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GENDER REPRESENTATION THROUGH THE HORRORS OF FATAL FRAME (2001) Textual analysis into female gender representation in the Japanese survival horror game, Fatal Frame (2001).
Master Degree Project in Informatics One year Level 22.5 ECTS Spring term 2021
Vanja Waller
Supervisor: Björn Berg Marklund Examiner: Rebecca Rouse Abstract
Gender representation in the horror genre has many interesting discussions surrounding it through multiple perspectives such as psychoanalysis and culture. This article intends to expand the investigation of how female characters are portrayed in horror games. The research on female representation will investigate the potential connections between horror cinema and horror games in the survival horror game Fatal Frame (2001, Koei Tecmo), the first title of a series that is iconic f0r drawing inspiration from Japanese mythology and horror tropes while simultaneously using a large cast of female characters. To gather information about the audience to support the game analysis, an online survey will be released targeting players of the games. Thereafter, recorded, non-commentary footage of the first game, Fatal Frame (2001), will be observed and textually analysed through a framework with data points, based on the background of psychoanalysis, horror cinema, culture, and game theory.
Keywords: horror games, gender representation, female gender, horror cinema, female protagonist, Fatal Frame, Japanese horror, survival horror, audience analysis
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ...... 1 2 Background ...... 3 2.1 Psychoanalysis and the Horror Genre...... 3 2.2 Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema ...... 5 2.2.1 Continued Research and Critiques on Mulvey ...... 7 2.3 The Horror Cinema and Women ...... 8 2.3.1 The Audience of Horror ...... 9 2.3.2 Idenfification in Horror ...... 9 2.4 Japanese Horror Film ...... 11 2.5 Female Representation in Video Games – Lara Croft ...... 15 2.6 The Fatal Frame Series ...... 16 3 Problem ...... 18 3.1 Method ...... 20 3.2 Methodology on Game Analysis ...... 21 3.2.1 Methodology, Representation, and Games ...... 22 3.3 Game Analysis Framework ...... 25 3.3.1 Constructing the Player-based Online Survey ...... 27 3.3.2 Ethics ...... 29 4 Results ...... 30 4.1 The Online Survey Data ...... 30 4.2 Analysis Framework Results ...... 37 5 Analysis ...... 39 5.1 Scopophilic and Cinematic Horror Theory ...... 39 5.1.1 Character Development ...... 39 5.1.2 Identification with Miku Hinasaki ...... 40 5.1.3 Visual Representation of Game Characters ...... 41 5.2 Aspects of Scopophilia and Player Agency ...... 43 5.2.1 Fixed Cameras, Tailored Gaze ...... 44 5.2.2 Cinematic Cutscenes and Horror ...... 46 5.3 Going Beyond Scopophilia ...... 48 5.4 Vengeful Ghosts and Culture Theory ...... 51 5.4.1 The Strangling Ritual ...... 51 5.4.2 The Blinded Maiden ...... 52 5.4.3 The Rope Shrine Maiden ...... 58 5.4.4 The Mono-No-Aware and the Ie System ...... 64 6 Conclusions ...... 70 6.1 Summary ...... 70 6.2 Discussion ...... 75 6.3 Future Work ...... 77 References ...... 78
1 Introduction
When a world of horror is created, it is easy to wonder what kinds of elements it will contain to create fear in its audience. Who is the hero, the villain, and the victim? Horror as a genre is hard to define by one word and could be more expressed in a more accurate manner by subgenre. Viktória Prohászkov’s (2012) paper on The Genre of Horror makes use of the definition of: “a genre that represents the need for suppression if the horror shown is interpreted as expressing uncomfortable and disturbing desires which need to be contained” (Prohászkov, 2012:132). The research made in this paper intends to go deeper within the constructs that define the frightful scenarios in horror. Specifically, this paper will analyze the female gender in horror and how the women in the Japanese survival horror series, Fatal Frame (2001) are represented their fictitious world. While the study will be centred around female representation in an iconic Japanese horror game, it will also be executed through the perspective of a researcher who is Scandinavian and a woman. This means the previous theories and discussions on female representation, horror, and Japanese culture will be interpreted through the mindset and understanding of a woman born and raised in Sweden which may, of course, influence the analysis. Any contributions this study may provide will be presented in the attempt of being objective towards the game analysis and through the understandings of previous research.
