Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in ’s “Last Judgment” Habent sua fata libelli

SIXTEENTH CENTURY ESSAYS &STUDIES SERIES

General Editor RAYMON D A. MENTZER Montana State University—Bozeman

EDITORIAL BOARD OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY ESSAYS &STUDIES

ELAINE BEILIN MARY B. MCKINLEY Framingham State College University of Virginia

MIRIAM USHER CHRISMAN HELEN NADER University of Massachusetts—Amherst University of Arizona

BARBARA B. DIEFENDORF CHARLES G. NAUERT Boston University University of Missiouri, Colmubia

PAULA FINDLEN THEODORE K. RABB Stanford University Princeton University

SCOTT H.HENDRIX MAX REINHART Princeton Theological Seminary University of Georgia

JANE CAMPBELL HUTCHISON JOHN D. ROTH University of Wisconsin—Madison Goshen College

CHRISTIANE JOOST-GAUGIER ROBERT V. S CHNUCKER University of New Mexico Truman State University, emeritus

ROBERT M. KINGDON NICHOLAS TERPSTRA University of Wisconsin, Emeritus University of Toronto

ROGER MANNING MERRY WIESNER-HANKS Cleveland State University University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

Copyright © 2000 Truman State University Press, Kirksville, MO 63501 www2.truman.edu/tsup All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Shrimplin, Valerie Sun-symbolism and cosmology in Michelangelo’s Last Judgment / by Valerie Shrimplin. p. cm. — (Sixteenth century essays & studies ; v. 46) Based on the author’s thesis (doctoral—University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1991). Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-943549-65-5 (Alk. paper) 1. Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475–1564. Last Judgment. 2. Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475–1564 Themes, motives. 3. Cosmology in art. 4. Symbolism in art. 5. Judgment Day in art. I. Title. II. Series. ND623.B9 A69 2000 759.5—dc 21 98-006646 CIP

Cover: Teresa Wheeler, Truman State University designer Composition: BookComp, Inc. Printing: Sheridan Books Body text: Berkeley Display type: Morticia

No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any format by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording or by an information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

⅜ϱ The paper in this publication meets or exceeds the minimum requirements of the American National Standard—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48 (1984). Photo Credits

Figs. 1, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, Fig. 70, RIBA. 62, 63, 112, 113, 114, 124. Monumenti e Fig. 82, Staatliche Graphische Sammlung, Gallerie Pontificie, Citta` del Vaticano. Munich. Fig. 2, Houghton Library, Harvard University. Figs. 87, 89, British Museum. Figs. 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 29, 30, 31, Fig. 89, Royal Library, Windsor Castle, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 46, reproduced by permission of Her Majesty 47, 48, 63, 66, 70, 72, 73, 75, 81, 83, 87, the Queen. 107, 112, 117, 118. Alinari/Art Resource, New York. Fig. 91, Barry Moser/University of California Press. Fig. 6, Bayerisches National Museum. Fig. 97, Biblioteca Trivulziana/Foto Saporetti Fig. 7, Prado, Madrid. Milan. Figs. 14, 15, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. Figs. 98, 103, 104, 105, 107, Bildarchiv Figs. 16, 65, 78, 95, Biblioteque Nationale de Preussischer Kulturbesitz Berlin. France. Fig. 99, Biblioteca nationale /Donato Fig. 17, Herzong Library, Wolfenbuttel. Pineider, Florence. Figs. 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 68, Giraudon, Paris. Figs. 101, 102, 106, 108, British Library. Fig. 25, Katy Shrimplin. Fig. 117, Kunshistorisches Museum, Vienna. Figs. 27, 81, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Fig. 116, Courtesy of Museum of the Jagiellonian University, Kracow. Photo by Janusz Fig. 41, Pinacoteca, Bologna. Kozina, 1992. Figs, 42, 69, 84, 118, Bayer, Staatgemaldesam- Figs. 119, 120, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, melugen, Munich. Munich. Fig. 46, Chapin Library, Williams College, Mass. Fig. 125, Huntington Library, San Marino, Fig. 50, Doucet, S.P.A.D.E.M. California. Figs. 51, 52, 126, 127, Valerie Shrimplin. Contents

Illustrations ix Preface xiii

1 Introduction 1 2 Theology, Cosmology, and Christian Iconography 11 Cosmology and Religion 11 Cosmology and Christian Iconography 13 Cosmology and the Last Judgment 18 The Meaning of the Last Judgment 24

3 Iconography of the Last Judgment 39 Origins and Early Examples 39 The Last Judgment in Northern Europe 47 The Last Judgment in the Italian Renaissance 55 Influence of Changes in Cosmology 70

4 Michelangelo’s Last Judgment 79 The Commission of the Last Judgment 79 Formal Analysis 80 Previous Interpretations 96 Twentieth-Century Criticism 104 Current State of Research 111

5 Religious Sources 129 Christian Light Symbolism 129 Michelangelo and Catholic Revival of Early Christian Ideas 134 Michelangelo and Early Christian Iconography 138 Continuation of the Sun-Christ Tradition 147

6 Literary Sources 169 Italian Renaissance Literature 169 The Divina Commedia of Dante Alighieri 170 Visual Images 171 Dante’s Cosmology 173 Sun-Symbolism and Cosmology in Dante 178 Michelangelo and Vittoria Colonna 195

7 Philosophical Sources 211 Florentine Neoplatonism 211 Michelangelo and Neoplatonism 213 Neoplatonic Themes 215 Ficino’s Cosmology 219 Michelangelo’s Hell and Plato’s Cave 228 Other Philosophical Sources; the Hermetic Writings. 232 Christian Neoplatonism 237

8 Scientific Sources 251 The Importance of Copernicus 251 Tolnay, Copernicus, and Michelangelo 252 The Waning of Medieval Cosmology 253 Renaissance Predecessor of Copernicus 255 Neoplatonic Influences on Copernicus 256 Copernicus and His Writings 258 Copernicus in Art 260 Reaction of the Church 263 Clement VII and the Vatican Lecture 266 Paul III and the Heresy Question 270

9 The Central Point 287 Art Historical Method 287 The Centralized Format Around Christ 288 Fresco Construction—Formal and Iconological 290 The Symbolism of Revelation 19:16 298

10 New Hypotheses 307 Art Historical Interpretation 307 Hypothesis or Truth? 310 A Valid Framework 311 Appendix 1 Selected Versions of the Last Judgment 321 Appendix 2 Important Dates 325 Appendix 3 Letter of Nicholas Schönberg 327 Appendix 4 Copernicus’ Preface to De Revolutionibus 328 Bibliography 331 Index 361 Illustrations

1. Michelangelo, Last Judgment 2 2. Copernicus, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Houghton Library, Harvard University 3 3. Sistine Chapel, interior, looking toward the altar 4 4. Sistine Chapel, reconstruction of its fifteenth-century appearance 14 5. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna 15 6. Resurrection of Christ, fifth century 16 7. Zanobbi Strozzi (or ), Annunciation 17 8. Andrea Verrochio, Baptism of Christ 17 9. Unknown Sicilian-Byzantine artist, God Creating the Universe 18 10. Christ Enthroned on the Sphere of the Universe 19 11. Theophany 19 12. Joshua Stopping the Sun 20 13. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography 41 14. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography 42 15. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Last Judgment 42 16. Sacra Parallela 44 17. Last Judgment, 1194 44 18. Last Judgment, 1110 45 19. Last Judgment, 1072–87 46 20. Last Judgment, twelfth century 47 21. Last Judgment, twelfth century 48 22. Last Judgment, 1130–1140 49 23. Last Judgment, c. 1140 50 24. Last Judgment, 1135–1140 50 25. Last Judgment, 1163–1250 51 26. Last Judgment, 1230–1265 51 27. , Last Judgment 54 28. Rogier van der Weyden, Last Judgment 54 29. Giovanni Pisano, Last Judgment 56

ix [ x ] Illustrations

30. Last Judgment, before 1246 57 31. Lorenzo Maitani, Last Judgment 58 32. Pietro Cavallini, Last Judgment 58 33. Coppo di Marcovaldo (attributed), Last Judgment 59 34. Detail of fig. 33, Christ in Judgment 60 35. Cimabue, Last Judgment 60 36. Giotto, Last Judgment 61 37. Nardo di Cione, Paradise 64 38. Nardo di Cione, Hell 64 39. Andrea Orcagna, Last Judgment 65 40. Francesco Traini, Last Judgment 65 41. Unknown Bolognese artist, Last Judgment 66 42. Master of the Bambino Vispo or Gherardo Starnina, Last Judgment 66 43. Fra Angelico, Last Judgment 67 44. Fra Angelico (otherwise attributed to Zanobi Strozzi), Last Judgment 68 45. Fra Bartolommeo, Last Judgment 68 46. Illustration to Savonarola, Predica dell’arte del ben morire 70 47. Luca Signorelli, Resurrection of the Dead 71 48. Luca Signorelli, The Damned 71 49. Michelangelo, Sketch for the Composition of the Last Judgment 82 50. Michelangelo, Study for the Last Judgment 83 51. Michelangelo, Last Judgment, schematic diagram (with circles) 84 52. Michelangelo, Last Judgment, schematic diagram (with diagonal rays) 86 53. Detail, inner circle of figures, Christ the Judge and the Virgin, with Saint , Saint Peter, with other apostles, saints, and the saved 87 54. Detail, Christ 88 55. Detail, Saint John the Baptist 89 56. Detail, Saint Peter 90 57. Detail, Saints Lawrence and Bartholomew 90 58. Detail, outer circle of figures 92 59. Detail, the left lunette (showing the cross) 93 60. Detail, the right lunette (showing the column) 93 61. Detail, group of trumpeting angels 94 62. Detail, group of rising figures 94 63. Detail, group of falling figures 95 64. Marcello Venusti, copy of the Last Judgment of Michelangelo 98 65. Martinus Rota, copy of the Last Judgment of Michelangelo 99 66. Jacopo , study for Christ in Glory 100 67. , Last Judgment 101 68. Jacopo , Paradiso 101 69. , Last Judgment 102 70. Detail from a plan of the Vatican 132 71. The Good Shepherd, detail 140 72. Christ in Majesty 141 Illustrations [ xi ]

