time on the web or Mac, iPad or iPhone. Keynote makes collaboration with other people accessible on any iOS device, as well as for PC users. It lets you see changes in real time and shows you who is working with you. Keynote includes only thirty templates, but there are many websites that offer free templates designed to be used in Keynote slideshows. Prezi is a web based presentation software with an offline version for Pro users. Prezi has a free version and three paid ones. The paid versions provide privacy features, storage, image- editing tools and offline access. Prezi charges a monthly subscription ranging from $4.92 to $20.00 a month. What makes Prezi stand out from the other software is how the slides are presented. Prezi slideshows have a zoomable canvas with connecting slides, like a diagram. To view the different slides, you zoom in or out of each one. It is highly interactive and are great for presentations that are more visual or animated. Prezi also allows you to add photos, videos, audio, and embed YouTube videos or import PowerPoint slides and PDFs. It offers over a hundred free templates. However, because of how it is structured, Prezi is not as straightforward and easy to use as PowerPoint or Keynote. It does require that you take the time to learn how to use it properly. Prezi makes it easy to collaborate with other people from anywhere via the web. It lets you or anyone else that you are working with work on a single slideshow or shared folders. Overall, the presentation software discussed here have all the same functionalities. In the end, when choosing which one to use, it’s best to keep in mind your audience and your presentation goals and objectives. 4.2 Equipment These are some recommendations for the equipment you could need for your presentation. However, keep in mind that you could not need everything that is on these lists, or you could need something that isn’t on it. Generally, most equipment listed here can be rented. Information to know beforehand to help you to prepare: • Create and follow a checklist for all your equipment needs • Set up your equipment beforehand to make sure it is working properly • Review the final slideshow to verify that everything is displayed correctly • Consider using a remote to trigger the slides, allowing you to move around. • Know the size of your audience • Know the size of the room you will be presenting in • Find out if any equipment will be provided • Location of Wi-Fi, and the capacity 56

• The schedule of events (so you know when you are expected to go on) • If food and drinks are available • Who will be providing security for your equipment • When can you access the room for setup • The contact information for site’s tech support Equipment checklist: • Laptop or iPad • Mouse • Power supply for laptop • Projector • Spare bulb for projector • Projector screen • Remote control • Wireless microphone and headset • Cables • Video adapter • Extra batteries for all your equipment Additional suggested items: • Handouts • Print out of your notes in a large, easy-to-read font • Backup copy of your presentation on USB or cloud • Hardcopy of presentation • Duct tape (to tape down cables) • Portable timer • Rubber door stopper (for an uneven projector) • Pens/notepad/Post-it notes 5. Visual aids and handouts Visual aids and handouts are supplementary to what your presentation is about, so do not simply read from them. Visual aids need to be clear and understandable without much explanation because they are only here to add to your presentation you should not be spending extra time explaining them they simply need to be in the background providing extra information and details to people. The design of the visual aid must be easy to read and not garish. It must look simple and professional, further contributing to its legibility. Handouts are useful for conveying information, but, depending on what information they contain, you need to think about when you wish to distribute them. A question you must answer will be when your handouts will have the most impact and be most useful to my audience members. They must contain useful and relevant information lest they risk being sent to the trash. If you distribute them at the end of your presentation, they must add information you did not already explain, letting your audience further their education and involvement with your topic. However, if you hand them at the beginning, you could use them to enhance your presentation, but, at the same time, you run the risk of the audience simply reading from the handout and not paying attention to the presentation. 57

6. Public speaking tips Here are a few helpful tips that are good to remember for public speaking: • Prepare yourself by becoming more comfortable with your surroundings If you can, investigate the area where you will be presenting. It is a good idea to establish sight lines and to test your audio levels to make sure that you are adequately prepared. You will find that becoming more comfortable with your environment will help prepare you for your presentation and hopefully make you feel more comfortable overall. • Never prep during a presentation Never test your peripherals or devices during the presentation itself. Testing during a presentation will lower the overall quality and professionalism of your presentation, causing the audience to start questioning your credibility. • Create back-up plans Always create some backup content just in case one of your peripherals fails you and so that you always have something to fall back on. This can alleviate nervousness because you will be better prepared, and able to recover quickly. • Keep your slides simple Keep your slides simple to enrich your presentation rather than distract from the overall message. Avoid reading straight off your slides as this can distract the audience from your presentation, rather than enhance it. • Avoid selling ideas You could want to sell an idea or product and that could be the entire reason behind your presentation; however, the best way to truly engage your audience is not to push your idea onto your audience, but rather find a way to benefit them. This way of thinking can decrease the amount of pressure you are putting on yourself and allows you to focus on enriching the lives of the individuals in your audience. • Do not avoid questions Answering questions helps your audience connect with the material that you are presenting and offers more of an opportunity for your audience to carry your message home with them. Often, even with the most professional and technical of presentations, it is best to make the presentation feel more like a conversation because it can help keep your audience engaged. • Do not be afraid to pause for a few seconds Pausing for around ten seconds at a time can help keep your audience engaged. Pausing at this amount of time feels intentional and can create an aura of confidence and professionalism. • Give the audience something to think about after your presentation Always try to leave an impression on your audience so they have something to think about afterwards. Application is important, and for your audience to have something to apply to themselves, they must leave your presentation with something that has enough substance.

Sources Sources are an incredibly important part to any project. Locating a good source largely depends on what kind of information you need. Encyclopedias, for example, are great for finding general information about a topic and to get you pointed in the right direction. They are not as in depth as a research paper, but they provide information in a fairly digestible format that is easy to read and understand from a regular person’s point of view. Sources do not need to be books or internet examples; you can also go to people who are experts in the field or have firsthand knowledge. Furthermore, firsthand knowledge does not need to be a face-to-face interview with the person, as this is not always possible. Autobiographies are a great example of obtaining firsthand knowledge without needing to actually find the person, but biographies can be biased depending on the author. While it is acceptable to use second hand and even third hand accounts, always authenticate whatever is said. The farther from an original source, the higher the possibility of anomalies or errors in the information. If no firsthand experience is available, find as many tertiary sources as you can and only use information that is consistent across all of them. There is not a magic number of sources that will suddenly make your paper better, having many subpar sources can be worse than two excellent ones. You should only use sources you need. 1. Using Search Engines You can cut down the amount of time you spend searching by using keywords and search modifiers. All the modifiers work in Google and should work in Bing as well as Yahoo search. When searching specific terms, use as few words as possible to summarize what you are researching. For example, do not type “How do I find credible sources online?” Instead, type “credible online sources.” When you use longer search strings, Google looks for more of your words to match its query against. You can end up where you want to be, but you can receive a lot of bad or irrelevant sources as well that do nothing but take up space where a much better source could have been. Even when using the search suggestion mentioned above, you can still receive a lot of sites that are entirely irrelevant to what you are trying to find. If a lot of these results have something in common, e.g. multiple pages from the same site or one keyword that appears in all of them, then use “search operators” to further fine tune your searches. Boolean operators such as and, or, and not exist in Google to refine searches, but these are mostly irrelevant with the other tools you are given. The operator and is included by default whenever there is a space between words. Or is used in much the same way as an addition symbol. Not works in the same manner as the hyphen. (1) Using a hyphen (-) in your search will block all results that match whatever is behind the hyphen. Searching for “bananas -apples” will provide you all the results for Bananas and prevent all the results with apples. This is the easiest way to remove unnecessary sources. If you receive the same site multiple times, use the same method on the site’s URL to block it from appearing in the search. You do not need the whole URL—just enough to remove it from the results. For example, to block “www.youtube.com,” you only need “-youtube”. (1) 59

Another important modifier is the asterisk (*). The asterisk is a wildcard character. To use this operator, type most of a word and then add the asterisk to the end, e.g. “invit*”. Google fills in the last part with everything that fits. The above example would yield a search for both “invite” and “invitation” along with any other words that can be completed from the given fragment. Use this sparingly, if at all, as it casts a very broad net to pull in results, often leading to unnecessary sources. The last operator is the quotation marks (“”). Quotes are used when searching for an exact phrase. Searching for “Java string operands” will only pull up results that match the phrase exactly. It will ignore all other normal search parameters. (1) 2. Credibility Even after narrowing down your searches you are going to need to be able to separate a good credible source from one that is less so. There are certain sites that are generally by default credible to use in almost any situation. These are fairly easy to identify by their domain. Certain domains are extremely restricted in who can use them. Any URL ending in “.mil” is guaranteed to be a site run by the US military. The same is true for “.gov” owned by US government entities, and for “.edu” which can only be used by higher education institutions that have current accreditation. Even with these assurances on certain domains many are completely unregulated on who uses them. “.org” is an example, it hosts everything from NASA, Wikipedia, and NPR to sites such as “theinsider.org” which is dedicated to exposing the Illuminati and The New World Order. With this in mind it is best to stick to the first page of your search results and to use a good bit of critical thinking when takin information from sources that cannot be immediately confirmed from the site itself. There are also sites that exist, to some people at least, that are complete wastes of time when others view them as being the pinnacle of research. The best example for all of this is Wikipedia. Many teachers and professors outright say that you should never use Wikipedia as a research tool as anyone can edit it. With sites such as those you need to always go to their sources and read them for yourself.

