Social Education 79(5), pp 244–249 ©2015 National Council for the Social Studies The 1915 U.S. Invasion of : Examining a Treaty of Occupation

Jennifer Bauduy

One hundred years ago this past summer, the fear of debt default to take control U.S. had taken over and completed in President Woodrow Wilson ordered U.S. of the National Bank of Haiti, which 1914. In fact, the United States had an Marines to invade Haiti. The ensuing served as the treasury and held the gov- ongoing interest in establishing its own occupation lasted 19 years. ernment’s funds. naval base in Haiti’s northern port of The United States had had a rocky Six months before the invasion, Môle Saint-Nicholas (right across from relationship with Haiti ever since the Marines had disembarked in Haiti and Cuba’s Guantanamo Bay). former slave colony revolted against removed the equivalent in today’s terms Backed by the Monroe Doctrine France and won independence in 1804, of $11 million in gold from the National (established by President James Monroe the only nation founded by a slave Bank of Haiti and transferred it to the in 1823)—that the United States would rebellion. Initially, the United States National City Bank of New York, on the not tolerate Europe’s interference in the refused to recognize the new nation, grounds that the funds might be needed Western Hemisphere6 —and a Jim Crow and Southern slaveholders, fearing a to pay back U.S. bankers.3 perception that freed blacks could not similar rebellion, pushed for a trade The move gave the United States govern themselves, the United States embargo. However, by the turn of the considerable control over the Haitian landed in Haiti on July 28, 1915, follow- twentieth century, America had replaced government. Business leaders pressured ing the killing of the president, and had France as Haiti’s chief trading partner, President Wilson to get control of Haiti’s imposed an election within weeks.7 By and American interests, specifically in customs houses, the main source of September, the United States presented agriculture and infrastructure, increased Haiti’s revenue. Wall Street mogul Roger Haiti with a treaty—the Treaty Between significantly. These powerful business L. Farnham, at the same time vice presi- the United States and Haiti (Articles interests drove U.S. policy and ultimately dent of the National City Bank of New I-XIII of which are featured on pp.246– forced the invasion. York, vice president of the National 247)—which concluded the active inva- A struggling economic situation and Bank of Haiti, and president of Haiti’s sion and launched a two-decade occupa- political uprisings, sometimes fueled by railway system, played a prominent role tion.8 The treaty gave the United States foreign governments (British, German, in pushing for the invasion. With so total power over Haiti’s financial system or French), had created continuous much financial interest and experience in through the customs houses and the state instability in Haiti. Additionally, Haiti the country, Farnham had become a key treasury, authorized the U.S. to create had taken out costly loans from many Wilson administration advisor on Haiti.4 a new Haitian military, and prohibited countries, which sent the country spiral- During the same period, World War I Haiti from selling or renting territory to ing further into debt. Two especially sig- was raging in Europe, and German influ- another foreign power. nificant loans were from French banks— ence in Haiti had been making Wilson The State Department’s Office of the one to pay back an indemnity France had uneasy. German merchants had inte- Historian offers a candid account of the demanded for loss of land and slaves grated into Haitian society more than 1915-1934 occupation and describes the after the colony broke free, and a second their American counterparts, often mar- U.S.-Haiti treaty as follows: loan to pay back the excessive commis- rying into Haitian families and therefore The articles of this agreement sions of the first.1 In 1914–15, 80 percent circumventing a law that forbade foreign created the Haitian Gendar- of Haiti’s government revenue was spent ownership of land.5 Wilson feared that merie, essentially a military force on debt service.2 Although Haiti contin- Germany might try to establish a military made up of U.S. citizens and ued to pay its debts, U.S. bankers used base near the Panama Canal, which the Haitians and controlled by the

Social Education 244 U.S. Marines. The United States gained complete control over Haitian finances, and the right to intervene in Haiti whenever the U.S. government deemed neces- sary. The U.S. government also

forced the election of a new pro- / AP Images) Bettmann/Corbis (Copyright American president, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, by the Hai- tian legislature in August 1915. The selection of a president that did not represent the choice of the Haitian populace increased unrest in Haiti.9