73. The Raising of Lazarus 142 74. Christ as the Sun-God 144 75. Abraham and Three Celestial Visitors 144 76. Unknown Syrian artist, Crucifixion 145 77. Christ enthroned as Master of the Universe, detail from the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus 146 78. Christ in Majesty 148 79. The Creation and Fall of Man, Pantheon Bible 149 80. Christ the Saviour, thirteenth century 150 81. Albrecht Durer,¨ Sol Iustitiae or The Judge 151 82. Albrecht Durer,¨ St John devouring the Book 151 83. Andrea del Castagno, Resurrection 152 84. Sandro Botticelli, Lamentation 153 85. Sandro Botticelli, Transfiguration 153 86. , Trigram and Solar Symbol 154 87. Michelangelo, Resurrection of Christ 155 88. Michelangelo, Resurrection of Christ 156 89. Michelangelo, Crucifixion (for Vittoria Colonna) 156 90. Domenico di Francesco (called Michelino), Dante and his Poem 172 91. Modern Diagram of Dante’s system of the Universe, drawn by Barry Moser 174 92. Modern Diagram of Dante’s system of the Universe (Provenzal) 175 93. Diagram of the Cosmos 177 94. Dante Confronts the Three Beasts in the Dark Wood 180 95. Bartolommeo di Fruosino, Topography of Hell 181 96. Charon ferries Dante, Virgil and Some Souls across Acheron, illustration to Inferno III 182 97. Minos, illustration to Inferno V 182 98. Sandro Botticelli, Lucifer, illustration to Inferno XXXIC 183 99. Topography of Hell, schematic diagram of Dante’s Inferno and Purgatorio 184 100. Dante before Beatrice, who points to the Stars and the Sun, illustration to Purgatorio XXXIII, North Italian, 1456 185 101. Giovanni di Paolo, Beatrice and Dante hover beside the Heaven of the Sun, illustration to Paradiso X 186 102. Giovanni di Paolo, Beatrice and Dante hover beside a circle of stars surrounding Christ, illustration to Paradiso X 188 103. Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXIII 188 104. Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXIV 189 105. Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXVI 189 106. Giovanni di Paolo, Beatrice and Dante hover before Christ within the Heaven of the Primum Mobile 191 107. Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXVII, detail 192 108. Giovanni di Paolo, Heaven of the Primum Mobile, with God in the Centre 193 109. Pietro Buonaccorsi, Diagram of Paradiso,fromIl cammino di Dante, Florentine 194 110. Domenico Ghirlandaio, Ficino, Landino and Poliziano. Fresco, detail from Scenes in the Life of John the Baptist 212 111. , School of Athens 218 [ xii ] Illustrations

112. Detail, rear of nude figure in the Cave 230 113. Detail, figures emerging from the Cave 230 114. Detail, altar of the Sistine Chapel, in front of the Cave 231 115. Unknown Sienese master, Hermes Trismegistus 235 116. Anonymous, Portrait of Nicholas Copernicus 261 117. Giorgione, Three Philosophers 261 118. Albrecht Altdorer, The Battle of Alexandeer 262 119. Codex Graecus Monacensis 151, title page showing inscription 267 120. Codex Graecus Monacensis 151, detail 268 121. Domenico Ghirlandaio, The Confirmation of the Rule of Saint Francis 293 122. , The Last Supper 294 123. Raphael, Disputa (Disputation over the Sacrament) 295 124. Michelangelo’s Last Judgment, detail of Christ’s thigh 297 125. Gregor Reisch, Margarita Philosophica, detail, The Human Body and Signs of the Zodiac 299 126. Florence Palazzo della signoria 301 127. Photographic study of sun and cloud effects 313 Preface

Michelangelo has imitated those great philosophers who hid the greatest mysteries of human and divine philosophy under a veil of poetry that they might not be understood by the vulgar. Pietro Aretino on Michelangelo’s Last Judgment

Contemporary comment by Pietro Aretino on Michelangelo’s fresco of the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel indicates an awareness of hidden symbolic meaning in the fresco soon after its completion and unveiling in 1541. Explanation of the “most profound allegorical meanings, understood by few” and the identification and importance of biblical and literary sources which Michelangelo might have used for the Last Judgment continue to provoke discussion as further attention is focused on the fresco since its cleaning and restoration in the early 1990s. The question remains as to whether the hidden symbolism of the fresco and the meaning of its thematic deviations from the norms of Last Judgment iconography might ever be fathomed by anyone except the artist—and especially at a distance of more than four hundred fifty years. Problems of art historical interpretation are concerned with the innate meaning of a work in the context of its time and place of creation. Difficulties arise as the attempt is made to determine the intention of the artist and the possible underlying meaning in the work by an elaborate reconstruction of the sources and influences which had contemporary significance and which might have contributed to the formation of his thinking. No single source of religious, philosophical, or cultural influence may be argued for Michelangelo’s Sistine Last Judgment, but the attempt can be made to consider the broad spectrum of the complex prevailing theories and ideas of his age which contributed to the multilayered intention of the fresco’s final program.

xiii [ xiv ] Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment”

An interdisciplinary approach to the art historical problem of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment can shed new light on the work in question and increase our understanding of the artist himself. Meaning derives from the historical or intellectual context from which a work emanates. However, as , Ernst H. Gombrich, and others have pointed out, it is important to remain wary of reading too much into a work or of forcing it into a predetermined scheme. The writer should always consider the extent to which the interpretation is in keeping with the known personality and tendencies of the master, and also remain aware of the difference between what may be regarded as hypothesis and what may be regarded as truth. On the other hand, is unwise to accept unquestioningly traditional interpretations of famous works and simply reiterate the usual platitudes. After examining the background to Last Judgment iconography in general and the existing interpretations of Michelangelo’s fresco in particular, consideration is given to the sources—religious, literary, and philosophical, for instance—which likely contributed to the final program of the work. A major problem with this approach (which is broadly concerned with the history of ideas as much as the history of art itself) is that each section or chapter of this book easily could be developed into a separate volume. As the discussion ventures into other disciplines, the attempt is made to be as thorough as possible within the constraints of a single work in order to demonstrate the ubiquity of the concepts and motifs being examined. The main viewpoint remains that of an art historian rather than theologian, historian, philosopher, or still less a scientist; but an interdisciplinary, sixteenth-century outlook has been assumed as far as this is possible.

This work is based on my doctoral thesis (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1991) which was supervised by Professor Elizabeth Rankin, whose helpful criticism and suggestions are gratefully acknowledged. I am also particularly indebted to a number of anonymous readers and referees who provided valuable comment and suggestions as the work progressed, and to those who helped see the work through to publication, particularly Professor Charles G. Nauert and Professor Robert V.Schnucker. Assistance received from libraries, museums, and art galleries in Rome, Florence, London, Cambridge, Munich, and Bayonne as well as in Pretoria and Johannesburg is also acknowledged. I am particularly grateful to the Vatican authorities for cooperation in providing illustrations for the work and for enabling me to visit the Sistine Chapel and view the restorations from the scaffolding in March 1989 (before the submission of my thesis) and again in July 1993, when the Last Judgment was undergoing cleaning and restoration. I should also like to acknowledge discussion of my ideas held with the late Dr. Fabrizio Mancinelli as the fresco underwent Preface [ xv ] the cleaning and restoration process. Financial assistance in the form of research grants from the University of the Witwatersrand, the South African Human Sciences Research Council, the University of Luton, and the Dr. M. Aylwin Cotton Foundation all helped to make this work possible. Special thanks are due to Dr. E. A. Evangelidis and to my children, Anna and Aleko. Chapter 1

Introduction

In the midst of all assuredly dwells the Sun. For in this most beautiful temple who would place this luminary in any other or better position from which he can illuminate the whole at once? Indeed, some rightly call Him the Light of the World, others, the Mind or the Ruler of the Universe: Hermes Trismegistus names him the visible God, Sophocles’ Electra calls him the all-seeing. So indeed the Sun remains, as if in his kingly dominion, governing the family of Heavenly bodies which circles around him. —Nicholas Copernicus De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium1

ines that seem to be descriptive of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment (fig. 1)2 were in fact written by Nicholas Copernicus in his revolutionary L heliocentric cosmology, published in 1543 (see diagram, fig. 2). The idea that Michelangelo’s equally revolutionary design for the traditional scheme of the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel (fig. 3) was an expression of the Copernican theory of the sun-centered universe was first considered by Charles de Tolnay as early as 1940.3 Commenting on the fresco’s remarkable deviation from the usual Last Judgment iconography and composition,4 Tolnay’s interpretation here concentrated upon his argument that Christ is unusually depicted in Michelangelo’s fresco in the form of the pagan sun god Apollo, in the center of a circular composition. He is situated as if “in the center of a solar system . . . in the unlimited space of the universe.”5 In the final paragraph of his paper, Tolnay suggests that the cosmic scheme seems to form an analogy with Copernicus’ theory of heliocentricity in which the sun, rather than the earth, was situated in the center of the universe. It seemed to Tolnay that Michelangelo, in placing Christ in

