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Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment” Habent sua fata libelli SIXTEENTH CENTURY ESSAYS &STUDIES SERIES General Editor RAYMON D A. MENTZER Montana State University—Bozeman EDITORIAL BOARD OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY ESSAYS &STUDIES ELAINE BEILIN MARY B. MCKINLEY Framingham State College University of Virginia MIRIAM USHER CHRISMAN HELEN NADER University of Massachusetts—Amherst University of Arizona BARBARA B. DIEFENDORF CHARLES G. NAUERT Boston University University of Missiouri, Colmubia PAULA FINDLEN THEODORE K. RABB Stanford University Princeton University SCOTT H.HENDRIX MAX REINHART Princeton Theological Seminary University of Georgia JANE CAMPBELL HUTCHISON JOHN D. ROTH University of Wisconsin—Madison Goshen College CHRISTIANE JOOST-GAUGIER ROBERT V. S CHNUCKER University of New Mexico Truman State University, emeritus ROBERT M. KINGDON NICHOLAS TERPSTRA University of Wisconsin, Emeritus University of Toronto ROGER MANNING MERRY WIESNER-HANKS Cleveland State University University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Copyright © 2000 Truman State University Press, Kirksville, MO 63501 www2.truman.edu/tsup All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Shrimplin, Valerie Sun-symbolism and cosmology in Michelangelo’s Last Judgment / by Valerie Shrimplin. p. cm. — (Sixteenth century essays & studies ; v. 46) Based on the author’s thesis (doctoral—University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1991). Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-943549-65-5 (Alk. paper) 1. Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475–1564. Last Judgment. 2. Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475–1564 Themes, motives. 3. Cosmology in art. 4. Symbolism in art. 5. Judgment Day in art. I. Title. II. Series. ND623.B9 A69 2000 759.5—dc 21 98-006646 CIP Cover: Teresa Wheeler, Truman State University designer Composition: BookComp, Inc. Printing: Sheridan Books Body text: Berkeley Display type: Morticia No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any format by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording or by an information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. ⅜ϱ The paper in this publication meets or exceeds the minimum requirements of the American National Standard—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48 (1984). Photo Credits Figs. 1, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, Fig. 70, RIBA. 62, 63, 112, 113, 114, 124. Monumenti e Fig. 82, Staatliche Graphische Sammlung, Gallerie Pontificie, Citta` del Vaticano. Munich. Fig. 2, Houghton Library, Harvard University. Figs. 87, 89, British Museum. Figs. 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 29, 30, 31, Fig. 89, Royal Library, Windsor Castle, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 46, reproduced by permission of Her Majesty 47, 48, 63, 66, 70, 72, 73, 75, 81, 83, 87, the Queen. 107, 112, 117, 118. Alinari/Art Resource, New York. Fig. 91, Barry Moser/University of California Press. Fig. 6, Bayerisches National Museum. Fig. 97, Biblioteca Trivulziana/Foto Saporetti Fig. 7, Prado, Madrid. Milan. Figs. 14, 15, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. Figs. 98, 103, 104, 105, 107, Bildarchiv Figs. 16, 65, 78, 95, Biblioteque Nationale de Preussischer Kulturbesitz Berlin. France. Fig. 99, Biblioteca nationale Florence/Donato Fig. 17, Herzong Library, Wolfenbuttel. Pineider, Florence. Figs. 