Pockets of resistance to the U.S. occupation sprang up throughout the country, and thousands of Haitians lost their lives fighting against the Marines. Charlemagne Péralte, who had been a U.S. Marines and Haitian soldiers are posted outside the gates of the presidential palace in Port-au- Haitian army commander, led the Cacos Prince, Haiti, October 7, 1915, two months into a 19-year U.S. occupation. anti-occupation forces and became the most famous and admired leader. His forces posed a considerable threat to the U.S. Marines, who planned and car- ried out his assassination in 1919. The Marines carried Péralte’s dead body through town and later tied his body to a door, stripped bare except for a loin- / AP Images) Bettmann/Corbis (Copyright cloth, and placed it on display at a police station. His body was photographed by a Marine photographer and hundreds of copies of the picture were dropped from a plane above areas considered supportive of Cacos.10 The Marines unwittingly provided Haiti with an iconic photograph that served to cement Charlemagne Péralte’s position as a great martyr in Haitian history. A U.S. Marine poses surrounded by casualties of a battle with Haitian resistance fighters, October 11, The invasion of Haiti was one of a 1915. series of U.S. interventions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen- established for the United States the extension came with Theodore tury that were spurred by American Western Hemisphere as its domain, had Roosevelt’s Corollary, which business interests, specifically of the been further strengthened in 1904 by inverted the original meaning United Fruit Company, which had President Theodore Roosevelt’s “Big of the doctrine and came to jus- heavy investments in the production Stick” policy. tify unilateral U.S. intervention in of bananas, tobacco, and sugar. The Latin America.11 United States seized Cuba and Puerto By the mid-1800s, Monroe’s dec- Rico from Spain in 1898, and in the laration, combined with ideas In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt tried to next decades intervened in Panama, of Manifest Destiny, provided bring an end to this period of American Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, and the precedent and support for U.S. militarism with his Good Neighbor Dominican Republic. expansion on the American con- The Monroe Doctrine, which had tinent…. The doctrine’s greatest continued on page 248

October 2015 245 line to receive the benefits? receive line to for centuries.for debt did What might the General Receiver might the General Receiver Haiti owe? To whom? To Haiti owe? Second? Third? European nations had nations had European need? in such be involved need to aid and protection? in Haitian citizensare first What “aid” and “protection” and “protection” “aid” What States might the United Why When is at hand, wealth extracted wealth from Haiti extracted from wealth HANDOUT https://archive.org/details/treatywithhaiti00pomegoog https://archive.org/details/treatywithhaiti00pomegoog for France until the Haitian France for imports. the Financial Advisor … Advisor the Financial the U.S. would be managing be managing would the U.S. wealth. that ments. Haitian president) names the Haiti generated wealth great - other with govern relations generated by exportsgenerated by and Revolution in 1804. Now, Now, in 1804. Revolution agreed (see verb at end). (see verb agreed who will manage Haiti’s Haiti’s manage who will who “receives” the money who “receives” General Receiver… General Receiver… The U.S. president names The U.S. The U.S. president (not the The U.S. economy and by extension and by economy All of these people have All of these people have . (Pages 1–2 of this 1915 treaty, not featured here, include a title page and a page stamped with the date of printing by the Washington Washington the of printing by include a title page and stamped with the date here, not featured 1–2 of this 1915 treaty, . (Pages his or (e.g., her government the outset of this contract? taketo action of on behalf set a tone of friendlinessset a tone at Note the use of terms such asNote an ). Why would the U.S. want to to want the U.S. would Why the management would Why of money be listed as theof money top be listed concern? whodiplomat is authorized A “plenipotentiary” is a “amity” and “cordial.” and “cordial.” “amity” https://archive.org/ at the United States and Haiti: Finances, Economic Development and Tranquility of Haiti, which is in English and French, can be accessed at at can be accessed of Haiti, which is in English and French, Tranquility and Development Economic and Haiti: Finances, States the United Government Printing Office.) Printing Government or search “Treaty with Haiti” The highlights in the left column and the annotations in the right column of each page of the document have been added to enhance class discussion. The complete document, Treaty Between Treaty document, complete The class discussion. enhance been added to have of each page the document in the left in the right column highlights and the annotations column The Social Education 246 - territory in Haiti? treaty? treaty? Is this treaty helping to helping this to treaty Is seems concerned about Here, the United States the United Here, independence. In Haiti’s Haiti? pendence this supported by what ways is Haitian inde what ways Why is the United States is the United Why concerned about another country or renting buying establish democracyestablish in - lishing a colonial army? lishing In this case, “revenues” In this case, “revenues” States estab the United Is means “taxes.” How are the are How means “taxes.” power do theypower have? citizens of Haiti represent - ed in this What process? - lations on financial matters. lations on financial like a lot, but it represents like lary Haitians, cost also will foreign power (the U.S.). (the U.S.). power foreign Haiti will not control its not control Haiti will Marines. Maintaining the constabu - Five percent may not sound not sound percent may Five an army of Haitians who an army trained, armed,are and taxa huge a on Haiti by the and beyond five above percent. The “constabulary” is The “constabulary” own finances or foreign re finances foreign own or commanded by the U.S. the U.S. by commanded