Library Navigation Sometimes the information you need is proving hard to find on the internet and you need to find a more concrete place to get it. Maybe your professor requires you to have a certain number of sources that come from books in the library. The UCF library has many more items of interest for research than just books though. The University is also subscribed to many scholar databases that publish journals from studies. Their catalogue goes beyond just written journals—you can find videos, articles, and even research guides. The library’s search function is easy to use with tabs for each category you want to search through. This website is the basis for all of the searches that are done.

UCF’s Homepage for all searches

1. Searching the database Searching the database is just like any other search engine. You enter the topic you would like to find and browse the results for one that fits your needs. QuickSearch looks through all of the categories to give you a few results from each. In order to get more results from each category you need to have the correct tab highlighted and proceed as normal. If your search returns no results then UCF may not be subscribed to the correct journal or an article does not exist at all for the search. Rewording your search can provide results if your first query did not contain any of the right keywords. If a result you were looking for still has not shown then you can go to Google Scholar and search articles there. If the article you were looking for there still fails to appear then it is a good chance the article does not exist at all or is so obscure that other articles are better suited to the same topic. 2. Find physical books 61

Under the Books/Catalog tab you can look for books the library has on hand. You can narrow your search to specific libraries in the area, and you can search by field, title, journal title, author, subject heading, ISBN, or call number. After the search is completed, it gives you all results found with the applied filters. You can also see approximate location of all the UCF, University of Central Florida, operated libraries to see a rough area of where you can expect to find the resource you are looking for.

Example search results using “Dune” by Frank Herbert

3. Journals Many universities, UCF included, are subscribed to many academic journals. To access the search for journals, start on the main library homepage and select the “Articles” tab; this search will sort through journals, magazines, and newspaper articles. If you want to see strictly journals, click the “Online Journals” button and you will be taken to a separate page dedicated to journal searches. You can filter searches by vendor and category. After searching, you will see a list of journals matching your terms.

Plagiarism Plagiarism is defined by UCF as “whereby another’s work is used or appropriated without any indication of the source, thereby attempting to convey the impression that such work is the student’s own.”(2) In layman’s terms, it says anytime you use someone else’s work you must give them credit otherwise it is plagiarism. The first sentence gives credit to the original source and uses quotes to let you know that it is not my work. The second sentence is an example of paraphrasing. I’m taking someone else’s base idea and expressing it in my own terms. If I had just stated UCF’s definition of plagiarism and given no indication that it was not my wording, then it would fall under plagiarism. Even with paraphrasing, you still need to provide the original source.

Information When you have found sites that are credible, you need to be able to take the information and separate the parts you need and the parts you do not. When doing a paper on space and you go to NASA.gov, not all of their information is going to be relevant to your needs. Superfluous information needs to be deleted from your paper if it does not directly relate to your research. 1. Non-relevant sites It is also possible to find information that you need on a non-credible site. While searching through different sites and articles for more space related information you could stumble across a site dedicated to responsible farming that has information about sun patterns that you did not find anywhere else. Using information from these sources can be tricky as they are not always reliable. You need to verify the information with another, more trustworthy site. 2. Specific topics Everything above is pointless if you do not know where or what to look for. If you cannot think of search terms, then being able to differentiate between good and bad information is irrelevant. You do not want to search for everything, so you need to narrow down what you want to research to just a few topics. For space, you could do topics on early earth centric models, discovery of planets in our local system, and solar flares.

Punctuation Punctuation is important for many reasons. To begin, it organizes while also simplifying text for anyone who is reading. Certain punctuation breaks up text to make it easier on the reader, while also distinguishing between certain words. Without punctuation, our text would just continue on without any organization, making it more difficult to fully understand. If you are applying for a job, you want the punctuation in your resume to be as professional as possible, otherwise the company may not take you seriously. Although there are many different rules when it comes to punctuation, it makes our lives easier every day. 1. Periods Periods are arguable the simplest form of punctuation, and they are generally the most used. Thought they are the simplest form of punctuation, there are still rules on how to properly use them. Use periods after each declarative statement. Example: I went to the bank today. If you make a statement regarding the title of something and it ends with another form of punctuation, do not place a period following the word. Example: He wants to work for Yahoo! When using abbreviations, do not place a period at the end. The abbreviation will have a period following itself. Example: My alarm is set for 8:00 a.m. Indirect questions end in a period. Example: I wonder if the shipment will arrive tonight. 64

Place periods after closing parentheses unless they enclose a full sentence, in which case, place periods inside the enclosing parentheses. Examples: The hotel on the beach is going to be completely booked during March (due to Spring Break). The car was the most expensive vehicle on the lot. (It was also painted pink, which may add to the price tag.) If the final word in your statement is enclosed in quotation marks, place the period after the final word and before the closing quotation mark. If the quoted statement ends with a period, exclamation point, or question mark, do not add an additional punctuation mark. Examples: The most popular flavor voted for was “Spicy.” My son asked me, “Why is the sky blue?” 2. Commas Commas are tricky to use in some situations. The most popular use for a comma is to create a pause in a sentence. If a person was reading aloud, they would pause for a second, take a breath and continue reading. Commas also help break up larger sentences, and prevent them from becoming run-on sentences. When using numbers, a comma can be placed after the first digit if the number is four digits long. Exceptions to this rule include: years, page numbers, and street addresses. Examples: I have $4,000 in my savings account. The year 2012 was said to be the end of the world. When using degree titles or certifications, a comma is necessary after the name of the person, and after the title or certification name, but only if the sentence continues past that. Example: Sarah Becker, MD, was top of her class in Medical School. If you are addressing someone, insert a comma after their name. Example: Dawn, your package is waiting in the mail room for you. When specifying dates, place a comma after the day and year. If the day of the week is listed with the month, day, and year, separate them appropriately with commas. A comma may be excluded when using only the month and year. Examples: On November 15, 2015, he will be turning 10 years old. Her flight lands Tuesday, September 6, 2016, at 5 p.m. In case you did not hear, June 2014 was the most popular month for babies to be born. When naming geographical locations, place a comma after the city and state. This also applies to state followed by country. Example: 65

She is originally from Orlando, Florida. In some instances, commas can be used to replace the word and which is especially useful when listing items or verbs. Examples: My schedule will consist of English, Math, Science, and Gym next semester. It was a long, tiring, boring road trip. When speaking of someone, a comma can relate more information to the reader. The first example shows that the person has only one sister. The second example shows the person has more than one sister, and specifies which sister they are speaking of. Examples: I will give the check to my sister, Brittany. I will give the check to my sister Brittany. 3. Exclamation Points The most effective way to use an exclamation point is in moderation. The exclamation point can emphasize a sentence by showing emotion—usually happiness or anger. Using too many exclamation points is informal, and can give off the wrong impression to the reader. If you insert more exclamation points than necessary, the reader can misinterpret the overall tone. Here are some rules to follow when using exclamation points in your writing: Exclamation points are rarely followed by another form of punctuation. There is a form of punctuation that combines both the exclamation point and the question mark, but is hardly ever used. Correct: The weather is so hot today! Not: Have you seen how hot it is going to be tomorrow?! When using an exclamation point in a quote in the middle of a sentence, the comma does not have to be inserted following the closing quotation mark, nor before the closing quotation mark. Example: “Leave!” He exclaimed. If you are using an exclamation point that part of a title, the comma must be inserted before the closing quotation mark. Examples: Before he released his book entitled “Watch Out!,” he went through four different publishers. Before working at Yahoo!, he worked for Adobe.

4. Question Marks

Question marks are another simple form of punctuation, but can still be used improperly. They are used when you have a question regarding something. When using question marks in your writing, take note of the rules listed below to ensure proper use:

When asking a direct question, a question mark can be placed at the end. Example: What is she making for dinner tonight? Indirect questions conclude with a period. Example: I wonder what she is making for dinner tonight. If a direct question is in a larger sentence, a question mark is appropriate. Example: The question “When will the midterm grades be posted?” was not answered by the professor. If you are writing the title of a work that includes a question mark, a comma must be inserted to break up the sentence. If the title of work ends with a question mark and is placed at the end of a sentence, the concluding punctuation can be excluded from the sentence. Examples: “So You Want to Make the NBA?” by Reggie Miller, was a very successful book. I have not been able to read Reggie Miller’s “So You Want to Make the NBA?” Any request phrased as a question can be concluded with a period, not a question mark. Example: Would you please respond to the email I sent you. A question mark can be used to express an uncertainty. To do this, you must insert a question mark enclosed in brackets or parentheses at the appropriate place of the statement. Example: The book was published in 2010 [2011?], and received an award in 2012. 5. Parentheses Parentheses can allow a writer to include additional information that may not necessarily fit into the writing. The easiest way to properly use parentheses is to read what you wrote without the parentheses. If your writing sounds correct, you may keep the parentheses. Otherwise, you will need to redo your work to make the portion of text more appropriate. Rules for using parentheses are as follows: Parentheses must always be used in pairs. 67

The text must sound appropriate even if the parentheses were not included. Correct: The CEO (and CFO) traveled to the meeting by jet.