1 [ 2 ] Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment”

1 Michelangelo, Last Judgment (1536–41). Fresco (13.7 x 12.2 m), Sistine Chapel, Vatican City Rome. This and all other details of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment (figs. 51–63, 112–13, and 124) have been reproduced from photographic material supplied by Monumenti e Gallerie Pontificie, Città del Vaticano. Introduction [ 3 ]

2 Copernicus, De Revolu- tionibus Orbium Coelestium, book 1, chapter 10, in its printed form. Houghton Library, Harvard University

the form of a Sun-Apollo in the center of a “macrocosmic” view of the universe, had arrived in his own way at a vision of the universe which “curiously corresponded” to that of Copernicus. According to Tolnay, both Michelangelo and Copernicus had taken up the heliocentric hypothesis formulated in antiquity. Tolnay wrote that Michelangelo, by his representation of unlimited space in the fresco, was anticipating the concept of the infinite universe as formulated later in the sixteenth century by men like Giordano Bruno.6 Subsequently, in 19607 Tolnay developed the theme he had raised in this early paper. He again drew attention to his concept of the depiction of Christ in the form of a sun symbol and commented further on what he had [ 4 ] Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment”

3 Sistine Chapel, interior, looking towards the altar. Vatican, Rome.

viewed as a curious correspondence between Michelangelo’s vision and that of Copernicus. Tolnay expanded his hypothesis of the cosmological depiction of Christ as a sun symbol, but he now explicitly dismissed the possibility of any direct Copernican influence on Michelangelo on the grounds that the date of publication of Copernicus’ theory postdated the creation and completion of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment. In volume 5 of his definitive work on Michelangelo he wrote:

By means of the central place which Michelangelo reserved in his composition for the Sun (Christ-Apollo) whose magic power determines the unity and the movement of his macrocosmos, the artist came of himself to a vision of the universe which, surprisingly, corresponds to that of his contemporary Copernicus. Yet he could not have known Copernicus’ book which was published in 1543—at least seven years after Michelangelo conceived his fresco.8

In the accompanying notes, he added his conclusion that “Michelangelo’s Last Judgment is a heliocentric image of the macrocosmos anticipating Introduction [ 5 ] the Copernican universe” [italics added].9 He also commented that heliocentrism was “rejected by the official theology of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.”10 Because of the apparent discrepancy Tolnay found between the dating of Copernicus’ book and Michelangelo’s fresco, he felt forced to dismiss the idea of direct Copernican influence on Michelangelo and implied only that Michelangelo “of himself” came to the same conclusions as Copernicus and independently devised the heliocentric astronomical theory. Tolnay therefore pursued the specifically Copernican and heliocentric argument no further, but, unwilling to abandon his cosmological view of the “Sun- Christ,” he looked elsewhere for explanations and sources and proceeded to develop an alternative, complex argument for this symbolic depiction of Christ. Considering the fresco in terms of a cosmological vision, his perception of the overall composition based on circles and circular movement around a central Sun-Christ was finally related to ancient astral myths and legends derived from pagan sources but also linked to certain medieval concepts.11 Although Tolnay’s study of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment embraced many other aspects of the work,12 his interpretation of the fresco as a cosmic view of the Sun-Christ remained his predominant theme. In his later (1975) summary publication of this extensive five-volume work,13 the major stress in the interpretation of the Last Judgment is still placed on the circularity of the composition and its cosmological overtones. Describing the work as “the grandiose vision of a heliocentric universe,”14 he still appeared unwilling to dismiss the heliocentric idea as a force in the composition of the fresco; but, because of the discrepancy in dating with Copernicus’ publication, he again reverted to the astral myths of antiquity to support his cosmological interpretation.15 He gave little detailed explanation or further references for these ideas, but they are emphasized and proposed as source material for Michelangelo’s fresco in the absence, in Tolnay’s opinion, of the possibility of a more direct contemporary cosmological basis for the work. Charles de Tolnay has been recognized as “the great scholar whose work is the foundation of all modern Michelangelo scholarship,”16 and his interpretation of the Last Judgment has played a major part in the Michelangelo literature. His discussion of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment, from 1940 through to 1975, remained fundamentally cosmological, even though the possibility of any direct and concrete influence of contemporary sixteenth-century cosmology was discounted. His perception of the fresco as a cosmic drama and his assessment of the Apollonian Sun-Christ have continued to receive a great deal of attention and have exerted enormous influence on subsequent interpretations of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment. The cosmological interpretation of the fresco is extremely important since it appears to have affected the majority of art historians since the Index

Note: Illustrations are indicated by italic numerals. A of churches, 13–15, 34n19, 34n20, 73, Adoration of the Shepherds (Ghirlandaio), 132–33, 213 145 in Renaissance, 15, 291 Advent, 131 Arena Chapel, Padua, 61, 61, 83 Agathon, 225 Aretino, Pietro, 100–104, 121n51, 259, Age of Enlightenment, 13, 32, 103 272 Agnello, 112, 113, 126n134 Ariosto, Ludovico, 196 Alberti, Leon Battista, 15, 196, 291–92 Aristarchus of Samos, 254–55 Alexander of Aphrodisias, 267 Aristotle, 32, 173–78, 202n37, 216, 222– Alighieri, Dante. See Dante 23, 253–54, 258 All Saints Day, 300 Art historical method, 10n32, 287–88, All Saints Eve, 80 291–96, 307–12, 314–17 Altdofer, Albrecht, 262 Art history, 62, 105 Amiens Cathedral, 49, 52 Ascension, 16 Anabaptists, 30 Asclepius, 234 Anastasis of Christ, 16, 45–46 Assyrians, 130 Angelico, Fra, 67, 67–69, 68, 73 Astral myths, 5, 6, 106, 107, 116 Angels, 43, 52, 56, 74, 91 Astrology, 106, 226 Angiolieri, Cecco, 229 Astronomy Annunciation, 16 and comets, 268 Apocalypse, 22–23, 29–30, 35n30, 45, 53, and Copernicus, 238, 252, 259–60, 264, 97, 129–30, 148–49 289, 301, 327, 329 Apollinare Nuovo, 140–41 Dante on, 72, 174, 176 Apollo heliocentric theory of, 5, 254 Christ depicted as, 1, 3, 104–5, 108–9, medieval, 178 112, 138–41, 148, 155, 225, 308 and pagan theories of, 40 compared to Christ, 1, 55, 130, 146, scientific discipline of, 6–7, 255, 275n5 149–50, 158, 219, 227 and symbolism, 15–16, 57 as pagan symbol, 106, 145–46 Augustine of Hippo as sun, 227 and Catholic doctrine, 133, 226 Apollo Belvedere, 106, 146, 157, 311 as Church Father, 174, 179, 227 Apostles, 40, 56 on circularity, 221 Aquilino, Saint, 141–42 concepts of, 12, 24, 132–34, 187, 233, Aquinas, Saint Thomas. See Thomas 288, 289 Aquinas on creation, 208n127 Archangels, 40 Neoplationism of, 133 Architecture on the universe, 178, 187, 197–99

361 [ 362 ] Index

Augustine of Hippo continued and cosmology, 12–13, 16, 20, 28–29, writings of 62, 73, 176, 177, 254–55, 264 City of God, 133 and creation, 12 Confessions, 133 and forgiveness, 20, 28, 70 Immortality of the Soul, 133 interpretation of, 11–12 Magnitude of the Soul, 133 on judgment, 21–22, 62 Aureole. See Mandorla Newman on, 21–22 Autun Cathedral, 49 and retribution, 20 and sun-symbolism, 133, 147, 154, 157–58, 179, 199 B teaching of, 133 Bainton, Roland H., 197 Bibloteca Nazionale, Florence, 183 Bandini, Baccio, 173 Birth of the Virgin (Ghirlandaio), 292 Baptism, 16 Black Death, 62–63, 315 Baptista de Cavalieri, Giovanni, 98 Blunt, Anthony, 105, 215, 216 Barnes, Bernadine, 114 Bober, Phyllis Pray, 145 Bartholomew, Saint, 74, 89, 113 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 272 Bartolommeo, Fra, 55, 68, 69, 311 Bondone, Giotto di. See Giotto Basilica of the Santi Quattro Coronati, 55, Borsook, Eve, 292 56 Bosch, Hieronymus, 53 Basilicas, Cathedrals, Chapels, Churches. Botticelli, Sandro See specific names Christ depicted by, 152, 154 Bassus, Junius, 145 as illustrator, 173, 180–83, 187–88, 191, Battle of Alexander the Great (Altdorfer), 62, 311 62 works by Beaulieu, 49 Pietá, 152 Beck, James, 95, 110 Transfiguration, 152, 153, 154 Bede, The Venerable, 40 Bourges Cathedral, 49, 51, 52–53 Bellini, Jacopo, 149–50, 154 Bouts, Dieric, 53 Bembo, Pietro, 196 Boyde, Patrick, 176, 179 Benciviendi di Pepo. See Cimabue Brahe, Tycho, 273 Benedictine, 47 Bramante, Donato, 15, 141 Beneficio di Cristo (Mantua), 137 Bratrizet, 98 Benesch, Otto, 262–63 Bronze Age, 107 Berenson, Bernard, 104 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 15, 292 Bertoldo di Giovanni, 67 Bruno, Giordano, 3, 233, 236, 273 Bertram, Anthony, 109 Buffalmacco, 63 Bessarion, Basil, 216 Bull, George, 116 Biagetti, Biagio, 107–8 Buonarroti, Michelangelo di Lodovico. See Bible. See also Gospels; New Testament; Old Michelangelo Testament Burckhardt, Jacob, 104 books of Buridan, Jean, 255 Genesis, 11, 12, 27, 40, 219, 298 Byzantine period Exodus, 13 art during, 15, 43, 45–47, 55–57, 140, Job, 22 143 Psalms, 22, 40, 130 and Christianity, 21, 63 Isaiah, 14, 29, 40, 106 and cosmology, 40, 70, 72, 74, 216 Ezekiel, 22, 29, 97, 106, 178 Daniel, 22, 106 C Amos, 29 Cabala, 233–34 1 Corinthians, 23, 26, 27, 112 Caird, George, 298 Thessalonians, 23, 106 Calcagnini, Celio, 196, 259 Revelation, 23, 27, 29, 35n38, 106, Calvin, John, 25–26, 36n51, 163n61 287, 298–302, 316–17 Camesasca, Ettore, 110 and Christianity, 138 Campanella, Tommaso, 233, 236 Index [ 363 ]