October 2015 247 Policy, stating, “The definite policy dominance over Haiti’s economy, and edition, 1995), 43. 3. Dubois, 204; Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of the United States from now on is structures had been well established to of State, “U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, one opposed to armed intervention.”12 guarantee U.S. hegemony in Haiti for the 1915–1934” (https://history.state.gov/milestones/ 13 1914-1920/haiti). Uprisings and strikes in Haiti, combined foreseeable future. 4. Hans Schmidt, Maverick Marine, General Smedley with the proclaimed new ideology to Notes D. Butler and the Contradictions of American respect the rights of others, precipitated 1. Laurent Dubois, Haiti: The Aftershocks of Military History (Lexington: The University Press of History (New York: Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt Kentucky, 1987), 82. See also James Weldon Johnson, the end of the U.S. occupation in 1934. and Co., 2012), 175. “Self-Determining Haiti,” The Nation (August 28, But as historian Alex Dupuy points out, 2. Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of 1920): 25, www.thenation.com/article/self-deter there was no longer a threat of European Haiti, 1915–1934 (Rutgers University Press; Reprint mining-haiti/.

In the Classroom: Analyzing the U.S.-Haiti Treaty of 1915 Briefly review and establish the context with the class of the Monroe Doctrine and (Theodore) Roosevelt’s Corollary, which validated U.S. intervention in Latin America in the early twentieth century. Discuss the unfolding circumstances of the U.S. invasion of Haiti 100 years ago, possibly projecting the timeline on a white board. Once the historical context and circumstances have been established, distribute copies of the Treaty Between the United States and Haiti of 1915 (Handout) to launch classroom discussion. Synopsis of the Treaty • Articles I-IX give the United States complete control of Haiti’s finances through the customs houses and the state treasury. • Article X authorizes the United States to create a new military (constabulary) to replace Haiti’s existing army. • Article XI prohibits Haiti from selling or renting territory to another foreign power or entering into any contract with any foreign power that might “impair” the independence of Haiti. • Article XIV (not featured in the Handout) states “…the United States will lend an efficient aid for the preservation of Haitian Indepen- dence and the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property and individual liberty.”

The complete treaty can be accessed at https://archive.org/details/treatywithhaiti00pomegoog.