Not: The CEO is expected to land at 10:00 p.m (with the CFO). If parentheses enclose a full sentence, place punctuation inside the parentheses. Otherwise, place punctuation at the end of the sentence, outside of the parenthesis as outlined by the following examples: Examples: They shipped a record of $300,000 worth of product last month. (Everyone was jealous they reached that amount.) After the recent budget cut, everyone was unsure if they would still have a job (even though their boss informed everyone they were okay). He did attend and graduate from college (Harvard, Class of 2010), but his experience in the work field is very limited. He did attend and graduate from college (no one questioned his education) but his experience in the work field is very limited (what was he thinking when he applied?). When using a numbered list in sentence form, each number should be in parentheses. Example: For the party, please bring: (1) balloons, (2) hot dogs, (3) a gift, and (4) soft drinks. Time zones can be placed in parentheses following the time. When using area codes, they can be placed inside parentheses. Example: Feel free to reach me at my desk phone, which is (407) 875-6492. If you are including words of another language in your text, translations can be placed in parentheses. A person’s birth year and/or death year can be included within parentheses. A question mark can be placed to show uncertainty. When using abbreviations, you can include the full meaning in parentheses the first time it is mentioned. Examples: His first language is English, but he does know some Spanish, such as Hola (hello) and agua (water). Abraham Lincoln (1809 – 1865?) lived a short life before he faced death. Jim Duffy was announced as CEO (Chief Executive Officer) of Ravago Americas LLC. 68

If you are using an acronym, enclose it in parentheses the first time you use it. After the first use, parentheses are not required for the acronym. Example: She wanted to be a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) tech, and was ready to begin the schooling. 6. Brackets Brackets are most commonly used to insert editorial material when using quotation marks. They are used for clarifying, translating, changing capitalization, indication errors, emphasizing subjects, and censoring content. Brackets can be used if the material includes a noun or pronoun that is unclear to the reader. When using brackets for this, it must be an addition, not a substitution. Correct: He [Mark] never called me back. Not: [Mark] never called me back. You can avoid using brackets by simply reframing your question. Not: “Why can’t we have the same thing [stricter gun laws for a safer society] in America?” Bob asked. Correct: Showing evidence from New Zealand, Gun Advocate Bob asked “Why can’t we have stricter gun laws for a safer society in America?” If your text includes a word or phrase that is foreign, and your reader can have an issue understanding, use a translation in brackets. Example: He would always say, “Quelle belle journee [What a beautiful day]”, but I never understood what it meant until I looked it up. You can change the capitalization of the first word in a quoted sentence by using a bracket to indicate the change. Example: “[T]oday was his first day on the job, and he performed above par” exclaimed Nancy. To indicate an error or an unusual word usage in the material, the word sic can be enclosed in brackets. A question reformation can also help avoid the use of the word sic. Example: He told me he was tired, and were [sic] going to take a nap later. 69

If you are unsure of an error in the material, you can include what you think is the correct spelling or usage of the word, in brackets, followed by a question mark before the closing bracket. Example: He informed me his father was of Roman [Romen?] descent. If the original content contains expletives, you can include the word “expletive” in brackets in place of the word. You can use “emphasis added” enclosed in brackets at the end of a sentence to show emphasis. Examples: He informed me to “grow the [expletive] up” or I would go nowhere in life. The professor explained that he “accepts late work but only under extreme circumstances [emphasis added].” Brackets can be used instead of enclosing a parenthesis inside another. Correct: While he was in master’s school, he was writing a script for a movie (which was later revealed to be Despicable Me [2010]). Not: While he was in master’s school, he was writing the script for a movie (which later was revealed to be Despicable Me (2010)). 7. Colons

Colons are used to indicate either one item or a series of items. They are not used before a list if it directly follows a verb or preposition that would ordinarily need no punctuation in the sentence. If a quotation contains two or more sentences, they should be introduced with a colon rather than a comma. Colons are important to technical communication because they add structure to the information presented on the document and they are also used in business letters.

Colons and Capitalization

Unless it's a proper noun, the first letter of the word after the colon should not be capitalized. A capital letter generally does not introduce a word, phrase, or incomplete sentence following a colon. The first letter of the word of a complete sentence quotation that goes after a colon should also be capitalized. If the information after the colon has two or more complete sentences, the first letter of the word after a colon should be capitalized.

Colons and Independent Clauses

A colon can be used between independent clauses instead of a semicolon when the second sentence expands on the first sentence.

8. Semicolons The rules of semicolons are the most flexible; therefore some writers avoid using semicolons all together. However, when used correctly, they link two sentences together and let the reader know that both sentences have a stronger relationship to each other.

A semicolon can be used when it is joining two independent clauses that are related to each other. Example: I will call you on Monday; I will tell you my decision by then.

When it is a complete sentence, a semicolon can be used before terms such as however and therefore. A comma can also be used instead.

Example: Eat whatever you like; however, the apples are off limits.

A semicolon should be used to divide components of a sequence when one or more of the components contain commas.

Example: We went to Orlando, Florida; Atlanta, Georgia; Austin, Texas; Nashville, Tennessee; and other major cities.

When more or one comma is in the first clause, a semicolon can be used between the two independent clauses that are joined by connectors such as and, or, but, etc.

Example: When I finish my homework, and it will soon, I’ll help you with your homework; and that is a promise.

Words should NOT be capitalized after a semicolon I used.

Correct: The food is here; the drinks are over there. Incorrect: The food is here; The drinks are over there.

Semicolons should be avoided when there is a dependant clause after the independent clause.

Correct: Although she studied, she failed the test Incorrect: Although she studied; she failed the test

Common words preceding semicolon

(Retrieved from tedmontgomery.com/punctuation/smicolon.html)

9. Quotations

Quotation marks are often used with technical terms that are used in an unusual way or other expressions that differ from a typical way of usage. Double quotation marks should be used for direct quotations, and single quotation marks should be used for quotations within quotations. If a quoted question ends in the middle of the sentence, then the question mark replaces a comma. Quotations help the reader understand that the writer is representing a term that is unfamiliar, and therefore the term will be explained later to them. This is important for technical communication because it allows the reader to distinguish these represented terms in a simple way.

Proper punctuation in and outside of quotations

Commas should be used to introduce or break off direct quotations. Quotation marks are also used for shorter works such as short stories and poems. If the quotation comes before he said, wrote, reported, insisted, or etc, end the quoted phrase with a comma even if it is only one word. If a quotation works as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma. Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks.

Quotations and capitalization

The first word in a complete quotation, even in midsentence, should always be capitalized. A quoted phrase should not be capitalized that continues a sentence.

Straight/Curly quotes:

The straight single quote (') and the straight double quote (") are the general straight and vertical quotation marks located on the keyboard.

Curly quotes are is the opening single quote (‘), the closing single quote (’), the opening double quote (“), and the closing double quote.(”) They should always be used in typography.

* Straight quotes should never be used in documents because curly quotes are more comprehensible on a document and are better at matching other characters.

10. Apostrophe

Apostrophes are used to show a possession of people, places, and things. To show possession with a singular noun, add an apostrophe and the letter s. Regular nouns end their plural forms with the letter s or es (boy, boys; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural possession, put the apostrophe after the s. Irregular nouns become plural by changing around their spelling and becoming new words as a 72 result. Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural. Apostrophes are important to technical communication because they allow the writer to successfully communicate to the reader to distinctly show possession instead of allowing the reader to mistakenly take them as plural.

11. Hyphen/Dash

Hyphens show that a pair of words is acting as a unit and needs to be read that way. When the writer wants a phrase or another part of the sentence to have extra emphasis, a dash is used instead. This is an important distinction when it comes to hyphens and dashes and why it’s important to technical writing.

Hyphens are never used as dashes. There are never spaces around hyphens. Generally, two or more words should be hyphenated when they come before a noun and when they modify and act as a single idea. This is called a compound adjective.

Example: on-campus event cutting-edge technology

A hyphen is usually not necessary when a compound adjective goes after a noun,

Example: The tour is on campus.

Hyphens show the ages of people or things. They are also shown when talking about a period of time unless if the certain period of time is written in plural form:

With hyphens: I have a two-year-old daughter

No hyphens: My daughter is two years old. (Because years is plural.)

Exception: My daughter is one year old. (Because it’s singular)

All numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine are hyphenated as well as all spelled-out fractions. However, they are not when they begin with a or an. When writing out numbers with fractions, only the fractions except if it is a compound adjective are hyphenated.

Correct: The box is two and one-half feet long. Correct: A two-and-one-half-foot-long box. Incorrect: The box is two-and-one-half feet long.

When nouns are used as compound adjectives, proper nouns of more than one word are not hyphenated.

Incorrect: She is an Academy-Award nominee. Correct: She is an Academy Award nominee.