Camposanto, 55, 63, 67, 69, 172 second coming of, 23–27, 30, 37n63, Capuchin order, 135–36, 269 45, 129–30 Carafa, Paul. See Paul IV stigmata of, 52–53, 76n23 Carennac, 49 and sun-symbolism, 3–8, 98, 103, 106– Carli, Enzo, 109 8, 114, 117, 129–30, 133, 138–40, Cassirer, Ernst, 213 147–50, 152, 154–55, 157–58, 169, Castagno, Andrea del, 150, 154, 311 171, 199, 212, 232–33, 237–38, Castiglione, Baldassare, 196 274, 307 Catherine, Saint, 74 thigh of, 112, 184, 295–96, 298, 301, Catholic Missal, 300 307–8 Catholic Reformation, 109, 116–17, 134– and Transfiguration, 131 38, 196–99, 269–71, 314, 317. See also Christian Topography (Cosmas), 40, 43, 70 Counter-Reformation; Reformation Christianity. See also Judeo-Christian beliefs Catholicism and cosmology, 40, 234 and Copernicus, 111, 264–66, 272–73 dogma of, 18, 20–21, 27, 30–31, 45, and dogma, 113, 133, 214, 269, 273 130, 212–13 and free will, 24–25 iconography of, 13–16, 18, 20–21, 53, Greek concept, 26 59, 61 138–47, 220, 298 and Last Judgment iconography, 24 and Michelangelo, 134–38 liturgy of, 131 and Neoplatonism, 213, 232, 237–38, in Middle Ages, 27, 30 257, 314 and Purgatory, 25 philosophy of, 116, 130, 132–33, 147, 199, 215–16 and resurrection, 20–21, 26, 112–13 and Plato, 237 and salvation, 24–26, 31 revival of, 142 Cavalieri Thomas de’, 115, 198 traditions of, 131 Cavallini, Pietro, 55, 57 and view of Hell, 25 Cellini, Benvenuto, 143 and view of universe, 11, 12, 15–16, 18 Cennini, Cennino, 291–92 Christmas, 131, 300, 312 Chain of Being, 13 Christus, Petrus, 53 Chartes Cathedral, 49 Church Fathers Chastel, André, 114, 263 leaders, 159n15 Chosen people, 25, 37n64 on universe, 12, 227, 238, 287 Christ writings of, 40, 132, 158, 174–75, 179, beardless depiction, 140–41, 143, 147– 199 48, 157, 165n88 Cicero, 106, 254–55 compared to Apollo, 1, 55, 104–5, 108– Cimabue, 59, 60 9, 112, 138–40, 146, 148–50, 155, Cione, Andrea di, 55, 63, 65 219, 225, 227, 308 Circular motion depicted by Botticelli, 152, 154 and Dante, 190, 193 depicted in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), in iconography, 74, 92, 106–9, 171, 233 1, 3, 63, 67, 78n54, 81, 83, 85–89, in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 81, 83, 91, 96–98, 103, 115, 119n24, 138– 96–98, 115, 133, 220, 237–38, 39, 142, 199, 222–23, 227, 290, 291, 295–96, 308 300–302 symbolism of, 85–89, 187–88, 217, depiction of, 49, 52–53, 56, 57, 62–63, 221–24 68–69, 74–75, 106, 138–40, 288 Clement of Alexandria, 40 as Good Shepherd, 140 Clement VII (pope), 79–80, 92, 135– as Judge, 22–23, 30–31, 39–40, 45, 36, 165n88, 240n14, 264, 266–71, 52–53, 55, 110, 131, 134, 198, 308–9, 315–17 299, 314–15 Clements, Robert J., 111, 199, 214 life of, 132 Colet, John, 233 as Light of the World, 129, 138 Colonna, Vittoria resurrection of, 20–21, 26 and Michelangelo, 135–36, 155, 157, as Savior, 20, 23–28, 31, 62, 314–15 170, 195–99, 314 [ 364 ] Index

Colonna, Vittoria continued Nicolai Copernici de Hypothesibus poetry of, 8, 169, 195 Motuum Coelestium a de Constitutis Redig de Campos on, 135 Commentariolus, 259–60 “Spiritual Sonnets,” 196, 197 Coppo di Marcovaldo, 57 and sun-symbolism, 196, 197 Cosmas, 40–43, 45, 52, 70, 143, 176, 216, Tolnay on, 135 253 Triumph of the Cross of Christ, 197 Cosmology Columbus, Christopher, 72, 253 biblical interpretations of, 12–13, 16, 20, Commentary (Landino), 182 28–29, 57, 62–63, 73 Commentary on Plato’s Symposium (Ficino), and Cosmas, 43, 253 218–20, 224–26 and Dante, 72, 169, 172–79, 181–87, Commentary on the Divina Commedia 188–95, 202n33, 289, 316 (Landino), 173 in De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Condivi, Ascanio 1, 252–53, 289 on Divina Commedia, 170 of Earth, 29, 31–32, 52, 327 Hall on, 113 Ficino on, 212–13, 216, 219–28, 224, on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 53, 85, 236, 288–89 96–99, 101, 103–4, 108–9, 269 and Hermetic writings, 234 on Michelangelo, 53, 85 and hierarchical schemes, 56 Confessions (Augustine), 133 and iconography, 7, 12–16, 18, 74–75, Confirmation of the Rule of St. Francis 116, 134, 158 (Signori), 292 in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 5– Consiliun de Emendanda Ecclesia, 136 7, 11, 16, 18, 20–24, 31–32, 70, Constantine I, 132 72–75, 101–4, 112, 115, 158, 212, Contarini, Gasparo, 135–36, 271 219–20, 224, 232, 272, 288, 308 Convivio (Dante), 178–79 and metaphysics, 171 Copernicus, Nicholas modern definition of, 6 achievements of, 252, 272, 274 and philosophy, 6–7 and Aristotle, 258 of planets, 178 in art, 260, 261, 262–63 and Plato, 217–18, 223–25, 232, 289 on astronomy, 238, 252, 259–60, 264, scientific view of, 8, 11, 12 289, 301, 327, 329 and sun-symbolism, 158, 178–81, 182– birth of, 110 87, 190–95, 238 Catholics on, 111, 264–65, 272–73 themes of, 7, 31–32, 43, 46, 48, 63, 106, Church reaction to, 263–66, 275n9, 316 109, 116, 192, 198–99, 234 education of, 256 and theology, 6–7, 11–12, 40, 169, forerunners of, 8, 105, 178, 191, 255–56 263–66 on God, 251, 257 Coughlan, Robert, 110 heliocentric theory of, 1–3, 107–8, 114, Council of Nicaea II (787), 263 117, 238, 251–60, 265–66, 269, Council of Trent, 108, 137, 163n63, 288, 310–12, 316 284n136, 316 hypothesis as presented, 307–11 Counter-Reformation, 31, 103, 105, 113, influence on Michelangelo, 1, 4–5, 135–36, 237, 316. See also Catholic 110–11, 115–16, 258, 263, 316 Reformation; Reformation influences on, 8, 233, 255, 328–29 Cracow library, 259 and Paul III, 328–29 Cracow (Poland), 227–28, 259 on Plato, 251, 257–58 Cranach, Lucas, 53 Protestants on, 111 Creation, 7, 11–12, 32, 40, 129, 211, 213 and Schönberg, 327, 329 Crucifixion, 16, 22, 150, 155 Steinberg on, 6 Crucifixion (Castagno), 150 Tolnay on, 1, 3–6, 106–8, 125n122, 308 Curtius, Matthias, 266 works by Cusanus, Nicholas, 233 De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelstium, 1, 9n1, 106, 251–53, 258, 272, D 289, 328–29 Daniele of Volterra, 80, 101, 114, 127n146 Index [ 365 ]