From Independence The U.S. Occupation Two government ministers • October 1919—U.S. Marines to Occupation at a Glance resign in protest. William Button and Herman • July 27, 1915—Haitian Hanneken assassinate resis- • 1804—Haiti wins indepen- President Vilbrun Guillaume • May 3, 1916—The treaty is tance leader Charlemagne dence from France after a Sam is killed by an angry formally ratified in Washing- Péralte. revolt that began in 1791. crowd after he ordered the ton. President Thomas Jefferson execution of 167 political • 1929—Strikes and protests refuses to recognize Haiti. • 1917—The Wilson admin- prisoners. against U.S. occupation in- istration pushes for a new crease in Haiti. • 1806—The United States • July 28, 1915—U.S. Presi- Haitian constitution that places a trade embargo dent Woodrow Wilson allows foreigners to buy • December 1929—Marines against Haiti. orders Marines to invade land (outlawed since inde- fire on a crowd of 1,500 dem- pendence from France). The onstrating in the town of Les • 1862—During the U.S. Haiti. Haitian legislature rejects Cayes, killing 12 and wound- Civil War, the United States • August 1915—The United the new constitution. The ing 23. grants Haiti recognition. States imposes the election United States forces Haiti’s • March 4, 1933—In his in- • December 1914—U.S. Ma- of Philippe Sudré Dartigue- president to dissolve the augural address, President rines land in Haiti, remove nave as president. legislature. Franklin D. Roosevelt de- the equivalent of $11 mil- • September 3, 1915—U.S. • 1917—Haiti’s new military, clares his Good Neighbor lion of Haitian government Admiral William Caperton led by U.S. Marines, uses Policy. funds from Banque Natio- declares martial law in Haiti, forced labor (corvée) to nale d’Haiti, and transfer which remains in effect until build roads, fueling anti-oc- • August 15, 1934—American it to National City Bank of 1929. cupation resistance. troops withdraw, leaving the New York, on the grounds Haitian Armed Forces, creat- that it might be needed to • September 16, 1915— • 1918—The new Haitian con- ed and trained by U.S. Ma- pay debts to U.S. bankers. Haiti signs a treaty pre- stitution is approved. rines, in charge of Haiti. sented by the United States.

Social Education 248 5. Dubois, 207. 6. Message of President James Monroe at the Commencement of the First Session of the 18th Congress (The Monroe Doctrine), 12/02/1823; Presidential Messages of the 18th Congress, ca. 12/02/1823-ca. 03/03/1825; Record Group 46; Records of the United States , 1789–1990; National Archives, www.ourdocuments.gov. 7. Office of the Historian, “U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34” (https://history.state. gov/milestones/1914-1920/haiti). 8. The full text of the Treaty between the United States and Haiti, signed at Port-au-Prince, September 16, 1915, can be accessed at https://archive.org/details/ treatywithhaiti00pomegoog. Teaching and Learning about the 9. Office of the Historian, “U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34” (https://history.state. United States Constitution gov/milestones/1914-1920/haiti) 10. Dubois, 261. Earn your master’s degree or just take a few courses. 11. Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, • For K-12 teachers and other interested individuals “Monroe Doctrine, 1823” (https://history.state.gov/ milestones/1801-1829/monroe). • Undergraduate and graduate online courses 12. Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State, “Good Neighbor Policy, 1933” (https://history.state. • Prepare students for the Common Core State Standards in gov/milestones/1921-1936/good-neighbor). English Language Arts & Literacy in Social Studies 13. Alex Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy: Class, Race, and Underdevelopment Since 1700 (Boulder, • Teach the National Standards for Civics and Government Co.: Westview Press, 1989), 140–141 • Learn core political ideas and how to teach them Other Primary Sources Online coursework! James Weldon Johnson, “The Truth about Haiti. An 9074 NAACP Investigation,” Crisis 5 (September 1920): 217–224. History Matters, http://historymatters.gmu. VISIT global.k-state.edu/education/curriculum-and- edu/d/5018/. instruction/teaching-civics-and-government History Matters, “The People Were Very Peaceable”: The U.S. Senate Investigates the Haitian Occupation, http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/4945/. Inquiry into Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo by the United States Senate Select Committee on Haiti and Santo Domingo (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1922). United States Department of State / Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States with the Address of the President to Congress, December 8, 1914. Haiti, pp. 334-386, http://images.library.wisc. edu/FRUS/EFacs/1914/reference/frus.frus1914.i0024. pdf

Jennifer Bauduy is senior editor of Social Educa- tion. She can be reached at [email protected].

She would like to thank Steven S. Lapham, NCSS editor, for his contribution to the classroom handout.

For more information: www.hopkinshistoryofmedicine.org/online

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