Double last names however are hyphenated.

Words and phrases between dashes are not generally part of the subject.

Example: Steve—and his golden retriever—was always at home.

Dashes replace otherwise mandatory punctuation, such as the commas after Florida in the following sentences:

Without dash: The man from Orlando, Florida, arrived. With dash: The man—he was from Orlando, Florida—arrived.

Em-dash: (—)

An em-dash is generally used in a sentence as a substitute for a comma or parenthesis to keep certain phrases or words separated from each other for a variety of reasons. They can be used to place a unique idea apart from the main clause of a sentence, separate a thought or clause from the main clause, and can indicate an interruption within a dialogue. Examples: • Please call my friend—Michael Henderson— on Monday. • “Computers make everyday punctuation—for reasons that we’ll discuss later—more precise yet more confusing.” • “I’m going to buy him a—what did he say he wanted for Christmas again?”

* Em-dashes are automatically created in Word when typed “word—word” (word-hyphen-hyphen- word).

En-dash: (–)

An en-dash is used to express a "to" or “through” relationship between dates and numbers. Examples: • in years 1990-1995 • pages 20-23 • August-October 2012

* En-dashes are automatically created in Word when typed “word – word” (word-space-hyphen-space- word).

Hyphens and dashes are sometimes confused because they look similar, but their usage is different. Hyphens notify the reader that two or more words are linked together in a sentence, and they are not separated by any spaces. However, dashes separate words into parenthetical statements and as well as having spaces on either side.

Technical Writing Genres

Technical writing can be split into different genres based on the type of communication strategy used and the audience you are addressing. This chapter defines the different genres and explains how to use them properly and professionally. 1.1 Memorandums

Memorandums are often referred to as “memos” and are typically:

• Used among colleagues. • Used as a paper trail—a continuing conversation placed in the project file to refer to throughout the life of the project. • Used to introduce projects, give updates on a project’s status, and provide an assessment at the end of a project.

Memorandums follow certain rules. In this sample memorandum, notice:

• A bold heading titled “Memorandum.” • The intended audience is under the “To” field. To include others, or CC them, simply add a CC field under “To” and add names as needed. • The writer’s name or the organization under “From.” • The intended topic under “Subject.” • The date of correspondence under “Date.” • A space before the introduction, which needs no headline. • All middle body paragraphs have a bold subject header with a space in between each body paragraph. • Single-spaced paragraphs. • A conclusion with a bold face header.

The following is an example of a sample memo:

Fig 1: A sample of memo format. http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/tsw/memo.htm

1.2 Grant Proposals

In a grant proposal, the writer is requesting monetary assistance for a project.

Fig. 2: Sample of a cover letter for a grant proposal. https://www.slideshare.net/robincabral/sample-grant-proposal

A grant proposal always includes a cover letter. The sample letter above includes: 77

• A summary of the proposal. • An introduction of the writer and the organization he/she is representing. • Any recent communications or interactions the writer had with the funding organization. • The amount of funding the writer needs to complete the project. • The population the project serves, the needs it addresses, and the problems it solves. • Engaging content that brings the project to life. • The writer’s name, the organization’s name, and the organization’s address and telephone number. A grant proposal contains:

• The title of the project in a bold header. • An abstract—a summary of the project, no longer than one page, that includes the project’s goals and objectives, the requested amount of money, and the applicant’s background and qualifications. • A statement of need, describing the problem the project is attempting to solve and the population the project is serving. • A program description, describing how the project will be implemented, what will be accomplished, and the intended outcome. • Information on any technology you will use, or a manufacturer’s brochure attached to the appendix of your proposal. • A timeline, stating which part of the project is set to be completed at what time. • A budget that includes any co-funding from other organizations and the costs and expenses of the project and training. It must also include a table of individual cost components. • An evaluation that gives details on the metrics set to determine the effectiveness of the project. • An appendix with the not-for-profit tax status, the research support, the manufacturer’s brochures if necessary, the letters of support, the organizational collateral, and the annual reports. 78

The following are sample photographs of budgets and timelines:

Fig. 3: Example of a budget for a grant proposal. https://www.slideshare.net/robincabral/sample-grant-proposal 79

Fig 4: A timeline for a grant proposal. https://www.slideshare.net/robincabral/sample- grant-proposal

When writing a grant proposal, try to:

• Apply early and before any deadlines. • Review, edit, and reapply your proposal if it is rejected the first time. • Answer all questions, including ones unasked but anticipated. • Follow all application guidelines exactly and do not leave anything out. • Be realistic with your project design. • Be explicit and specific when making connections between statements.

1.3 Research Proposals

A research proposal is a clear and concise summary plan of a writer’s research. It is an opportunity for the writer to promote his/her capability of performing the research and his/her ability to communicate complex ideas critically and clearly. It states the general area of study, timely knowledge and debates on the topic, and the research’s originality. The proposal also matches the applicant to a research supervisor in the correct field of interest. The research proposal should include:

• A title, which is the project’s thesis statement. • An abstract of no more than 100 words that addresses the main research question. • Research content, including debates, current knowledge on the topic, and a brief overview on the area of study. • Research questions, research aims, and an explanation of your approach to these questions. • Research methods explaining how the research will be conducted. • The significance of any research on this topic, demonstrating importance and originality. • A bibliography that includes the most relevant work for the topic. • Roughly 2,500 words.

The following image is a sample of a research proposal template:

Fig. 5: An example of a research proposal template http://worldgolfvillageblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/images/4w3N6hzbFl.jpg

Diversity in Technical Communication 1. Cultural competence No matter the setting, always consider cultural differences, such as attitude, decision-making, and communication styles. Although conflict is supported in some cultures because it can encourage creativity, it is undesirable in others. Depending on the culture, face conflict head on. It is recommended to resolve conflicts during an open face-to-face forum. On the other hand, some cultures work through conflict quietly, and often use written communication to reach a resolution. Personal disclosures can be deemed inappropriate, rude, or uncomfortable when an individual is direct and forthright about the emotions surrounding a conflict, or about his or her personal feelings. Always be aware that not all people are comfortable with revealing information and can feel that disclosing information is probing or intrusive. What is common practice to you is not necessarily common practice to another. Culture largely influences decision-making. Depending on the region, it is more appropriate for one of high stature to make decisions and delegate tasks to associates. In team settings, it is common to settle conflicts with “majority rules.” However, some cultures prefer highly valued individuals make decisions and reach a consensus in team settings. Be cognizant of people who shy away from decision making and approach it differently based on their culture. Always be mindful of cultural differences in any form of communication, be it non-verbal, verbal, or written. Personal distance, sense of time, facial expressions, and gestures all play into communication. These elements coupled with tone can be the difference between agreeable communications and misunderstandings. For example, what you think is a normal and appropriate level of assertiveness can come off as alarming and intimidating to someone else. Likewise, certain facial expressions and gestures can be interpreted negatively even if you think they are friendly (Srivastava). 2. Culturally appropriate language Always be aware of the type of document you are writing and the audience you are addressing. You must also be aware of the tone that is set when writing as cultural differences plays a huge role in how people perceive one another. Given the level of multinational communication today, you must “demonstrate sensitivity…and avoid implications that are measuring other cultures by your own,” so as not to appear condescending or imperialistic (Thrush). Be mindful of cultural differences on subjects like time and detail. Avoid imposing ideas on your audience because they determine your focus—will your document be task specific and detailed, or will it encompass many tasks with implied meanings and between-the-line interpretations (Goman, Ph.D.). You must also consider whether you will be writing from a more affective, writer-oriented stand point to accomplish social or business functions, or from a neutral, reader-oriented stand point that is direct, giving the reader only what is relevant (Thrush). 83

Always avoid cultural bias. It is easy to make assumptions that are known to be evident in your culture but are not universal, or to make assumptions about cultures based on what you think you know. Therefore, any document you write must be reviewed, not just for grammatical errors and misspellings, but also for possible assumptions made within (Hume- Pratuch). As a rule, if you do not know it as fact, do not include it. 3. Non-discriminatory language Stay away from stereotypes and gender specifics and use only inclusive language instead. Any negative or offensive language that demeans a group, or groups, and does not treat all people with dignity and respect is considered discriminatory. This includes language that negatively depicts or affects specific groups based on gender, race, nationality, religion, disability, etc. (Bandhiya and Joshi). Using characteristics, such as “the elderly” or “minorities,” as labels can objectify individuals (Hume-Pratuch). Reducing your readers to items rather than addressing them as people results in losing their attention. Use inclusive language to avoid alienating your audience. Do not use masculine terms that suggest “male superiority,” (he, his, him) and replace them with gender neutral pronouns (they, them, their) to avoid bias. You must also eliminate any reference to race or nationality that suggests an individual is an exception to the group in which they relate, or that negative aspects only effect particular groups. Unless it is vital to the overall message, do not reference race or nationality. Become the audience: if your language offends you, in whole or in part, do not include it. Always remain “sensitive to the effects of your words” (Bandhiya and Joshi). 4. Simplified language Knowing your audience helps simplify your language for better comprehension. In addition to this, keep it simple and use common words to help readers stay engaged because everyone does not share your knowledge or interest. Sentences must be concise and focused. Too many details and run-on sentences can be confusing and can receive a negative reaction from readers, so ensure you are direct (Bodie, Martin and Schowen). In some instances, ideas require supporting evidence. When supporting ideas, look to inform and approach complex topics in a step-by-step fashion or follow a logical progression that is reader focused. Do not write in abstract phrases, but in concrete wording that leaves nothing to interpretation. When necessary and possible, illustrate your point using vividly descriptive language that allows a reader to “see” your words. It can even be useful to use comparisons so that your audience can better relate (Bodie, Martin and Schowen). Tips for writing in plain language include: 1. Leading with your point followed by supporting information. 2. Using active voice. 3. Writing in short, simple sentences. (Be clear and straightforward.) 4. Avoiding jargon, slang, and other terms that are uncommon to the everyday individual. 84