Dante De Sole (Ficino), 219, 233, 256 on Aristotle, 173–74, 202n30 De Vecchi, Pierluigi, 114, 115 on astronomy, 72, 174, 176 De Vita Libri Tres (Ficino), 216–19, 226 compared to Ficino, 221–22, 226 Delacroix, Eugéne, 103–4 condemnation of, 272 Della Casa, Giovanni di, 98 and cosmology, 72, 108, 169, 172–79, Diderot, Denis, 103 181–87, 188–95, 202n33, 289, 316 Dies Irae (Thomas of Celano), 24, 104–7 on Earth’s position, 177–78 Dionysius the Areopagite. See Pseudo- and Giotto, 172, 176–17 Dionysius on God, 174, 176, 184–86, 188–89, 254 Discourse of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius, on Heaven, 171–72, 177, 186–90 234 and heliocentric theory, 192–93, 253–54 Disputa (Raphael), 294, 295 on Hell, 171–72, 186, 194, 229 Divina Commedia (Dante) and hierarchical scheme, 63 Condivi on, 170 and iconography, 171 depiction of, 172 and influence on Michelangelo, 8, 104, figures in, 170–71, 182, 229 114, 169, 173, 175–76, 179–81, Heaven depicted in, 173–74, 176 192, 195, 198–99, 287, 300–301, Hell depicted in, 173–74, 176, 178, 311–12 180–81 Landino on, 173, 175–76 illustrations to, 173, 180–81, 193 and Neoplatonism, 175–76, 179, 237, Jerusalem in, 178 289 Last Judgment motif in, 171, 178 on Plato, 173, 175, 179 manuscripts of, 172–73 portrait of, 171, 172 moral allegory in, 174 science and, 176, 288 and pagan legends, 171 and Signorelli, 172 Platonic influence on, 179 Steinberg on, 200n15 Satan in, 180 and sun-symbolism, 117, 154, 158, 169, and sun-symbolism, 158, 169, 178–81, 194, 199 184–87 Tolnay on, 106–7, 170–71 themes in, 173–74, 176, 179, 190, 193, and Traini, 172 216, 238, 300–301, 316 on the universe, 176, 178, 182–83, 238 Vasari, 170 works by visual images in, 171–73 Convivio, 178–79, 202–3n41 Dixon, John W., 114 Divina Commedia, 24, 158, 169–72, Dodd, Charles Harold, 129–30, 158n4 300–301, 316 Dolce, Lodovico, 103 Inferno, 63, 97, 170–72, 180–82, 301 Domenico of Novara, 256, 259 Paradiso, 170–72, 180, 185, 187–88, Domus Aurea, 142 226, 312 Donatello, 293 Purgatorio, 171 Doni, Anton Francesco, 100, 103, 157, 263 De Amore (Ficino), 218–21, 225 Dorata, Volta, 143 De Caelo (Aristotle), 216, 222 Dotson, Esther Gordon, 134 De Christiana Religione (Ficino), 216, 226 Dunbar, Helen Flanders, 179 De Lumine (Ficino), 227 Duomo, Florence, 144–45, 171 De Maio, Romeo, 113, 135 Dürer, Albrecht De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium on Apocalypse, 148–49 (Copernicus), and Neoplatonism, 213 condemnation of, 264–65, 272, 284n136 and sun-symbolism, 262 cosmology of, 1, 252–53, 289 works by dedication of, 272, 328–29 Apocalypse, 53 Neoplatonic concepts of, 251–53 Judge, The, 148 Pand Paul III, 328–29 Last Judgment, 53 publication of, 258–59, 273, 276n16 Melancholia, 53 text of, 9n1, 307 Nemesis, 53 Tolnay on, 106, 252 Passion series, 53 [ 366 ] Index

Durer,¨ Albrecht continued and Platonic Academy of Florence, Sol Iustitiae, 148, 149 211–13 and sun-symbolism, 8, 226–27 E works by Earth Commentary on Plato’s Symposium, central position of, 12, 18, 177, 264, 217–20, 224–26 271–73, 280n63 De Amore, 217–21, 220, 225 cosmology of, 29, 31–32, 275n10, 327 De Christiana Religone, 216, 226 Dante on, 177–78 De Lumine, 227 flat view of, 12, 16, 29, 32, 52, 72, 176, De Sole, 217, 219, 233, 256 253, 274 De Vita Libri Tres, 216–19, 226 as spherical, 72, 77n48, 176, 253, Letters, 216 275n13 Liber de Sole, 227 Easter, 131 Opera Omnia, 216–17 Ebreo, Leone, 233 Orphica Comparativo Solis ad Deum, Edict of Milan, 132 227 Egidio, Bishop of Viterbo, 134–35, 215, Phaedrus Commentary, 217, 219, 225 234, 266, 314 Philebus Commentary, 217 Egyptians, 130, 234 Platonic Theology, 216, 219, 226, 229, Elbag, Poland, 63 256 Elements of Physics (Proclus), 267 Sophist Commentary, 217 Enlightenment, Age of, 12, 32, 103 Theologia Platonica de Immortalitate Ephraim the Syrian, Saint, 24 Animorum, 214, 217, 226, 229 Erasmus, 233, 269 ‘Theory of Five Substances,” 224–25 Ettlinger, Leopold, 110, 300 Fifth Lateran Council, 113, 215, 259, 312 Europe Filarete, Antonio, 291 art in, 43, 45, 47, 53 Fiorentino, Rosso, 155 Black Death in, 62 Flagellation (Piombo), 155 Copernicus’ influence in, 211, 227–28 Flaminico, 137 northern, 47–49, 52–53, 55 Flanders Dunbar, Helen, 179 religion in, 30, 130, 136, 147 Florence art in, 186, 300 F churches in, 150 Fall of the Rebel Angels, 269, 271 and Divina Commedia, 170–71, 180 Farnese, Alessandro. See Paul III libraries in, 43, 183 Fatum, 105, 106, 111–12 Michelangelo in, 270, 300 Feldhusen, R., 106 Neoplatonism in, 211–15 Ferdinandy, Miguel de, 106 during Renaissance, 55–57 Ficino, Marsilio Florence Bapistery, 57, 62 compared to Dante, 221–22, 226 Florentine Academy, 103 and cosmology, 212–13, 216, 219–28, France, 47, 49, 72, 79 224, 236, 257–58, 288–89 Francesca, Piero della, 291 on God, 220 Franciscans, 135 on the Good, 217–20 Fréat, 103 and Hermetic writings, 213, 234 Free will, 24–25, 28, 316 on hierarchical scheme, 221 Freedberg, Sidney, 110 and immortality of soul, 113 French cathedrals, 47–49, 52–53 and influences on, 267, 288 on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 222, G 287, 300 Galileo, 265, 273, 282n96, 311 and Medici family, 213, 234 Garden of Eden, 27 and Michelangelo, 220, 226–27, 311 Gardner, Edmund G, 179 and Neoplatonism, 113, 213, 233 Geneva, 25–26 and Paul of Middleburg, 259 Gerbert, 253. See also Sylvester II on Plato, 212, 216, 219–28, 232, 237–38 Germany, 43, 45, 53 Index [ 367 ]

Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 291 Hebrews. See Jews, Jewish Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 142–43, 145, 154, Heliocentric theory 291–92 Copernicus on, 1–3, 8, 107–8, 114, 117, Giese, Tiedemann, 329 238, 251–60, 265–66, 269, 288, Gilio, 103 310–12, 316 Ginzburg, Carlo, 310 Dante on, 192–93, 253–54 Giorgione, 260 and Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, Giotto, 55, 61, 61–63, 69, 72–73, 77n34, 4–5, 108 172, 176–77 scientific theory of, 117 Girardi, 198 and sun-symbolism, 8 God Hell as center, 222, 224, 288, 308 cave of, 74, 229, 230 compared to Platonic Nous, 213 Dante on, 171–72, 186, 194, 229 Copernicus on, 253, 257 depiction of, 35n40, 49, 71, 228–32 as Creator, 12, 16, 129 in Divina Commedia, 173–74, 176, 178, Dante on, 174, 176, 188–89, 254 180–81 depiction of, 16, 178–79, 238 doctrine of, 24, 31–32, 70, 72 Ficino on, 220 fear of, 25–26 as good, 219 in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 28–29, judgment of, 21, 25–28 85, 228–32, 231 right hand of, 46, 52, 53 position of, 12, 16, 18, 20, 23, 32, 39, Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 52, 103, 40, 55, 72, 74, 254, 273, 289 305n48 Heninger, S. K., 253 Golden House of Nero. See Domus Aurea Henry VIII, 315 Goldscheider, Ludwig, 81, 105 Heptaplus (Pico della Mirandola), 233 Gombrich, Ernst H., 216, 225, 309–10 Heraclides on Pontus, 254 Gospel of Nicodemus, 129–30, 137–38, Hermes Trismegistus, 233–34, 257 159n12, 230–31 Hermetic writings, 232–38, 248n139, 266, Gospels. See also Bible 278n46, 300 according to John, 22–23, 97, 129, 131, Hetoimasia (Throne), 45–46 137, 179, 238 Heusinger, Lutz, 114 according to Luke, 22–23 Hibbard, Howard, 110, 114, 135 according to Mark, 22–23 Hierarchical scheme according to Matthew, 22, 39, 106, 131 architectural representation of, 14–15, and classical literature, 106, 212–13 34n19 Gothic period, 52, 53, 55, 62 artistic representation of, 45, 47–49, 52, Greek, 130, 141, 211, 220 55–57, 59, 61–62, 70, 85 Greenstein, Jack M., 114 of being, 12 Gregory XIII, 273 celestial, 13, 43 Guicciardini, Francesco, 269, 315 of Christianity, 13, 15–16, 18 Cosmas on, 41 H and cosmology, 56, 74–75 Hall, Marcia B., 112–13 Dante on, 63 Hartt, Frederick, 109, 119–20n29, 310, ecclesiastical, 13 314 Ficino on, 221 Hautecoeur, Louis, 15 in literature, 43 Heaven loosening of, 83 concept of, 31–32, 40, 70, 72 Hirst, Michael, 81, 155 Dante on, 171–72, 177, 186–90 Holanda Francisco de, 135 depiction of, 171 Holy Tabernacle (of Moses), 13–14 in Divina Commedia, 173–74, 176 in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 28–29 I position of, 12, 18, 20, 29, 32, 39, 40, Iconography 55, 72, 74, 254, 273, 289 Byzantine, 59, 61 scroll of, 56 and caves, 227–32, 247n128 [ 368 ] Index

