University of Hawai‘i at Hilo · Hawai‘i Community College HOHONU 2012 Vol. 10

production from this area is about 1.3 mb/d and is Canadian Boom, Environmental projected to reach 3 mb/d by 2018 (Timoney & Ronconi, Bust: The Tar Sands of 2010, p. 569; Schindler, 2010, p. 500). Christina Blakey, [email protected] To depths of up to 75m, strip mining takes Political Science 335, Fall 2011, UHH place. First the forest must be cut, muskeg drained and overburden removed to reveal the , and “Resources are not, they become.” then the ground is excavated (Ruby, 2010, p. 28). The – Erich Zimmermann clumps of tar sands are then brought by massive trucks to a crusher where it is combined with warm water, The high price of oil has made the tar sands (also chemicals and turbulence to release the bitumen which known as “oil sands”) of Alberta a viable, and profitable, is then separated from the tailings (Gray et al., 2009, p. source of petroleum for . There is a consensus 32). At depths beyond 75m, steam-injection wells are that the days of “easy oil” are over; this, coupled with the drilled which heats the bitumen to 250 °C to lower the rising global demand for fossil fuels, has paved the way viscosity enough to pump the oil to the surface; the for Canada to capitalize on their resource – one that was heating process can take several days (Gray et al., p. once thought too costly to extract on a large scale. This 34-35). Both of these techniques pose unique problems. turn of events is an economic windfall for Canada, and The strip-mining and extraction process requires about the U.S., with its voracious appetite, is poised to benefit 3 barrels of water for every barrel of bitumen produced from the friendly influx of oil. However, there are many (Schindler, 2010, p. 500), which results in a toxic sludge. in America who would stand in the way of this (and the Some of this water can be recycled, but for the most part proposed Keystone XL pipeline), and there are many it ends up in the tailing ponds, and Natural Resources more who vehemently oppose the tar sand extraction Canada admits that the projected production of 3.3 mb/d process as a whole due to serious environmental by 2020 will require an amount of water “that would concerns. These concerns, which include pollution, not be sustainable because the Athabasca River does health issues (including cancer) of local people, water not have sufficient flows” (as cited in Nikiforuk, 2008). and energy usage in the extraction process, greenhouse The steam-injection, or in situ, extraction process uses gas emissions, deforestation, habitat loss, and wildlife far less water, but the energy required to heat the oil is mortality, have been a source of contentious debate. significant. Natural gas is the current fuel of choice for Despite these protestations, the infrastructure is in place, this process, which Nikiforuk likens to “burning a Picasso billions have been invested, and billions more stand for heat” (as cited in Ruby, 2010, p. 28). Regardless, there to be made from Alberta’s oil sands. Canada will sell are plans to build a pipeline from hundreds of kilometers to whoever will buy – if the U.S. does not approve the away to transport the gas to the site. While this may Keystone XL pipeline then TransCanada will build one seem unreasonable, the other options are far worse – west through British Columbia and sell to China. In coal would produce far more greenhouse gases, and the lieu of a cleaner, cheaper (or actually, more profitable) possibility of using nuclear energy to create heat would alternative, the U.S. looks for ways to secure her energy create even more problems with waste. Despite this future and it seems importing Alberta’s oil sands is an fact, some politicians in Alberta are strong proponents inevitable fate. of expanding into nuclear power to fuel the tar sands Between 50 and 100 million years ago, underneath operations (Pasqualetti, 2009, p. 258). As it stands now the Rocky Mountains, crude oil from shale was released the current extraction processes of bitumen leaves a and found its way east and north into sedimentary sand heavy carbon footprint. Farrell and Brandt published deposits, and thus, these Alberta tar sands were formed in 2007 that “the extraction and refining of oil sands (Gray, Xu & Masliyah, 2009, p. 32). Centuries before produces 30-70% more greenhouse gas emissions than European contact, aboriginal peoples of northeastern conventional oil production” (as cited in Tenenbaum, Alberta were aware of, and utilized, the area’s tar sands 2009, p. 155). In 2020 it is predicted that production of for such tasks as repairing canoes (Weinhold, 2011, bitumen from the oil sands will be more than 3 mb/d; if p. 119; Atkins & MacFayden, 2008, p. 78). As early as true then the output of CO2 will increase from 30 million 1800 Europeans noted the existence of these tar sands, tons (2004) to 95 million tons (2020) (Pasqualetti, 2009, but it wasn’t until the 1920s that a way to extract the p. 257). bitumen was discovered, and this method, using aerated Strip mining and the bitumen extraction process hot water, was commercialized in the 1960s (Gray et al., produce tailings, which is a mixture of water, clay, residual 2009, p. 32). Now that nonconventional sources of oil hydrocarbons, brine, silts and sands (Chalaturnyk, Scott such as tar sands can feasibly be extracted and brought & Ozum, 2002, p. 1025). Also included in the mix are to market, Canada has the world’s second largest proven a number of toxic chemicals and metals, including reserve of oil with over 170 billion barrels recoverable naphthenic acids, benzene, arsenic, lead, chromium (Atkins & MacFayden, 2008, p. 77; Gray et al., 2009, p. and mercury (Weinhold, 2011, p. 129). There is concern 31; Kasoff, 2007, p. 177), all lying underneath 140,000 about seepage into adjacent waterways that lie directly km² of boreal forest (Tenenbaum, 2009, p. 151). Current alongside the mining sites and ponds. Many studies have