Grammar 1. Voice 1.1. Active voice and passive voice Active voice is self-sufficient, or the subject and the action are related in one word, and it clearly identifies the subject and the subject’s action. Example: The boy kicks the ball. The word kicks clearly states what the subject, the boy, does to the ball. In passive voice, the subject is receiving the action instead of performing it, and verbs in the passive voice must be accompanied by a form of to be. The doer of the action can even be omitted. Examples: The ball is kicked by the boy. The ball is kicked. The first sentence is longer and uses is, a form of to be, while the second sentence does not identify who or what kicks the ball. 1.2. Using voice Active voice uses fewer words, distinctly identifies the subject, and is more energetic. Passive voice is longer and more ambiguous. Failing to assign responsibility for an action with passive voice can lead to disputes. So, take responsibility by writing in active voice and use passive voice only for emphasis, such as when the action is more important than who or what performs the action, or when you lack information. 2. Sentence moods Sentence moods are the way thoughts are expressed or the tone in which messages are delivered. They indicate how the verb is expressed—be it a fact, a desire, or a command. There are three main moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Each serve a purpose and have a different frequency of use. 85

The indicative mood is the most commonly used. It expresses either a fact or asks a question that results in a factual answer in declarative, interrogative, or exclamative forms. Its dominance is due to the attitude it conveys as it is better for explanatory phrases and documents, as well as narrative or descriptive works (Earle). Examples: Is the sun shining? The sun is shining. The imperative is used for, but not limited to, commands of action and directives or instructions. It also begs or advises. The subject you is often implied and understood so it is negated to save time and space. Imperative documents tend to be direct. The imperative also has other functions of discourse: offer, ritualistic parting, exclamation, and exhortation (Simpson). It is possible to convert the indicative to the imperative by placing the verb at the beginning of the sentence and excluding the agent as, again, the subject is implied. Example: Indicative: You can put the book on the table. Imperative: Put the book on the table. The subjunctive implies hypotheticals, and technical writers often avoid it because it addresses desires or leaves room for doubt. This mood is typically used for speeches or formal writing like school essays. Words like should, as if, as though, etc. suggest the subjunctive mood. Examples: If I were you, I would call the dean. You should use the same book I did. 3. Structure and wording 3.1. Subject/verb agreement A sentence’s subject and verb must agree in number; or, a singular subject has a singular verb and a plural subject has a plural verb. The verb agrees with the closest subject when combining two nouns with words like either, neither, nor, and or, but the verb is plural when combining two nouns with and. Examples: Stacy or Daniel is coming to the reception. Cherries or apples are used in the recipe. Stacy and Daniel are coming to the reception 86

A verb always agrees with the subject, even if the verb comes before the subject or there are words between the two. Pay special attention when writing a question or using words like here or there. Examples: Teaching Bobby is hard. The President, along with his bodyguards, is attending the rally. Here is the paperwork for Tuesday. Where are Sandy’s gloves? Subjects ending in s are not always plural, such as when indicating possessiveness. Examples: Greg’s sock is missing. Stress is unhealthy. 3.2. Pronouns Nominative, objective, and possessive are the three cases of pronouns. Nominative pronouns such as I, we, you, he, she, it, who, and they are the subject of a sentence. Example: She attended the charity ball. Objective pronouns such as me, us, you, him, whom, and them are objects of verbs or prepositions. Example: Garry took me to the ball. Possessive pronouns such as my, mine, our, your, his, her, theirs, its, and whose show possession or ownership. Example: Garry is matching my dress. 87

Like with subjects and verbs, pronouns must agree in number with the noun they are replacing. Singular pronouns are used for the nouns everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, and person, and usually for company names. Examples: The lawyer stands in front of the judge and makes her case. The lawyers stand in front of the judge and make their case. Bill and Goldstein lost its Florida properties. Avoid vague or ambiguous pronoun usage by ensuring the noun being replaced is easily recognizable when there are excessive or repetitive nouns in a sentence. Example: I crashed my car into my neighbor’s mailbox, destroying the mailbox. Not: I crashed my car into my neighbor’s mailbox, destroying it. (Was the car destroyed, or the mailbox?). The demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those point to or identify nouns or pronouns. That and those can refer to objects at a distance from the speaker in time or location. This and that can refer to noun phrases or singular pronouns. These and those refer to nouns phrases or plural pronouns. Examples: This is my car. Those flowers are beautiful. That cat is a stray. The interrogative pronouns who, whom, which, what, whoever, whomever, whichever, and whatever are used to ask questions. Who, whom and sometimes which refer to people, while which and what usually refer to animals, objects, or ideas. Examples: Whom did you ask? What would you like to do first? 3.3. Parallel structure Use the same form for words with the same level of importance in a sentence or a list of items joined by a coordinating conjunction. Example: The botanist plants, waters, and studies the crops. 88

In a list, nouns must be paralleled with nouns, adjectives with adjectives, and so on. Capitalize the first word of each item and place a period at the end of every line only when the items are long and complete the introduction grammatically. Example: For the foundation, use any—including combinations—of the following: • Concrete • Concrete block • Brick • Stone Grammatically, each item is a noun and can yield a complete ending to the root of the introduction without changing the item. Example: For the foundation, use concrete and brick. 3.4. Compound words Compound words convey units not clearly conveyed by separate words. Example: My son works bi-weekly. Hyphenate compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and in adjective compounds with a numerical first element. Example: I am sixty-four and still work a 12-hour shift. Use a hyphen after e to designate electronic, except in email. Example: The potential of e-commerce is rising. Use a hyphen for dual heritages—to avoid duplicated vowels or triple consonants—and when four nouns appear in a row. Examples: Allison is German-American. The end-of-year report shows hill-like structures are a huge hit. Do not hyphenate words appearing in regular order and when omitting the hyphen causes no confusion in sound or meaning. Example: This week’s news was an eye opener. (There is no hyphen in eye opener.)

3.5. Positive phrasing State requirements and directions affirmatively because the exclusion of one possibility can leave open an infinite number of unmentioned possibilities. Example: Salvage materials when the Contractor declares the construction finished. Not: Materials should be salvaged when the construction is deemed finished by the Contractor. Empathize with readers and reword negative language into positive language. Example: Take a moment to consider how this idea can work before deciding. Not: This idea is useless. 3.6. Informal words Avoid contractions and colloquialisms that imitate informal speech found in ordinary spoken communication. Example: I am going to get out of here. Not: I’m gonna get out of here. Avoid euphemisms, which substitute for words considered too harsh or blunt. Example: He died. Not: He passed on. Avoid clichés—vivid descriptions that lost their original meaning. Example of a cliché: Avoid gas station bathrooms like the plague.

Avoid jargon and slang, or terminology used by people in a specific field. If jargon is necessary, define the term(s). Example of jargon: The doctor prescribes alpha blockers. Example of slang: Run the computer simulation. Run is slang often used by English speakers familiar with computers. 3.7. Direct language Always choose wording that clearly and efficiently says exactly what needs to be said. Avoid adding extra words because they open opportunities for misinterpretation, and avoid auxiliaries like would, should, could, may, and might. Vocabulary size is less important than how you manipulate words or analyze content, and many words are only filler (see table 1). Example: Table 1 Alternatives to common wordy phrases Instead of … Use or Consider … Instead of … Use or Consider … a minimum of at least consequently so a number of some contract requirement contract absolutely essential essential cost thereof cost of aforementioned the, that, those demonstrate show appreciable many due to the fact that because as concerned with concerns enclosed herewith enclosed as may be necessary as needed endeavor try as stated in states equitable fair assist help expedite hurry, speed up assistance help fails to does not at a later date later for a period of for at the present time now for the purpose of for, to capability can forward send cease and desist stop free from without commence start give consideration to consider compensation for pay give recognition to recognize give due and sufficient give written notice nevertheless still written notice heretofore until now not less than at least Instead of … Use or Consider … Instead of … Use or Consider … 91

however but notwithstanding in spite of impracticable impractical on a quarterly basis quarterly in a manner such that so that on a regular basis regularly in a timely manner promptly, on time optimum best, largest in advance of before practicable practical in an effort to to preclude prevent in lieu of instead of prior to before in many cases often remainder rest in many instances sometimes retain keep in order to to substantial portion large part in the amount of for successfully complete complete in the event of if terminate end in the near future soon the month of June June in such a manner as to so as to the question as to whether whether indicate show therefore so initiate start through the use of by throughout the construction is applicable to applies to during construction period is indicative of shows timely prompt magnitude size undertake an analysis analyze make payment pay until such time as until make preparations for prepare for utilize use make use of use when totally free when free methodology method, way Source: Minnesota Department of Transportation. Specification Writers' Style Guide. N.p.: Minnesota Department of Transportation, Dec. 2012, table 5.2:1, PDF. 4. Numerals Typically, the use of numerals in a technical document is a matter of preference but should always be consistent. 4.1. General rules to the appropriate use of numerals vs. numerical words Spell out numbers smaller than ten, except when the numbers express time, measurements, money, dates, or mathematical expressions. Example: There are three types of Microsoft documents. Not: There are 3 types of Microsoft documents. However, when writing two numerals next to each other that are both smaller than the number ten, spell out the numeral with fewer letters. 92