Iconography continued and sun-symbolism, 148–49 Christian, 13–16, 18, 20–21, 53, 59, 61, Julius II (pope), 198 138–47, 158, 220, 298 Julius tomb, 117n5, 170, 213, 215 Cosmas on, 40–41 Jung, Eva-Maria, 136 and cosmological theory, 7, 12–16, 18, Justi, Karl, 105 74–75, 116, 134, 158, 288 Justification of Faith doctrine, 269 and Dante, 171 elements of, 16, 20, 62, 70, 72, 97, K 108–9, 309–10, 316 Kepler, Johannes, 233, 265, 273, 285n140 in Last Judgment art and literature, 24– King Solomon’s Temple, 13–14 32, 43, 47–48, 52–53, 59, 61–62, Koestler, Arthur, 252, 266–67 69–70, 72–73, 105, 147, 172, 176 Kopal, Zdenek, 265 in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 15– Koyré, Alexandre, 257 16, 24, 32, 39–41, 43, 45–47, 73— Kubovy, Michael, 293 74, 83–84, 87–89, 91, 171, 237 Kuhn, Thomas S., 40, 252, 255, 257, 259 medieval, 56, 72–73 L and Michelangelo, 138–47, 214–15 Lactantius, 40, 176, 253 Il Cortegiano (Castiglione), 196 LaHaye, T., 299 Il Libro dell’Arte (Cennini), 291 Lamarche-Vadel, Bernard, 114 Illuminists. See Valdésians Lamentation (Bellini), 149–50 Immortality of the Soul (Augustine), 133 Lamentation (Botticelli), 152 Index of Prohibited Books, 264, 271–72 Lamentation (Castagno), 150 Indicopleustes, Cosmas. See Cosmas Lamentation (Tura), 152 Indulgences, 25, 36n45 Lamentations ( Michelangelo), 170 Italy Landino, Cristoforo, 173, 179–80, 182, art in, 53, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70, 185, 204n58, 211, 233 103, 140, 155, 157 Last Judgment iconography in, 176 iconography in, 24–32, 43, 47–48, literature in, 72, 158, 170, 196, 199 52–53, 59, 61–62, 69–70, 72–73, and Michelangelo, 47–48 77n51, 105, 172, 176 Neoplatonism in, 113, 175, 213, 233 Last Judgment, depiction of threats to, 315 and Dante, 171–72 in France, 56 J in Gothic art, 52 Januszczak, Waldemar, 114–15 in Italy, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70 Jerusalem, 62, 178 major themes of, 39–41, 43, 45–47, 49, Jesus Christ. See Christ 51, 59, 61–62, 314–17 Jews, Jewish, 25. See also Judeo-Christian in manuscripts, 45, 62 beliefs in Northern Europe, 47–49, 52–53, 55 John, Saint, 129–30 prior to Michelangelo, 39–40, 45–49, John the Baptist, 74, 89 52–53, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70, Joshua, 16, 20 75n1, 92, 98, 172, 274, 307–8 Judeo-Christian beliefs, 11, 23, 130, 211, on public buildings, 76n24 219 in Renaissance art, 70, 73 Judge, The (Dürer), 148 in Romanesque art, 52 Judgment in sculpture, 48–49, 53 and Apocalypse, 129–30 Last Judgment ( Nardo di Cione), 55, 172 biblical references to, 20–22 Last Judgment (Angelico), 67, 67–68 Day of, 130–31 Last Judgment (Bartolommeo), 55, 69 68 and predestination, 25–26 Last Judgment (Bouts), 53 process of, 69–70, 74, 109 Last Judgment (Cavallini), 55, 57, 58 purpose of, 20–22, 24–32, 63 Last Judgment (Christus), 53 and resurrection, 21, 27–28 Last Judgment (Cimabue), 59, 60 and salvation, 21–33, 232, 299, 315, Last Judgment (Coppo di Marcovalso), 57, 317 59 Index [ 369 ]

Last Judgment (Cosmas), 41, 42, 43 and resurrection, 28, 85, 112–13 Last Judgment (Dürer), 53 and Revelation 19:16, 298–302 Last Judgment (Giotto), 55, 61, 61–62, 69, significance of, 6, 110 72, 172 and Sistine Chapel, 1, 2, 7, 48, 57, 73, Last Judgment (Lochner), 53 74, 77–78n52, 85, 290–91 Last Judgment (Maitani), 57, 58 size of, 291 Last Judgment (Memlinc), 53 symbolism in, 95, 116, 132, 187, 228– Last Judgment (Michelangelo) 29, 237, 287 analysis of, 80–89, 92–93, 95–104, 111, theological significance of, 8, 18, 20, 290, 295–98, 310 108, 112, 138, 157–58, 231, 296, Christ depicted in, 1, 3, 63, 67, 78n54, 299, 308–9, 316–17 81, 83, 85–89, 91, 96–98, 103, Tolnay on, 1, 4–6, 8, 81, 105–12, 114, 115, 119n24, 138–39, 142, 199, 147 222–27 Vasari on, 85, 96–99, 101, 103–5, 108–9 Church reaction to, 8 Last Judgment (Orcagna), 55, 63, 65 circular design in, 133, 295–96, 308 Last Judgment (Schongauer), 53 circular motion in, 81, 83, 96–98, 115, Last Judgment (Signorelli), 69–70 133, 220, 237–38, 291, 295–96, Last Judgment (Strozzi), 69 308 Last Judgment (Traini), 63, 64 cleaning and restoration of, 8, 80, 85, 88, Last Judgment (Van der Weyden), 53 93, 95–96, 115–16, 157, 232, 296, Last Judgment (Van Eyck), 53 307–8 Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci), 293 commission of, 8, 79–81, 114–15, 117– , 43 18n6, 213, 266, 269–70, 314 Lavin, Irvin, 310 Condivi on, 53, 85, 96–99, 101, 103–4, Lawrence, Saint, 74, 89 108–9 Lazarus, 22, 29 cosmology in, 1, 5–7, 11, 16, 18, 20–24, Le Bot, Marc, 115 31–32, 70, 72–75, 101–4, 112, Lees-Milne, James, 132 115, 158, 212, 219–20, 224, 232, Leites, Nathan, 113 272, 288, 308 Lenski, R. C., 298–99 criticism on, 100, 104–11 Leo X, 259 Dante’s influence on, 104, 170–71, Leonardo da Vinci, 15, 213, 234, 262, 293, 198–99 298 drawings for, 81, 82, 119n19, 119n21, Libraries, 43 290–91, 298 Libre de Sole (Ficino), 227 Ficino on, 222, 287, 300 Liebert, Robert S., 113, 135 focal point of, 85, 86, 294–96, 304n44, Light symbolism, 129–34, 138, 178–79, 307 186–88, 198, 218, 229 Goethe on, 103 Lightbown, Ronald William, 170 heliocentric image in, 1, 4–5, 108 Limbo. See Purgatory Hell depicted in, 85, 228–32, 231 “Line of Fate in Michelangelo’s Last iconography in, 1, 15–16, 20, 24, 32, Judgment” (Steinberg), 111–12 39–41, 43, 45–47, 73–74, 83–84, Lippi, Filippino, 152, 154, 293 87–89, 91, 171, 237 Lochner, Stephen, 53 influences on, 7–8, 23, 26, 31–32, 43, Lomazzo, G. P., 103 53, 69–70, 108, 110, 147, 170– Lorenzo the Magnificent, 268–69 71, 224, 237–38, 266, 269, 274, Lucas van Leyden, 53 289–90, 312, 316 Lucifer. See Satan interpretations of, 5–6, 18, 20, 175, Luther, Martin, 30, 36n51, 264, 265 255–56 modifications to, 80, 101, 114–15, M 127n146, 304n42 Magnitude of the Soul (Augustine), 133 nudity in, 100–103, 105, 111, 120– Maitani, Lorenzo, 57 21n38, 121n51 Mâle, Emile, 39–40, 49 originality of, 96–97, 292, 296 Mancinelli, Fabrizio, 304n43 [ 370 ] Index

