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The 1915 U.S. Invasion of Haiti: Examining a Treaty of Occupation

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The 1915 U.S. Invasion of Haiti: Examining a Treaty of Occupation Social Education 79(5), pp 244–249 ©2015 National Council for the Social Studies The 1915 U.S. Invasion of Haiti: Examining a Treaty of Occupation Jennifer Bauduy One hundred years ago this past summer, the fear of debt default to take control U.S. had taken over and completed in President Woodrow Wilson ordered U.S. of the National Bank of Haiti, which 1914. In fact, the United States had an Marines to invade Haiti. The ensuing served as the treasury and held the gov- ongoing interest in establishing its own occupation lasted 19 years. ernment’s funds. naval base in Haiti’s northern port of The United States had had a rocky Six months before the invasion, Môle Saint-Nicholas (right across from relationship with Haiti ever since the Marines had disembarked in Haiti and Cuba’s Guantanamo Bay). former slave colony revolted against removed the equivalent in today’s terms Backed by the Monroe Doctrine France and won independence in 1804, of $11 million in gold from the National (established by President James Monroe the only nation founded by a slave Bank of Haiti and transferred it to the in 1823)—that the United States would rebellion. Initially, the United States National City Bank of New York, on the not tolerate Europe’s interference in the refused to recognize the new nation, grounds that the funds might be needed Western Hemisphere6 —and a Jim Crow and Southern slaveholders, fearing a to pay back U.S. bankers.3 perception that freed blacks could not similar rebellion, pushed for a trade The move gave the United States govern themselves, the United States embargo. However, by the turn of the considerable control over the Haitian landed in Haiti on July 28, 1915, follow- twentieth century, America had replaced government. Business leaders pressured ing the killing of the president, and had France as Haiti’s chief trading partner, President Wilson to get control of Haiti’s imposed an election within weeks.7 By and American interests, specifically in customs houses, the main source of September, the United States presented agriculture and infrastructure, increased Haiti’s revenue. Wall Street mogul Roger Haiti with a treaty—the Treaty Between significantly. These powerful business L. Farnham, at the same time vice presi- the United States and Haiti (Articles interests drove U.S. policy and ultimately dent of the National City Bank of New I-XIII of which are featured on pp.246– forced the invasion. York, vice president of the National 247)—which concluded the active inva- A struggling economic situation and Bank of Haiti, and president of Haiti’s sion and launched a two-decade occupa- political uprisings, sometimes fueled by railway system, played a prominent role tion.8 The treaty gave the United States foreign governments (British, German, in pushing for the invasion. With so total power over Haiti’s financial system or French), had created continuous much financial interest and experience in through the customs houses and the state instability in Haiti. Additionally, Haiti the country, Farnham had become a key treasury, authorized the U.S. to create had taken out costly loans from many Wilson administration advisor on Haiti.4 a new Haitian military, and prohibited countries, which sent the country spiral- During the same period, World War I Haiti from selling or renting territory to ing further into debt. Two especially sig- was raging in Europe, and German influ- another foreign power. nificant loans were from French banks— ence in Haiti had been making Wilson The State Department’s Office of the one to pay back an indemnity France had uneasy. German merchants had inte- Historian offers a candid account of the demanded for loss of land and slaves grated into Haitian society more than 1915-1934 occupation and describes the after the colony broke free, and a second their American counterparts, often mar- U.S.-Haiti treaty as follows: loan to pay back the excessive commis- rying into Haitian families and therefore The articles of this agreement sions of the first.1 In 1914–15, 80 percent circumventing a law that forbade foreign created the Haitian Gendar- of Haiti’s government revenue was spent ownership of land.5 Wilson feared that merie, essentially a military force on debt service.2 Although Haiti contin- Germany might try to establish a military made up of U.S. citizens and ued to pay its debts, U.S. bankers used base near the Panama Canal, which the Haitians and controlled by the Social Education 244 U.S. Marines. The United States gained complete control over Haitian finances, and the right to intervene in Haiti whenever the U.S. government deemed neces- sary. The U.S. government also forced the election of a new pro- / AP Images) Bettmann/Corbis (Copyright American president, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, by the Hai- tian legislature in August 1915. The selection of a president that did not represent the choice of the Haitian populace increased unrest in Haiti.9 Pockets of resistance to the U.S. occupation sprang up throughout the country, and thousands of Haitians lost their lives fighting against the Marines. Charlemagne Péralte, who had been a U.S. Marines and Haitian soldiers are posted outside the gates of the presidential palace in Port-au- Haitian army commander, led the Cacos Prince, Haiti, October 7, 1915, two months into a 19-year U.S. occupation. anti-occupation forces and became the most famous and admired leader. His forces posed a considerable threat to the U.S. Marines, who planned and car- ried out his assassination in 1919. The Marines carried Péralte’s dead body through town and later tied his body to a door, stripped bare except for a loin- / AP Images) Bettmann/Corbis (Copyright cloth, and placed it on display at a police station. His body was photographed by a Marine photographer and hundreds of copies of the picture were dropped from a plane above areas considered supportive of Cacos.10 The Marines unwittingly provided Haiti with an iconic photograph that served to cement Charlemagne Péralte’s position as a great martyr in Haitian history. A U.S. Marine poses surrounded by casualties of a battle with Haitian resistance fighters, October 11, The invasion of Haiti was one of a 1915. series of U.S. interventions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen- established for the United States the extension came with Theodore tury that were spurred by American Western Hemisphere as its domain, had Roosevelt’s Corollary, which business interests, specifically of the been further strengthened in 1904 by inverted the original meaning United Fruit Company, which had President Theodore Roosevelt’s “Big of the doctrine and came to jus- heavy investments in the production Stick” policy. tify unilateral U.S. intervention in of bananas, tobacco, and sugar. The Latin America.11 United States seized Cuba and Puerto By the mid-1800s, Monroe’s dec- Rico from Spain in 1898, and in the laration, combined with ideas In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt tried to next decades intervened in Panama, of Manifest Destiny, provided bring an end to this period of American Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, and the precedent and support for U.S. militarism with his Good Neighbor Dominican Republic. expansion on the American con- The Monroe Doctrine, which had tinent…. The doctrine’s greatest continued on page 248 October 2015 245 HANDOUT All of these people have agreed (see verb at end). Haiti generated great wealth What “aid” and “protection” for France until the Haitian might the General Receiver Revolution in 1804. Now, need? the U.S. would be managing Note the use of terms such as that wealth. Why might the United States 246 “amity” and “cordial.” need to be involved in such Why would the U.S. want to aid and protection? set a tone of friendliness at The U.S. president (not the the outset of this contract? Haitian president) names the General Receiver… European nations had who “receives” the money extracted wealth from Haiti Why would the management generated by exports and for centuries. What debt did of money be listed as the top imports. concern? Haiti owe? To whom? The U.S. president names A “plenipotentiary” is a When wealth is at hand, the Financial Advisor … diplomat who is authorized are Haitian citizens first in to take action on behalf of who will manage Haiti’s line to receive the benefits? his or her government (e.g., economy and by extension Second? Third? an ambassador). relations with other govern- ments. The highlights in the left column and the annotations in the right column of each page of the document have been added to enhance class discussion. The complete document, Treaty Between the United States and Haiti: Finances, Economic Development and Tranquility of Haiti, which is in English and French, can be accessed at https://archive.org/details/treatywithhaiti00pomegoog or search “Treaty with Haiti” at https://archive.org/. (Pages 1–2 of this 1915 treaty, not featured here, include a title page and a page stamped with the date of printing by the Washington Government Printing Office.) Social Education The “constabulary” is Why is the United States an army of Haitians who concerned about another are trained, armed, and country buying or renting commanded by the U.S. territory in Haiti? Marines. Here, the United States seems concerned about In this case, “revenues” Haiti’s independence. In means “taxes.” How are the Five percent may not sound what ways is Haitian inde- citizens of Haiti represent- like a lot, but it represents pendence supported by this ed in this process? What a huge tax on Haiti by a treaty? power do they have? foreign power (the U.S.).
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