Example: In the science class, there are four 7-year-old children identified that they have a computer at home. Not: I the science class, there are 4 7-year-old children identified that they have a computer at home. Also, if two numbers are spelled out, never repeat the numerals in parenthesis. Example: There were three copies of the test that were distributed. Not: There were three (3) copies of the test that were distributed. If the numeral is an estimation or is rounded out, express it as a numerical word. Express units of measure as numerals. 4.2. Dates and common acceptable abbreviations for business expressions Dates are one of the few exceptions to the rule of writing out numerals less than nine. When writing a day of the week in the same sentence as a month, express the day with a cardinal figure. Example: The technical writers club will be meeting on March 22, 2017. Use ordinal words to express a month when a day precedes it. Example: Free lunch will be provided from Wednesday, the second of March, through Friday, the fourth. 4.3. How to properly express time, percentages, and monetary references Except for in formal communications, express time values as numerals. They do not adhere to the rule of spelling out numbers less than ten. This pertains to expressing years, months, days, hours, and minutes. Example: My daughter is 15 years old. Not: My daughter is fifteen years old. When expressing time in hours and minutes, there must be space between the time and the AM or PM. When writing midnight or noon, refer to them as noon and midnight, instead of 12:00 PM and 12:00 AM. Percentages are expressed with numerals, followed by the word percent, as opposed to the symbol. If writing a percentage less than one, a zero goes before the decimal point. 93

Examples: There are 5 percent of people that enjoy reading and writing. There are 0.5 percent of people that enjoy ready and writing. Large dollar amounts can be abbreviated if there is limited space when the amount is an excess of a thousand (K), a million (M), or a billion (B). Otherwise, when expressing numbers in millions or billions, the words million and billion are spelled out. Example:

(Vinai Prakash Displaying Large Numbers in K (thousands) or M (millions) in Excel) Example: The bank account has $5 million that can be donated to charity. Numbers with four or more digits must be written as a numeral and must include a comma. If the number is less than a dollar, it is not necessary to include the dollar symbol. If it is preferred to use a dollar sign, do not add dollars into the sentence. 4.4. Page numbering Page numbers are expressed as numerals, not numerical words. Do not include a page number on the title page, and do not include page or p when numbering pages. 94

4.5. Phone numbers Phone numbers are most effective when expressed with periods instead of dashes. The number before the area code should be eliminated for U.S. telephone numbers. If a telephone number is not a direct line and requires an extension, separate the two with a comma and abbreviate the extension to ext. Example: 305.514.3238, ext.123 5. Capitalization Capitalization in technical writing shows distinction or importance. However, it is important not to overuse it so as not to take away from the overall message. 5.1. When to use capitalization When considering capitalization for a specific document, like a response to an RFP (Request for Proposal), follow the guidelines and standards detailed within; otherwise, capitalize: • The initial letter of a sentence and the first word after a colon if it is the beginning of a complete sentence. • The first word of a direct quote. • Titles of books, articles, journals, and magazines. • Days of the week. • Months. • Holidays. • Proper nouns, including when they are used with a city or county and adjectives. • Government agencies, bureaus, and departments. • Job titles that are used with personal names. • Races, religions, and religious groups. • Languages. • States, cities, and counties. • Names of persons, places, and organizations. • Official titles of respect. • Trademarks, brand names, and proprietary names. • The first letter in document headers. • Most acronyms and spelled out versions of acronyms. 95

Do not capitalize: • The words government, city, county, or state. • Definitions of acronyms unless they are proper nouns. • Seasons. • General abbreviations. • Academic degrees in general terms. 5.2. Capitalizing job titles When using job titles, capitalization varies depending on where it is being used. For example, it is acceptable to capitalize job titles in resumes or application letters. However, in all other instances unless the title occurs alone, capitalization must occur only when the title precedes the name of an officeholder—unless there is honor or respect portrayed in the official title: Examples: Mrs. Audrey Mack Governor Charlie Christ High ranking government officials at the national, state, and international level must be capitalized when it is replacing the actual name. Example: The Queen of England wore a beautiful dress to the party. 5.3. How to not overuse capitalization in technical writing Be mindful of overusing capitalization. Since capitalization is often used to express importance, overusing it defeats that purpose because it becomes too difficult to differentiate between the contexts of the text. Using the basic rules of capitalization in writing will help prevent overusing capitalization. Often, things are capitalized to provide emphasis which are not necessary in technical writing. Maintain alignment with the items listed in section 7.1 and research if something should be capitalized when you are unsure.

Document Design 1. Principles of design As with all design, there are fundamental ideas about how to use the elements of design to best effect. The goal of design is not to call attention to itself, but to make the document visually pleasing and information easy to find. The principles of design for documents are proximity, order, contrast, similarity, proportion, balance, and unity. 1. Proximity requires that related elements be grouped together. All of the information on a specific topic should be together. Similar topics should be found nearby. 2. Order shows the hierarchy and flow of information. This applies to the document as a whole, as well as and to pages and subsections. The most important or largest scale information should be placed first. Readers look at the beginning of the document, the top of the page, and the beginning of sections first. Start with larger topics at the beginning of the document. Have the most important topics at the top of the page. 3. Contrast also places emphasis on information. Elements that look different provide emphasis. This can be done in a few ways. Different fonts stand out. Larger text looks more important. Bold text emphasizes its importance. 4. Similarity serves consistency in the document. While headings may look different than body text, it is important that they are consistent throughout the document. When readers see similar elements, they assume they have similar functions. It is important that elements such us font are used exactly the same for the whole document. If two fonts are used from similar font families, this will confuse and unease the reader. 5. Proportion is how elements relate to each other spatially. Visually important information, such as illustrations, should fit with the other elements of the page. Readers’ eyes naturally move slightly above the center of the page, so visual elements are best placed there. 6. Balance is how the elements appear when you split the page in half. Each half should have the same visual “weight.” Darker and larger visuals provide more weight. Visuals have more weight, and are balanced by more “lighter” text on the other side. 7. Unity is how all the elements work together. Different visual elements should complement each other. Pages should be attention grabbing but simple to follow. Each page should be similarly structured. The document should work as a unified whole. 2. Document formats Readers will experience your document in one of two ways: print or electronic. 2.1 Print As a reader cannot manipulate printed documents, it is important that the document is legible enough for people with impaired vision. A serif font should be used for the body text, as this is easier to read. There should be ample white space because it provides contrast to the printed text. Visuals used must also be readable on the page. Reports must always be printed on white paper. 2.2 Electronic 97