Mandorla, 43, 63, 88, 108, 164–65n83 Plato’s influence on, 185, 187, 216, Mantua, Benedetto da, 137 228–29 Mariani, Valerio, 109 poetry of, 8, 197–99, 213, 214, 317 Maru Magdalene, 154 on resurrection, 36n49 , 291–92 scholarship of, 6 Masons, 194 and sun-symbolism, 116, 130, 169, Mathematics, 7, 91, 251–52 194–99, 226–27 Mausoleum of Galla Placida, Ravenna, 14, Tolnay on, 5–6, 171, 198, 252 15 travels of, 47–48, 55 Mazzeo, Joseph Anthony, 179 Vasari on, 31, 81, 85 McAuliffe, D. J., 197 Middle Ages, 13, 15, 21, 28–29, 47, 55, Medici, Cosimo de, 213, 234 179 Medici, Giulio de. See Clement VII astronomy, 178, 253, 273 Medici, Lorenzo de, 144–45, 173, 213, concepts of, 5, 43, 53, 106, 108, 133, 312, 314 147–48, 173, 199, 253 Medici Catherine de, 315 iconography, 56, 70, 72–73, 92, 298 Medici Chapel, 117n 5, 155, 198, 213, 215 manuscripts, 43 Medici Church of San Lorenzo, 15 symbolism, 31 Medici family, 145, 173, 211, 213 Middle ages, 13, 23, 27–30, 74, 176–79, Medici Palace, 154 222–23, 255, 264 Meiss, Millard, 62–63 Miechow, Matthias, 259 Melanchthon, Philipp, 265 Milan, 141–42, 293–94 Memlinc, Hans, 53 Milizia, 103 Mengs, Anton Raphel, 103 Millenarian fervor, 30, 37n62 Michelangelo Monreale, 47 advisors to, 264 More, Thomas, 233 and Bramante, 141 Morgan, Charles Hill, 108 and Catholic Reformation, 135, 138 Morone, Giovanni, 135 classical influences on, 145–46 Mosaics, 14, 43, 55–57, 68, 142–43, 146, and Clement VII, 268–69, 283n106 150 and Colonna, 135–36, 155–56, 170, Moses, 13, 40, 234 195–99, 314 Mueller, Johann, 256 as colorist, 93, 95, 308 Munich, 152 compared to Giotto, 77n34 Munich Codex, 267 compared to Traini, 77n45 Murray, Linda, 111, 114, 135 Condivi on, 53, 85 Musée Bonnat, Bayonne, 81, 119n19, and Copernicus’ influence, 1, 4–5, 110, 119n21 115–16, 258, 263, 316 Museum of San Marco, 68, 69 Dante’s influence on, 8, 114, 169, 173, Mythology, 180–81 175–76, 179–81, 192, 195, 198–99, 287, 300–01, 311–12 N drawings of, 155 Nardo di Cione, 55, 62–63, 172 and Ficino, 220, 226–27, 311 Narratio Prima (Rheticus), 258, 265, 272, and iconography, 138–47, 214–15 279n52 influences on, 214, 238, 255–56, 287, Nativity, 16, 34–35n28 300, 311–12, 314 Nativity of Christ (Altdorfer), 262 and Lamentations, 170 Neoplatonism and Masons, 194 and art, 147, 213 and mathematics, 91, 291 of Augustine of Hippo, 133 and Medici family, 145, 173, 213 and Botticelli, 213 and Neoplatonism, 173, 213–15, 217, and Christianity, 213, 232, 237–38, 257, 237 314 and Nicodemus, 230 and classical philosophy, 175, 212–13 and Piombo, 260 and Copernicus, 251, 252–53 Index [ 371 ]

Neoplatonism continued P and Dante, 175–76, 179, 237, 289 Pacioli, Luca, 291 doctrines of, 7–8, 13 Padua, 55, 62, 73–74, 83–84, 172, 256 and Ficino, 113, 213 Pagan Mysteries of the Renaissance (Wind), in Florence, 211–16 146, 214 and Michelangelo, 173, 213–15, 217, Paganism, 5, 40, 108, 131–32, 138, 158, 237 171, 212–13 in Renaissance, 26, 112, 113, 211 Palatine Chapel, Palermo, 47 Salvini on, 109 Palazzo della Signoria, 300 and sun-symbolism, 8, 117, 213, 232, Palermo, Italy, 47 288 Pannini, Giovanni Paolo, 67 themes of, 215–19, 233–34 Panofsky, Erwin, 105, 173, 211, 215, 216, New Testament, 20–24, 27, 129, 131. See 309 also Bible Paolo Giovanni di, 186, 190, 191 Newman, John Henry, 21–22 Papal chapel, 100 Nicene Creed, 12, 26, 46 Paradise (Nardo di Cione), 63, 64 Nicholas of Cusa, 255–56 Parallela, Sacra, 43 Nicodemus. See also Gospel of Nicodemus Paris, 49, 52–53 Cardinal Carafa as, 136 Passion, 40, 74, 152 Nicolai Cpernici de Hypothesibus Motuum Paul III (pope) Coelestium a de Constitutis Commentari- advisors to, 135–36 olus (Copernicus), 259 and Bembo, 196 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, 49, 52–53 and commission of Last Judgment Novara, Domenico da, 256, 259 (Michelangelo), 79–80, 112, 314– Numerology, 233 15 and Copernicus, 258, 264–65, 328–29 O on heresy, 270–74 Ochino, Bernardo, 135, 136 and Michelangelo, 268 Old Testament, 20–23, 26, 28, 129, 130, reaction to Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 227. See also Bible 97, 105, 120n38, 121n52 On the Celestial Hierarchy (Pseudo- Paul IV, 103, 122n61, 271 Dionysius), 13 Paul of Middelburg, 259, 272, 312, 314 On the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy (Pseudo- Pauline Chapel, 112, 125n127, 272 Dionysius), 13 Perrig, Alexander, 115 On the Heaven and the Universe (Oresme), Peter, Saint, 74, 89 255 On the Immobility of Heaven and the Mobility Petrarch, Francesco, 195 of Earth (Calcagnini), 259 Petrus, Johannes, 267–68 On the Motion of the Eighth Sphere (Werner), Petrus, John, 266 260 Peurbach, Georg, 256 On the Senses and Sensibilities (Alexander of Phaedo (Plato), 215, 228 Aphrodisias), 267 Phaedrus Commentary (Ficino), 217, 219, Opera Omnia (Ficino), 216–17 225 Oration on the Dignity of Man (Pico), 233 Phaedrus (Plato), 214, 215, 222 Orcagna, 55, 63, 65 Philebus Commentary (Ficino), 217 Oresme, Nicholas, 255, 276n25 Philebus (Plato), 225 Original sin, 25, 27 Philosophy, 6–7, 11, 147, 158, 212, 220, Orlando Furioso (Ariosto), 196 252 Orphic hymns, 233 Physics, 6–7, 174, 252 Orphica Comparativo Solis ad Deum (Ficino), Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni Conte, 227 233–34 Orr, M. A., 176 Pietá (Botticelli), 152 Orvieto Cathedral, 55, 172 Piles, Roger de, 103 Osiander, Andreas, 273, 307, 310, 318n14 Piombo, Sebastiano del, 79, 117–18n6, Ovid, 174 155, 260 [ 372 ] Index

Pisa, 55, 63, 67, 69, 145, 172 Q Pitti, Bartolommeo, 100 Quattrocento frescos, 291–93, 316 Pitti Tondo (Lippi), 293 Planets, 177–78, 187, 217, 264, 273, 289, R 311, 327 Rahner, Hugo, 132 Plato Raising of Tabitha (Masaccio), 292 on Aristotle, 223 Ramsden, E. H., 111 Cave of, 218, 228–32, 315 Raphael, 5, 217, 293–94 and Christianity, 237 Ravenna, Italy, 140 Copernicus on, 251, 257–58 Réau, Louis, 39–40 and cosmology, 217–18, 224, 225, 232, Redig de Campos, Deoclecio, 6, 107–8, 289 111–12, 135, 170 Dante on, 173, 175, 179 Reformation, 20–27, 30, 109, 135–36, Ficino on, 212, 216, 219–28, 232, 167n124, 312, 314. See also Catholic 237–38 Reformation; Counter-Reformation forerunners to, 234 Regiomontanus, 256 influence on Michelangelo, 185, 187, Reichenau school, 43, 45 216, 228–29 Religion. See Theology philosophy of, 36n46, 113, 199, 211–13, Renaissance 216, 220–21, 225 architecture in, 15 revival of, 211, 223 art in, 53, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70, 86, and sun-symbolism, 212, 220, 225–29 145–46, 149, 217, 288, 298 works by Christian dogma during, 21, 24, 26–28 Phaedo, 215, 228 classical influences in, 145–46, 216, 253, Phaedrus, 214, 215, 222 287–88 Philebus, 225 in Italy, 7, 24, 55, 56, 59, 72, 155, 195, 199, 220–23, 225 Republic, 179, 211, 215–20, 225, literature in, 72, 158, 169, 195, 199, 228–29, 232–33, 238 216, 234, 291, 309, 317 Symposium, 211, 214, 215, 225, 228 and Neoplatonism, 26, 112, 113, 211, Timaeus, 107, 175, 215–17, 219, 237 222–25, 228, 236, 289 Platonists, 213, 216, 229 Platonic Academy of Florence, 211, 232 spirituality during, 33, 234 Platonic Theology (Ficino), 216, 219, 226, and sun-symbolism, 147–48, 196, 238, 229, 256 260 Plethon, Gemistos, 216 symbolism, 31, 220 Plotinus, 233 theology, 134, 288, 300 Plutarch, 254–55 worldview during, 10n30, 11–12, 52, Poimander, 234 253, 264, 316–17 Pole, Reginald, 135, 137, 271, 284n128 Republic (Plato), 179, 215–20, 228–29, Poliziano, Angelo, 152, 195–96, 211 232–33, 238 Pomponazzi, Pietro, 233 Resurrection Pontormo, Jacopo DA, 155 Catholic doctrine of, 20–21, 26–27, 112 Popes. See under individual names of Christ, 20–21, 45–46 Predestination, 24–26 and humanity, 22, 52 Proclus, 226, 267 iconography of, 16, 49, 74, 230, 269, Protestantism, 24–25, 31, 111, 264–65, 271 273, 315 and judgment, 21, 27–28 Provost, Jean, 53 in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 28, 85, Psalters, 45 112–13 Pseudo-Dionysius, 13, 33n9, 40, 174, 179, Michelangelo on, 36n49, 155 220, 227, 233, 237 and spring equinox, 131–32 Ptolemy, 32, 253, 254 Resurrection and Fall of Lucifer, 312 Purgatory, 25, 174, 176, 182–85, 230 Resurrection of Drusiana (Donatello), 293 Pythagoras, 106, 114, 254, 328 Reynolds, Joshua, 103 Index [ 373 ]