14 University of Hawai‘i at Hilo · Hawai‘i Community College HOHONU 2012 Vol. 10 been done that directly contradict one another; David that the actual amount is probably far greater (as cited Schindler, an ecologist with the University of Alberta, in Tenenbaum, 2009, p. 153). Timoney also noted that points out the lack of solid scientific testing and thus Fort Chipewyan is situated in a depositional basin where formed a research group of experts to test the waters toxic chemicals and metals settle and accumulate in the of the Athabasca River. While the industry claims that sediment. According to the study Cancer Incidence in Fort contaminants in the river are naturally occurring due Chipewyan, Alberta, 1995-2006, “the number of cancer to normal bitumen leakage from the surrounding lands, cases overall was higher than expected,” but went on to Schindler’s team found that “industry added substantially note that this could be due to many contributing factors to the natural contaminant loading” (2010, p. 501). and deemed further study was necessary (Alberta Cancer However, industry tests generally show that there is little Board, 2009, p. 10). However, as the people inhabiting to no seepage at all, but readily admit that eventually this area rely on fish as their major source of protein, it the ponds must be reclaimed which has resulted in a should be noted that adult fish caught downstream of “long-term environmental concern” (Ferguson, Rudolph these tar sands operations have been found with lesions, & Barker, 2009, p. 1459). deformities, and cancerous tumors (Schindler, 2010, p. Tailing ponds pose a threat to more than just 500; Tenenbaum, 2009, p. 154). waterways. These large ponds appear no different to migrating birds than any other bodies of water, and despite industry-instituted deterrents such as “floating and beach effigies, propane scare cannons, and sound-producing systems” (Timoney & Ronconi, 2010, p. 569), birds still land in the ponds, become soiled, and many die. As the tar sands industry expands so will the size and number of these ponds which lie along key migration routes. The National Resources Defense Council projected that, with expansion, the cumulative amount of bird deaths will range from 6 to 166 million in the next 30-50 years, with no practical mitigation measures yet known (as cited in Pasqualetti, 2009, p. 258). It should be noted that currently there are 65 square miles of tailing ponds (National Resources Source: HIS CERA, CAPP Defense Council et al., 2011, p. 5). However, migrating waterfowl are not the only wildlife which are potentially The energy company TransCanada proposed disrupted by tailing ponds and the mining operations in 2008 to extend the current from as a whole. Deforestation and land degradation can Alberta to the Gulf Coast where there are refineries affect the biodiversity of the entire region by interrupting capable of processing the bitumen into usable fuel. This connectivity between habitats. These disturbances alter addition would increase the amount of oil imported movement of species such as the woodland caribou from Canada from 720 million barrels to nearly a billion (Rangifer tarandus caribou), which in turn affects barrels annually (an estimated increase of 255 million migration, foraging and reproductive behaviors, all of barrels of oil) (Guarino, 2011). There have been protests which may lead to the loss of ecosystem function (Ruby, and many outspoken opponents about this pipeline, 2010, p. 28; Sherrington, 2005, pp. 80-81). focusing on the potential environmental impacts. In July While wildlife, landscape, and ecosystem damage of 2010 an oil leak occurred on the Kalamazoo River can be devastating and possibly irreversible, the near Marshall, Michigan, dumping 840,000 gallons of effects of contaminated water and food (fish, moose, diluted bitumen (“DilBit”) (Natural Resources Defense waterfowl, etc.) may be presenting in humans as deadly Council (NRDC), 2011, p. 6; Brower, 2010). This drew forms of cancer. In Fort Chipewyan, which is a native attention to bitumen, Canadian pipelines, potential community downstream from oil sands development, accidents, and the Keystone XL which is moving forward local doctor John O’Connor noticed a higher incidence but has yet to gain Presidential approval – the decision of cancer in this small area (Tenenbaum, 2009, p. 153). making has been postponed until 2013. The development’s stakeholders quickly moved in to In a classic rivalry between liberals and discredit the findings and as well as Dr. O’Connor. While conservatives, the Keystone XL pipeline polarizes those more investigation is warranted, in A Study of Water and to the left or right – left if you think the environment is Sediment Quality as Related to Public Health Issues, Fort worth more than oil and the jobs that would go with Chipewyan, Alberta (2007), ecologist Kevin Timoney it, and right if you put profit above all else, and/or feel stated that, as a result of his research, he believes that that this pipeline is the key to the U.S.’s energy security. the Environmental Defence’s report (which stated that an Environmentalists have a laundry list of concerns about estimated 11 million liters of contaminated water seeps the pipeline running through America’s heartland. out each day into area waterways) is conservative, and Heavy bitumen is quite caustic and corrosive, and