A great advantage of electronic documents is that they can be changed. Readers can zoom in if they have trouble reading, for example, or they can search the document for specific words. The document can better serve the reader’s needs. This includes hyperlinks. The table of contents should link to the specific pages it references, and internet sources should be linked from the citations so the reader can do additional research. PDF is one of the most popular file types and can be read on any computer. Like print, it will look exactly the same on every device. This preserves the style guidelines such as margins and font. This format is recommended for maximum readability. It also allows extra security with passwords if needed. E-mails should follow the same style as reports. 3. Document organization Many factors contribute to the effectiveness of your document—the ability of your document to communicate with a reader through its organization is a key factor in its success. Your document must present information in a manner that allows the reader to understand and receive information. 3.1 Front Matter The front matter of your document should contain the necessary information to properly identify and navigate the document. Some common information provided in the front matter include: • Publisher's name and address • Copyright information • Disclaimers • Dedication • ISBN • Table of contents • Preface • Forward 3.1.1 Cover Page MLA format does not require a cover page, but your instructor could request one, and it will make your essay appear more professional. Follow any instructions given by your instructor for your cover page. An MLA cover page contains: • University name • Title of essay • Your name • Course name and number • Your professor's name • Due date 3.1.2 Table of Contents Provide a table of contents in the front matter of your document so readers can navigate its contents. A clearly organized table of contents is a necessary navigational aid to ensure a successful reader experience. The complexity of the table of contents may vary with each 98 document as a simple listing of content may be appropriate, or a more detailed description of chapter contents for lengthy documents. 3.2 Body Matter The body matter is the main content of your document. For example, the body paragraphs of an MLA essay would be the body matter. This content is the largest part of your document, so thoroughly consider how you want this text to look when designing as it will occupy the most space. 3.3 Back Matter The back matter of your document contains reference information such as a bibliography or works cited. Navigational aids can also be found in the back matter such as an appendix, a glossary, or an index. These contents allow the reader to easily locate information or supporting documents. 3.3.1 Index An index is an alphabetical list of keywords and terms along with the page number at which those terms can be located. This navigational tool allows the reader to locate specific information quickly and efficiently. 4. Page layout The page layout of your document consists of several stylistic elements that directly impact its success. Page layout specifically refers to the "positioning and relationship of text and other elements on the page" (Butterick). The default settings in most word processors will suffice for document production but to produce professional quality work, additional effort must be made. 4.1 Text Alignment There are several types of text alignment that can be used when constructing your document, but make sure to use an alignment type that is suited for the type of text being created. For example, this document uses left-aligned text for this paragraph. 4.1.1 Centered Text This type of alignment creates an equal amount of space between the left and right margins, so the text is located directly in the middle of the text line. This type of alignment is typically used sparingly as it can be difficult to read longer text. A common use for centered text is for titles or chapters, as can be found in this document. 4.1.2 Justified Text This type of alignment spaces the text between both the left and right sides to create a straight edge on both sides of a text block. Using justified text can produce a more uniform and formal document than left-aligned text. This effect is achieved by adding space between the words in each line which changes line spacing, however this is usually not distracting in medium to short line length. 4.1.3 Left-Aligned Text 99

Left-aligned text is formatted to align the text to the left hand margin of the document. This type of alignment keeps the reader’s eye moving in a natural direction as they progress through the document. This is the most commonly used alignment in academia and creates a reader friendly experience. This type of alignment can result in an abundance of empty space of the right margin and may not be suited for all situations. For texts with longer line length, this alignment provides a user friendly option. 4.2 Page Margins Page margins define the area your text block will occupy and directly control the maximum line length of your text. The MLA standard page margins are one inch for top, bottom, and both sides. As page margins increase, maximum line length decreases. When you have the option to select your own page margins, select ones that give an appropriate line length for the font you are using. 4.3 Paragraphs Each paragraph of your document should provide a visual break. A visual break signals that a new paragraph is beginning and that the topic is changing or moving forward. Proper paragraph use allows the information of the document to be organized in an easily understood manner. 4.3.1 Spacing / Indentation A new paragraph is signaled by either space between paragraphs or indentation however, only one method is used. If using space between paragraphs, use 4 to 10 points between paragraphs. When using indentation, the indentation should be no smaller than 1-point size and no larger than 4-point sizes. For example the indentation for 12-point font would be between 12- and 48-points. The standard indent for MLA is one-half inch and is the required method of signaling new paragraphs. 4.4 Line spacing / Length Single line and double line spacing are the most common forms of line spacing and the MLA standard is to use double spacing. When you can choose the formatting of your document, 120-145% of the point size is the ideal range for spacing and 45-90 characters per line for length. 5. Font and font formatting When it comes to designing and creating a document, one of the most important features is deciding how to format the font of the document. Although similar, it is important to remember that text formatting and fonts are not the same. Fonts are the style chosen for how the words are shown and text formatting is the manipulation of size as well as using bold and italic fonts. 5.1 Font Size Font Size all depends on the placement of font and what type of text it is, such as body text or a header. When it comes to body text, most word processors use 11 or 12-point font. This size is both easy to read and efficient for the spacing of the document. When it comes to other 100 types of text, such as headers, the font size can be larger to implicate the text’s importance in relation to the document. Once a size is selected, it is important to remain consistent throughout the document. 5.2 Bold and Italic Font The bold feature is important when it comes to highlighting certain text or putting emphasis on a certain word or phrase. Bold text is mainly used with both sans serif and serif fonts. The italic feature is similar to the bold feature in that it also emphasizes words or phrases. However, italics are best used with serif fonts because of their slanted design, which looks more natural on the page. Another important rule to remember is that both italics and bold should only be used with a single word or phrase and not entire paragraphs or sections, which might make the reader confused as to what you are trying to emphasize. 5.3 Font color and Underlining Font Other areas of text formatting include color and underlining. With most word processors, there is a white background for the page; so, when designing a document, it is best to use black font. This makes it easy for the reader to read and understand. There are instances where you can switch between color or change a single word or phrase to another color to put emphasis and let it stand out to the reader. Underlining certain word or phrases also has the same effect. Underlining is best used for headings since much of putting emphasis on words or phrases can be done using the italic and bold feature. 6. Typeface Many will still look at typeface and still ask the question, is that not the same thing as font? The answer to this question as mentioned earlier is no. Font is the specific theme or type of text you use such as Book Antiqua which this document is written in or times new roman. Typeface on the other hand is the family of fonts that have common designs features such as specific types of weight, style, width and slant. For example, Georgia is a type of font however it falls into the Serif typeface family. Another popular analogy to describe the difference is to say a song is a font and an album is a typeface.

6.1 Typeface types 101

Most typefaces fall into four major categories. These categories include serif, sans serif, script, and display typeface.

6.1.1 Serif typeface

This typeface is known for having little “feet” or lines attached to the ends of their letters. Because of this, this category is mainly used with traditional fonts such as Times New Roman, Georgia, Cambria and Rockwell.

6.1.2 Sans Serif typeface

Sans Serif typeface does not have the extra lines or “feet” on the ends of letters. This makes the typeface look more modern and streamlined. Fonts in this category include Corbel, Helvetica, and Century Gothic. One advantage of this typeface over serif is that sans-serif typeface displays better on pixel based screens. Serif typefaces sometimes Figure 1: Types of Typeface with Types become distorted since they have a small and thin design. of Fonts in parenthesis Because of this, many designers who work on webpages will choose Sans Serif typeface because of its less “noisy” design.

6.1.3 Script typeface

Scripts are cursive or handwriting style typefaces. They have connected letters and have a handwritten design on the screen. Some examples include marketing script and yellowtail script.

6.1.4 Decorative/ Display typeface

This category of typeface is used, exactly as the name implies, for display and decorative purposes. They are used mainly to grab people’s attention and for special effect. Examples of this typeface include Pinewood and New Rocker.

6.2 Choosing a Typeface

With so many choices, it can become almost overwhelming on what type of typeface to choose. So, it is important to know the location and purpose of the text you are writing. When creating a document, there are two main categories of text. One is for headings, captions, and titles, and the other is for body text. Once you know which category you are writing for, it is then important to know the audience and whether it is for a formal or informal setting.

6.2.1 Typeface for headings, captions and titles

Headings, captions, and titles are meant to be short and help guide the reader to what the purpose of what is about to be discussed. This category is meant to stand out and bring the 102 reader in. Although Serif and Sans Serif typefaces can be used, display and script typeface can be considered acceptable in this category. Since both categories are meant to be unique and stand out, they could fit perfectly with the design of a title. It is still important to know your audience and who this will be intended for. Sometimes the audience might just be looking for information and if the design is too complex, it can take away from the message or what the writer is trying to convey.

6.2.2 Typeface for body text

Body text has much more of a limited scope. This is the section where the reader gives all the information to their audience as well as give the message of what they are writing about. So, for this typeface, it must be simple as well as easy to read by the reader. Serif and Sans Serif typefaces are the preferred typeface for this section.

7. Graphics

Graphics are an important tool when it comes to trying to organize information in a document as well as try to explain to the reader what the writer is trying to get across. Graphics can also come in many forms including images, charts, and graphs. With more documents today being created digitally instead of by hand, it has become much easier to design and place graphics inside documents. It is important to remember that graphics are used to help aid the text and reinforce it, not replace it. Graphics should be placed in a way to help the document convey its message to the reader and reinforce any information that is given in the document.

7.1 Types of graphics

Graphics can be broken down into smaller categories and although similar each category has its own benefits to help the writer in designing their document. Much of this section is covered in the Graphics PowerPoint given in class however its important to review this information.

7.1.1 Images

Images are seen by many as the most common graphics that people use and think about using. Images can come in many forms including logos, cartoons, and digital images. A major benefit of using images in a document is that they directly represent how something looks and can allow the writer to show information visually without having to normally go into detail about what is being shown and described.

7.1.2 Charts 103

Charts, although similar to graphs, are another important graphic tool that a writer can use. Like images, there are different types of charts that can be used. These include maps, concept diagrams, and process diagrams. Charts are a mix between the image and graph category, using features from both to help convey information to the reader.

The first two types of charts are maps

Figure 2: Map Example and concept diagrams Maps usually use space to show their information, whereas concept diagrams use conceptual ideas. Process diagrams show the stages and relationships in a process and show the reader the steps taken in the process.