Rheims Cathedral (Notre Dame), 49, 52 (Strozzi chapel), 55, Rheticus, Georg Joachim, 258, 272 62–63, 172, 292 Richmond, Robin, 115 Santa Maria Nuovo, Pisa, 55, 63 Richter, Jean Paul, 262 Santa Pudenziana, 143 Riegl, Alois, 105 Saponaro, M., 108 Risen Christ (Fiorentino), 155 Sarcophagi, 143–45 Robb, Nesca, 214 Sassetti Chapel, 154 Roman Catholic Church. See Catholicism Satan, 18, 26, 67, 180, 182–84 Roman Inquisition, 136, 271–72 Savonarola, Girolamo, 135, 154, 196–97, Romanesque period, 52 272 Romans, 130 Schönberg, Nicholas, 270–71, 284n121, Rome 314, 327, 329 art in, 142–43, 145–46 Schongauer, Martin, 53 churches in, 40, 57, 132 School of Athens (Raphael), 193–294, 217 libraries in, 43 Schott, Rolf, 109 Michelangelo in, 55, 79, 267–68 Science, 158, 176–78, 192, 238, 251, 260, Sack of, 105, 110, 114, 315 274, 316 Rosen, Edward, 257, 260, 268 Scripture references. See under Bible Roskill, Mark, 292 Sculpture, 48–49, 53, 55, 72 Rota, Martinus, 98, 308 Second Coming of Christ, 23–27, 31, Ruskin, John, 104 129–30 Seven Deadly Sins, 92 S Shapiro, Meyer, 298 Sabbath, 131 Shearman, John, 142 Sack of Rome, 105, 110, 114, 315 Siena Cathedral, 234 Saints, 43, 52, 74, 89. See also individual Signorelli, Luca, 55, 69–70, 71, 172 saints by name Signori Loggia dei, 292 Saint George Oberzell church, 45 Singleton, Charles S., 175, 183, 193 Saint John, 40 Sistine Chapel Saint John de Marne, 45 art in, 142, 155, 262, 269, 272, 294 Saint John the Divine, 131 ceiling of, 80–81, 114–15, 134, 170, Saint Michael Burgfelden, 45 198, 215, 234, 263–64, 299, 308, Saint Peter’s Basilica, Rome, 15, 40, 132, 314 141, 143 dedication of, 299–300 Saint Simon the Cyrene, 91 dimensions of, 14 Sainte Denis Cathedral, 49 and Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 7, Sainte Foy de Conques, 49 48, 55, 57, 73–74, 77–81, 78n52, Sainte Trôphimine church, Arles, 49 85, 271, 290–91, 307–8, 314 Salmi, Mario, 114, 135 orientation of, 80, 132 Salvation. See under Judgment restoration of, 80, 95, 157 Salviati, Giovanni, 268–70, 314 Socrates, 173, 245n87 Salviati, Jacopo, 268–69, 314 Sol Invictus, 106, 110, 132, 147 Salviati, John, 266 Sol Iustitiae, 106, 110, 147 Salvini, Roberto, 6, 109–10, 135 Sol Iustitiae (Dürer), 55, 148, 149, 154 San Francisco Church, Assisi, 59, 60 Solomon’s Temple, 13–14 San Marco. See Museum of San Marco Sophist Commentary (Ficino), 217 Sangallo, Antonio, 15 Soul, 52, 103–4, 107, 112–13, 214, 219, Sant’Angelo Church, Formis, 45, 46, 56, 62 224–25, 317 Santa Cecilia, 55, 57 “Spiritual Sonnets” (Colonna), 197 Santa Costanza, 143 Spirituali, 113, 135–36, 161n45, 196, 271. Santa Croce, 55, 63 314 Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, 293–94 Steinberg, Leo Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, 16–18, 143, on Copernicus, 6 152, 167n127 on Dante, 200n15 [ 374 ] Index

Steinberg, Leo continued Testori, Giovanni, 198 on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 103, Theodoric of Radzyn, 270–71 137–38, 147, 171, 290, 298 Theologia Platonica de Immortalitate “Line of Fate in Michelangelo’s Last Animorum (Ficino), 214, 226, 229 Judgment,” 111–12 Theology, 6–7, 11, 13, 40, 134, 174, 199, Steinmann, Ernst, 104–5 308–9 Strozzi, Zanobi, 67, 69 “Theory of Five Substances” (Ficino), 224, Strozzi Chapel, 63. See also Santa Maria 244n82 Novella Thode, Henry, 104–5 Summers, David, 214 Thomas Aquinas, 12, 174 Sun-symbolism Thomas of Celano, 24, 104–5, 106–7 in the Bible, 133, 147, 154, 157–58, 179, Thomism, 173, 175 199 Thorndike, Lynn, 259 and Christ, 3–8, 98, 103, 106–8, 114, Three Philosophers (Giorgione), 260 117, 129–30, 133, 138–40, 147– Timaeus (Plato), 107, 175, 215–17, 219, 50, 152–55, 157–58, 169, 171, 222–25, 228, 236, 289 199, 212, 232–33, 237–38, 274, Tolnay, Charles de 307 and Benesch, 263 Colonna on, 196, 197 on Christ’s depiction in Last Judgment and cosmology, 158, 178–81, 182–87, (Michelangelo), 103–5, 147 190–95, 238 on Colonna, 135 and Dante, 117, 154, 158, 169, 194, 199 and Copernican theory, 1–6, 106, 108, in Divina Commedia, 158, 169, 178–81, 125n122, 308 184–87, 194, 199 on Dante, 106–7, 170–71 Ficino on, 8, 225–27 on imagery in Last Judgment (Michelan- and Gospel of Nicodemus, 230 gelo), 1, 4–6, 8, 81, 105–12, 114 and heliocentricity, 8 on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 4–6, and Hermetic writings, 234 8, 81, 105–12, 114, 147, 252 and hierarchical schemes, 8, 57 on Michelangelo, 171, 198 and judgment, 48, 148–49 on Plato, 216 and Michelangelo, 116, 130, 169, 194– and Redig de Campos, 108, 135 99, 226–27 on sun-symbolism, 7–8, 106–8, 116, and Neoplatonism, 8, 117, 213, 232, 159n11 288 Torcello, 46, 56, 62, 74, 83–84, 291 and Plato, 212, 220, 225–29 Torriti, Jacopo, 143 in poetry, 196–98 Traini, Francesco, 63, 64, 69, 77n45, 172, sources, 107, 154–55 319n19 theology of, 7 Transfiguration (Botticelli), 152, 153, 154 Tolnay on, 7–8, 106–8, 116 Tree of Life, 57 Supper at Emmaeus (Pontormo), 155 Tribute Money (Masaccio), 292, 293 Sylvester, Saint, 56 Trinity (Masaccio), 292 Sylvester II (pope), 72 Trismegistus, Hermes, 233–34, 257 Symbolism, 14–15, 31–32, 43, 105, Triumph of the Cross of Christ (Colonna), 197 129–34, 187. See alsoIconography; Triumphus Crucis (Savonarola), 196–97 Christianity; Light symbolism; Sun- Tura, Cosimo, 152, 154 symbolism Turks, 315 Symonds, John Addington, 104 Symposium (Plato), 214, 215, 225, 228 U Universe T architectural representation of, 14–15 Tabernacle (of Moses), 13–14 Aristotle’s view on, 222 Table Talks (Luther), 265 Augustine of Hippo on, 178 Telesio, Bernardino, 233 Christian view of, 11, 12, 15–16, 18, 74 Temple of Solomon, 40 circular view, 199, 220–21, 253–54, 264, Ten Books of Architecture (Vitruvius), 255 273 Index [ 375 ]

Universe continued Venusti, Marcello, 98 creation of, 12, 211 Virgil, 174, 182, 184–85 Dante on, 176, 178, 182–83, 238 Virgin Mary, 40, 62, 63, 74, 81, 96, 113 depiction of, 102–3 Visitation (Ghirlandaio), 292 flat earth view, 12, 32, 52 Vitale, Saint, 141 religious view, 254, 273, 316 Viterbo group. See also Egidio, Bishop of University of Cracow, 256 Viterbo, 113, 135 Ursino, Fra, 266 Vitruvius, 255, 291 Volterra, Daniele of, 80, 101, 114, 127n146 V Von Einem, Herbert, 106, 108, 135 Valdés, Juan, 135–37, 199, 313, 314 W Valdésians, 137, 163n66, 311 Waddington, Raymond B., 233 Varchi, Benedetto, 170 Walker, Daniel, 24, 26 Vasari, Giorgio Weyden, Rogier Van der, 53 on catacombs, 143 Wheel of Fortune, 105–8, 190 on Divina Commedia, 170 White, John, 292–93 on Greek style, 141 Widmanstadt, Albert, 266–67, 270, 310– Hall on, 113 11, 314 on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 85, Widmanstadt, Johannes, 234 96–99, 101, 103–4, 108–9, 269 Wilde, Johannes, 85, 108–9 on Michelangelo, 31, 81, 312 Winckelmann, Johann, 103 Vatican Wind, Edgar, 134, 146, 214, 216, 309 catacombs, 142 Winter solstice, 131 collections, 55 gallery, 47, 294 Wittkower, Rudolf, 15, 213, 216 lectures, 266–70, 273 Wölfflin, Heinrich, 104, 111–12, 290 Library at Rome, 43 Worldview, 7, 8, 10n30, 11, 39, 49, 52, 260 publications, 116 Z Vecchietta, 67 Zeus, 130, 139 Venice, 46, 148 Zoroaster, 23 Venturi, Adolfo, 81, 105