15 University of Hawai‘i at Hilo · Hawai‘i Community College HOHONU 2012 Vol. 10 must travel at higher temperatures and pressures than “We’re either going to be dependent on dirty oil from conventional crude; however, the pipe being used to the [Persian] Gulf or dirty oil from Canada … until we build the pipelines (including the current Keystone) use can get our act together as a country and figure out “conventional pipeline technology” which increases that clean, renewable energy is in both our economic the chance for leaks and blowouts, and it is this suspect interests and the interests of our planet.” piping that would run over the Ogallala Aquifer which -Secretary of State Hilary Clinton, 2010 provides drinking and agricultural water for much of the Midwest. TransCanada had volunteered to reroute the pipeline, but the decision is still delayed as a new EIS References must be undertaken. Opponents to the pipeline argue Alberta Cancer Board. (2009). Cancer Incidence in Fort that the U.S. should focus on alternative, renewable fuel Chipewyan, Alberta, 1995-2006. Retrieved rather than lock in to a long-term relationship with dirty from http://www.ualberta.ca/~avnish/rls-2009-02- oil, water and energy use, wildlife, GHGs, etc (NRDC, 06-fort-chipewyan-study.pdf 2011, pp. 3-4). Conservatives generally feel that the jobs that would be created and the access to friendly, local Atkins, F. & MacFayden, A. (2008). A resource whose time has come? The Alberta oil sands as an oil trumps everything else. Both sides certainly have a economic resource. The Energy Journal, 77-98. point. Bocking, S. (2011). Our wicked addiction. Alternatives Major Canadian/U.S. pipelines and water bodies Journal, 37(5), 17-19. Brower, D. (2010). Enbridge oil leak seeps into debate about Canada’s exports to the US. Petroleum Economist, 1-2. Retrieved from http://www.petroleum-economist.com/ Article/2731040/Enbridge-oil-leak-seeps-into- debate-about--exports-to-the-US.html Chalaturnyk, R, Scott, J., & Ozum, B. (2002). Management of oil sands tailings. Petroleum Science and Technology, 20(9-10), 1025-1046.

Congressional Research Service. (2011, August 29). Keystone XL pipeline project: Key issues (Report No. 7-5700, R41668). Retrieved from http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41668.pdf Ferguson, G., Rudolph, D., & Barker, J. (2009). Hydrodynamics of a large oil sands tailings impoundment and related environmental implications. (2009). Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 46, 1446-1460. Gray, M., Xu, Z., & Masliyah, J. (2009, March). Physics in the oil sands of Alberta. Physics Today, 31-35. Guarino, M. (2011, November 10). How the Keystone XL pipeline would help the US, and why some oppose Figure 1 Source: http://switchboard.nrdc.org/blogs/lizbb/ it. Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved from http:// the_keystone_xl_tar_sands_pipe.html www.csmonitor.com

Tar sands development is moving full steam ahead, Kasoff, M. (2007). East meets West in the Canadian oil sands. American Review of Canadian Studies, 177- and unless the price of fossil fuels drops precipitously it 183. seems nothing short of an epic miracle (or disaster) will stop its progress, or progress of the Keystone XL pipeline. Natural Resources Defense Council, National Wildlife This means energy security for the U.S., and considering Federation, Pipeline Safety Trust, Sierra Club. that China will buy every drop the U.S. rejects, the issue (2011, February). Tar sands pipelines safety risks. Retrieved from http://www.sierraclub.org/dirtyfuels/ becomes even more politicized. Tar sands – is just about downloads/2011-02-safety.pdf everything about it dirty? Yes. Will that fact change or halt or do anything to stop its production? No. With new Nikiforuk, A. (2011). The devil’s tears [Review of the technologies petroleum is here to stay, at least for a while book Ethical oil: The case for Canada’s oil sands, by longer, and from an economic and security standpoint E. Levant]. Alternatives Journal, 37(3), 15-16. the U.S. would be foolish to not benefit from Canada’s Pasqualetti, M. (2009). The Alberta oil sands from both resource. sides of the border. Geographical Review, 99(2), 248-267. 16 University of Hawai‘i at Hilo · Hawai‘i Community College HOHONU 2012 Vol. 10

Ruby, C. (2010). [Review of the book Tar sands: Dirty oil and the future of a continent, by A. Nikiforuk]. Alternatives Journal, 36(3), 28. Schindler, D. (2010). Tar sands needs solid science. Nature, 468, 499-501 Sherrington, M. (2005, March). Biodiversity assessment in the oil sands region, northeastern Alberta, Canada. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 73-81. Tenenbaum, D. (2009). Oil sands development. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(4), 151-156. Timoney, K. & Ronconi, R. (2010). Annual bird mortality in the bitumen tailings ponds in northeastern Alberta, Canada. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 122(3), 569-576. Weinhold, B. (2011). Alberta’s oil sands. Environmental Health Perspectives, 199(3), 126-131.

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