7.1.3 Graphs Figure 3: Process Map Example Graphs are an important graphical aid when it comes to describing statistical or numerical information. Graphs can help describe trends, comparisons, and overall percentages, making them a unique and helpful tool for the writer.

Graphs fall into several major categories including line graphs, bar graphs, and pie charts. Line graphs show trends over some duration of time and can be useful to showing patterns of a time period. Bar charts make comparisons between data points and are not limited to time trends as line graphs are. Pie charts show percentages of a whole category. Each slice of the pie displays the

Figure 4: Bar Graph Example percentage of certain category.

7.2 Graphic Placement and techniques

Once a type of graphic is decided, it is equally important to know where to place the graphic and any formatting to the document that can be done because of the image. Graphics should usually be placed inside or next to the text that is describing the image. Figure 5: Pie Chart Example 104

This way the reader, too, can read about the information and quickly access the image to understand what the writer is talking about. In most situations, it is also important to include a caption next to the graphic to describe what the graphic is so it is not confusing to the reader.

7.2.1 Text Wrapping

One technique to format a document with a graphic is to include text wrapping. Text wrapping is putting, or wrapping, the text around the graphic to make sure there is no unnecessary white space and to make it more visually appealing to the reader. Thanks to word processors, wrapping text around a graphic is very easy because it is an included tool.

7.2.2 “Break the Grid”

Figure 6: text wrapping example: Text wrapping is just one of the many techniques that falls under the “Break the Grid” category. Break the Grid is a style of document design that by using word processors and other software can design a document using a new standard instead of a typographical grid. Some other techniques besides text wrapping that can be used are overlapping objects on a page, using an edge of a page, and putting quotes inside a column of text. These simple changes can have a big impact on the design of the document and can help the writer create new ways to convey their information. Figure 7: Putting Quotes in Column example

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Glossary

Affective: of, caused by, or expressing emotion or feeling. Alternative text is the text equivalent of an image that describes its function and content; it provides information when an image cannot load on a webpage or a reader is visually impaired. APA: The American Psychological Association; It is the citation format most used in scientific writing that is dependent on up-to-date information.

Applicable: applying or capable of being applied; relevant; suitable; appropriate. Bias: a particular tendency, trend, inclination, feeling, or opinion, especially one that is preconceived or unreasoned. Break the Grid: techniques used to move away from using a standard typographical grid. Charts: a graphical representation of data Cliché: a trite, stereotyped expression; a sentence or phrase, usually expressing a popular or common thought or idea, that has lost originality, ingenuity, and impact by long overuse. CMS: The Chicago Manual of Style; It has two documentation systems: notes and bibliography, which is used mostly within the humanities, and the author-date system, which is used mostly within the sciences.

Colloquial: characteristic of ordinary or familiar conversation rather than formal speech or writing; informal. Creative commons: a licensing organization that helps individuals to share their creative content with the public; it provides an alternative to full copyright. Culture is the customs, beliefs, attitudes, and values of a particular group of people. Decorative graphics: purely aesthetic and do not convey any information. Discrimination is the unjust treatment of people based on race, gender, age, religion, social class, or culture. Discriminatory: characterized by or showing prejudicial treatment, especially as an indication of bias related to age, color, national origin, religion, sex, etc. Email is electronic mail that arrives in a virtual mailbox and can be accessed from various electronic devices such as computers, phones, and tablets. Emoticons are illustrations which represent emotions, moods, and objects; they are used in casual online communication to help convey a tone. Fair use: reasonable and limited use of copyrighted material so as not to infringe upon copyright. 106

Grant Proposal: A formal proposal submitted to a government or civilian entity that outlines a proposed project and shows budgetary requirements and requests monetary assistance in the form of a grant.

Graph: diagram that shows the relationship between two separate variables. Graphics: visual images or designs used to inform, identify, or decorate; they relate to the printed words in a document.

Identifying graphics: display identity or affiliation.

Inclusive language: language that avoids the use of certain expressions or words that might be considered to exclude particular groups of people, esp gender-specific words, such as "man", "mankind", and masculine pronouns, the use of which might be considered to exclude women. Informational graphics present, expand, or support ideas; the three main types are illustrations, tables, and charts and graphs. Italic: Cursive font based off handwritten letters.

Jargon: the language, especially the vocabulary, peculiar to a particular trade, profession, or group. Memorandum: an informal message, especially one sent between two or more employees of the same company, concerning company business: an interoffice memorandum.

Messaging is a private format for communication between two people, similar to texting. MLA: The Modern Language Association; It is the citation format most used within the liberal arts and humanities.

Mood: a set of categories for which the verb is inflected in many languages, and that is typically used to indicate the syntactic relation of the clause in which the verb occurs to other clauses in the sentence, or the attitude of the speaker toward what he or she is saying, as certainty or uncertainty, wish or command, emphasis or hesitancy. Peripheral: also, peripheral equipment; of or relating to computer input and output devices. Punctuation: Any mark used during writing to break up sentencesß into simpler vocabulary to help the reader better understand the overall message of the text. Research Proposal: Document that is typically written by a scientist or academic which describes the ideas for an investigation on a certain topic. The research proposal outlines the process from beginning to end and may be used to request financing for the project, certification for performing certain parts of research of the experiment, or as a required task before beginning a college dissertation. 107

Run-on sentence: a written sequence of two or more main clauses that are not separated by a period or semicolon or joined by a conjunction

Sans Serif: typeface that does not have the extra lines on the ends of letters.

Scripts: cursive or handwritten style typefaces.

Serif: typeface that is known for having little “feet” or lines. Slang: informal usage in vocabulary and idiom that is characteristically more metaphorical, playful, elliptical, vivid, and ephemeral than ordinary language. Social media are internet and phone based applications that allow people to share information, network, and communicate in a group format. Software: the programs used to direct operation of a computer. Stereotype: a simplified and standardized conception or image invested with special meaning and held in common by members of a group. Supplementary: added or serving as a supplement; additional. Text Wrapping: the technique of putting a graphic in the middle of a grouping of text. Typeface: Family of fonts that have common design features. Visual-aid: an instructional device (as a chart, map, or model) that appears chiefly to vision. Voice: the category in which a verb is inflected in English and which is typically used to indicate the relation of the verb to the subject.

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Biography

The following individuals contributed to the content and production of this style guide: Audrey Mack

Audrey Mack was born and raised in Miami, FL and is the youngest girl of 4 children. She is a senior at UCF majoring in English Technical Communication. She is the mother of two beautiful children, a boy named Jordan, and a daughter named Denise. She currently works for a large engineering consulting firm. After graduation, she intends on continuing her career in Federal Contracts and putting her technical communication skills to work in her current place of employment. Her interests include watching scary movies, playing video games with her kids, and being a loving wife and mother. Benjamin Kidd Benjamin Kidd resides in Orlando, Florida. He is a Junior at UCF majoring in Information Technology. After graduation, he plans to work full time as a Network Administrator for Ravago Americas LLC, where he is currently an intern in Network Administration. His interests include learning, reading, and working out. Conner Frost

Conner Frost resides in Orlando. He is a senior at UCF, majoring in Information Technology. After graduation, he plans to be a database administrator with an aeronautical defense company. His interests include photography, sports and aviation. Diane Hroncich

Diane H. R. Carlton resides with her husband and four children in Longwood, Florida. She is a junior at UCF, majoring in technical communication. After graduation, she hopes to write for the medical industry, and also to pursue some creative writing endeavors. Her interests include fitness kickboxing, health, and MotoGP. Eric Dove

Eric Dove was born in Titusville, Florida. He is currently attending UCF on the Technical Writing track. After graduation, he hopes to find a decent job in the technical writing field. His interests include movies, history, and music. Iman Harris

Iman Harris was born in Michigan and now resides in Orlando, FL. She is a junior at UCF, majoring in information technology. After graduation, she hopes to become a system administrator at her current place of employment. Her interests include poetry, action movies and football.

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Jennifer Broom

Jennifer Broom is born in raised in Orlando Florida. She currently lives in Kissimme but plans to move closer to Orlando again. She is a senior at UCF, majoring in technical communications. She hopes to travel around the world and teach English as a foreign language. Her interests are running, writing, and sports. Lizney Sievert

Lizney Sievert resides in Orlando. She is a junior at UCF, majoring in technical communications. After graduation, she plans to work remotely as a technical writer, while pursuing her dream of traveling the world. Her interests include traveling, yoga, and scuba diving. Samantha Sukash

Samantha Sukash resides in Orlando. She is a junior at UCF, majoring in information technology. After graduation, she plans to work as a database administrator. Her interests include programming, video games, and reading. Sarah Henderson Sarah Henderson is originally from Manassas, Virginia. She currently lives in Sanford, Florida with her boyfriend and three cats. She is a junior at UCF, majoring in technical communication. She hopes to one day publish and edit books. In her free time, she loves reading, movies, video games, and riding her bicycle. Wesley Porter

Wesley Porter was born in Tampa, Florida. He is a transfer student at UCF, majoring in technical communication. After graduation, he plans to attend law school out of state. His interests include hiking, cooking, and playing video games.

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