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 68, Giraudon, Paris. Figs. 101, 102, 106, 108, British Library. Fig. 25, Katy Shrimplin. Fig. 117, Kunshistorisches Museum, Vienna. Figs. 27, 81, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Fig. 116, Courtesy of Museum of the Jagiellonian University, Kracow. Photo by Janusz Fig. 41, Pinacoteca, Bologna. Kozina, 1992. Figs, 42, 69, 84, 118, Bayer, Staatgemaldesam- Figs. 119, 120, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, melugen, Munich. Munich. Fig. 46, Chapin Library, Williams College, Mass. Fig. 125, Huntington Library, San Marino, Fig. 50, Doucet, S.P.A.D.E.M. California. Figs. 51, 52, 126, 127, Valerie Shrimplin. Contents Illustrations ix Preface xiii 1 Introduction 1 2 Theology, Cosmology, and Christian Iconography 11 Cosmology and Religion 11 Cosmology and Christian Iconography 13 Cosmology and the Last Judgment 18 The Meaning of the Last Judgment 24 3 Iconography of the Last Judgment 39 Origins and Early Examples 39 The Last Judgment in Northern Europe 47 The Last Judgment in the Italian Renaissance 55 Influence of Changes in Cosmology 70 4 Michelangelo’s Last Judgment 79 The Commission of the Last Judgment 79 Formal Analysis 80 Previous Interpretations 96 Twentieth-Century Criticism 104 Current State of Research 111 5 Religious Sources 129 Christian Light Symbolism 129 Michelangelo and Catholic Revival of Early Christian Ideas 134 Michelangelo and Early Christian Iconography 138 Continuation of the Sun-Christ Tradition 147 6 Literary Sources 169 Italian Renaissance Literature 169 The Divina Commedia of Dante Alighieri 170 Visual Images 171 Dante’s Cosmology 173 Sun-Symbolism and Cosmology in Dante 178 Michelangelo and Vittoria Colonna 195 7 Philosophical Sources 211 Florentine Neoplatonism 211 Michelangelo and Neoplatonism 213 Neoplatonic Themes 215 Ficino’s Cosmology 219 Michelangelo’s Hell and Plato’s Cave 228 Other Philosophical Sources; the Hermetic Writings. 232 Christian Neoplatonism 237 8 Scientific Sources 251 The Importance of Copernicus 251 Tolnay, Copernicus, and Michelangelo 252 The Waning of Medieval Cosmology 253 Renaissance Predecessor of Copernicus 255 Neoplatonic Influences on Copernicus 256 Copernicus and His Writings 258 Copernicus in Art 260 Reaction of the Church 263 Clement VII and the Vatican Lecture 266 Paul III and the Heresy Question 270 9 The Central Point 287 Art Historical Method 287 The Centralized Format Around Christ 288 Fresco Construction—Formal and Iconological 290 The Symbolism of Revelation 19:16 298 10 New Hypotheses 307 Art Historical Interpretation 307 Hypothesis or Truth? 310 A Valid Framework 311 Appendix 1 Selected Versions of the Last Judgment 321 Appendix 2 Important Dates 325 Appendix 3 Letter of Nicholas Schönberg 327 Appendix 4 Copernicus’ Preface to De Revolutionibus 328 Bibliography 331 Index 361 Illustrations 1. Michelangelo, Last Judgment 2 2. Copernicus, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Houghton Library, Harvard University 3 3. Sistine Chapel, interior, looking toward the altar 4 4. Sistine Chapel, reconstruction of its fifteenth-century appearance 14 5. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna 15 6. Resurrection of Christ, fifth century 16 7. Zanobbi Strozzi (or Fra Angelico), Annunciation 17 8. Andrea Verrochio, Baptism of Christ 17 9. Unknown Sicilian-Byzantine artist, God Creating the Universe 18 10. Christ Enthroned on the Sphere of the Universe 19 11. Theophany 19 12. Joshua Stopping the Sun 20 13. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography 41 14. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography 42 15. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Last Judgment 42 16. Sacra Parallela 44 17. Last Judgment, 1194 44 18. Last Judgment, 1110 45 19. Last Judgment, 1072–87 46 20. Last Judgment, twelfth century 47 21. Last Judgment, twelfth century 48 22. Last Judgment, 1130–1140 49 23. Last Judgment, c. 1140 50 24. Last Judgment, 1135–1140 50 25. Last Judgment, 1163–1250 51 26. Last Judgment, 1230–1265 51 27. Jan van Eyck, Last Judgment 54 28. Rogier van der Weyden, Last Judgment 54 29. Giovanni Pisano, Last Judgment 56 ix [ x ] Illustrations 30. Last Judgment, before 1246 57 31. Lorenzo Maitani, Last Judgment 58 32. Pietro Cavallini, Last Judgment 58 33. Coppo di Marcovaldo (attributed), Last Judgment 59 34. Detail of fig. 33, Christ in Judgment 60 35. Cimabue, Last Judgment 60 36. Giotto, Last Judgment 61 37. Nardo di Cione, Paradise 64 38. Nardo di Cione, Hell 64 39. Andrea Orcagna, Last Judgment 65 40. Francesco Traini, Last Judgment 65 41. Unknown Bolognese artist, Last Judgment 66 42. Master of the Bambino Vispo or Gherardo Starnina, Last Judgment 66 43. Fra Angelico, Last Judgment 67 44. Fra Angelico (otherwise attributed to Zanobi Strozzi), Last Judgment 68 45. Fra Bartolommeo, Last Judgment 68 46. Illustration to Savonarola, Predica dell’arte del ben morire 70 47. Luca Signorelli, Resurrection of the Dead 71 48. Luca Signorelli, The Damned 71 49. Michelangelo, Sketch for the Composition of the Last Judgment 82 50. Michelangelo, Study for the Last Judgment 83 51. Michelangelo, Last Judgment, schematic diagram (with circles) 84 52. Michelangelo, Last Judgment, schematic diagram (with diagonal rays) 86 53. Detail, inner circle of figures, Christ the Judge and the Virgin, with Saint John the Baptist, Saint Peter, with other apostles, saints, and the saved 87 54. Detail, Christ 88 55. Detail, Saint John the Baptist 89 56. Detail, Saint Peter 90 57. Detail, Saints Lawrence and Bartholomew 90 58. Detail, outer circle of figures 92 59. Detail, the left lunette (showing the cross) 93 60. Detail, the right lunette (showing the column) 93 61. Detail, group of trumpeting angels 94 62. Detail, group of rising figures 94 63. Detail, group of falling figures 95 64. Marcello Venusti, copy of the Last Judgment of Michelangelo 98 65. Martinus Rota, copy of the Last Judgment of Michelangelo 99 66. Jacopo Pontormo, study for Christ in Glory 100 67. Giorgio Vasari, Last Judgment 101 68. Jacopo Tintoretto, Paradiso 101 69. Peter Paul Rubens, Last Judgment 102 70. Detail from a plan of the Vatican 132 71. The Good Shepherd, detail 140 72. Christ in Majesty 141 Illustrations [ xi ] 73. The Raising of Lazarus 142 74. Christ as the Sun-God 144 75. Abraham and Three Celestial Visitors 144 76. Unknown Syrian artist, Crucifixion 145 77. Christ enthroned as Master of the Universe, detail from the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus 146 78. Christ in Majesty 148 79. The Creation and Fall of Man, Pantheon Bible 149 80. Christ the Saviour, thirteenth century 150 81. Albrecht Durer,¨ Sol Iustitiae or The Judge 151 82. Albrecht Durer,¨ St John devouring the Book 151 83. Andrea del Castagno, Resurrection 152 84. Sandro Botticelli, Lamentation 153 85. Sandro Botticelli, Transfiguration 153 86. Domenico Ghirlandaio, Trigram and Solar Symbol 154 87. Michelangelo, Resurrection of Christ 155 88. Michelangelo, Resurrection of Christ 156 89.
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  • Still Looking for Pieter Bruegel the Elder

    Still Looking for Pieter Bruegel the Elder

    STILL LOOKING FOR PIETER BRUEGEL THE ELDER By Jamie Lee Edwards A thesis submitted as part of the requirements for the degree of M.Phil(B) in the History of Art School of Languages, Cultures, Art History and Music University of Birmingham 2013 0 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT Pieter Bruegel the Elder (c.1526-69) is one of the most renowned sixteenth-century Netherlandish artists. Paradoxically, however, he is also one of the most mysterious and our dearth of known historical information about Bruegel has generated much debate about how his art relates to the religious and political conflicts raging in the Low Countries during the 1560s. Most previous scholarship has attempted to place Bruegel’s allegiances on one side or the other of a Catholic versus Protestant binary, and attempted to demonstrate that Bruegel’s art was conceived and understood as partisan propaganda. By taking a reception-focused approach, this thesis seeks to address this shortcoming in Bruegel scholarship. Chapter 1 is primarily concerned with the intended audience for Bruegel’s art, their beliefs and the ways in which they displayed and interpreted art.