A lot of interesting literature and research has already been made into horror cinema and its complex relationship with women and gender in general. The research made in this paper will investigate those texts for a deeper understanding of the past and other popular media but will then move on to a focus into video games, or specifically horror games. The intentions of this study are to add more information into female representation in different contexts, such as horror and video games, to gain greater understanding into how potentially such representations may have been developed through past media, cultures, and societal structures. Video games and film could be considered to have a close relationship, but one clear difference separating them from each other is interaction. Looking into the horror genre of digital media, some connections could be drawn between horror film and the transition into horror games to see which similarities there are in the trends of gender representation or stereotypes. The research background which will primarily be of focus in this paper are theories on female representation, firstly through the context of cinema. Psychoanalytic theory usage in horror will be investigated, as well as Laura Mulvey’s (1973) theories on scopophilia and the male gaze is a good foundation to start the discussions on and have been a highly reoccurring topic, not only in feminist film theories but, also, in discussions on the expansive ranges of horror film. Moving on, the background will look into cultural aspects such as the different discussions of horror cinema and Japanese horror film. Finally, previous research into the Fatal Frame series and methodology on textual analysis, the analysis method of this study, will be explored.
The method used in this study will first be based on gathering information into the background on previous research into different areas on interest, such as psychoanalysis, cinema, horror, culture, and game theory. Once this foundation is processed, the study will add a second layer of supporting data by reaching out to the audience of Fatal Frame, asking them about their experience, interpretations, needs, and opinions on the series. This part of the study will also be analysed through its value and what it contributes in terms of informatics research and the main research purpose of textually analysing gender
1 representation in Fatal Frame (2001). Finally, recorded footage of the first title of the series, Fatal Frame (2001), will be observed and fragmented into specific data points of interest, based on the previously gathered information, and discussed in the analysis chapter. The reason behind choosing Fatal Frame (2001) as the topic of analysation, is based on the series usage of mainly female characters and Japanese culture.
Through this research study, the intention is to gain clearer understanding into previous discussions of psychoanalysis and female representation in horror cinema, to support further research into female representation in horror games. Also, evaluate a supportive method into audience analysis of the study, to determine its uses when investigating a specific part of a game audience. What the nature of the audience is like and how their game experience is based through their understanding of the Fatal Frame series, a Japanese survival horror game with mostly female characters as both protagonists and antagonists. Through the audience analysis, the study will potentially have further information to support its main purpose of textually analysing the first game of the Fatal Frame series.
2 2 Background
2.1 Psychoanalysis and the Horror Genre To start our theory background, psychoanalysis and horror have been considered to share a close connection to each other. When mentioning psychoanalysis, it is important to be clear on which psychoanalysis that is talked about, so it becomes understandable which claims are and are not made for psychoanalysis (Schneider, 2004). The horror genre owes a lot to previous Gothic literature and past susceptibility of the Gothic to psychoanalytic, especially Freud’s theories. A quote from Horror Film and Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Worst Nightmare, describes Freudian theory in the context of Gothic literature, perhaps even to the extent of the horror genre itself, as:
“No discussion of the Gothic can avoid discussing Freud; one of the most obvious ways of thinking about the genre is to read it in terms of Freud’s system. (…) We cannot pretend that the striking parallels between Freud’s thought and the Gothic fantasy do not exist.” (Day, 1985, as cited in Schneider, 2004:6)
Freud’s accounts of psychoanalysis theory, such as selfhood within one’s family, containing and controlling sexual energy, and conflicts between masculine and feminine, are apparently present in Gothic literature as well. However, Schneider claims that “the Gothic is not a crude anticipation of Freudianism, nor its unacknowledged father. Rather, the two are cousins, responses to the problems of selfhood and identity, sexuality and pleasure, fear and anxiety”, meaning that the genre of Gothicism reflects on Freudian subjects through its narrative (Schneider, 2004:7). This opens to the beginning of intertwining psychoanalytic theories with the expressions in horror. However, if one asks if Freudianism, or other psychoanalytic theories, can effectively break down filmic horror’s textual processes and the nature of its effect on the audience, then it will remain an open question. The question would also depend on the credibility of arguments and claims that are made through psychoanalytic ideas. Furthermore, even if the usage of psychoanalysis at a general level would be proven false, it is still a valuable tool for breaking down horror films, cycles, and subgenres, especially if they are reminiscent of past Gothic narrative (Schneider, 2004).
Schneider mentions Carroll’s research of investigating Freudian-derived explanations of monsters seen in horror film and their role of projecting repressed infantile anxieties. Such anxieties are described as: “either necessary and inescapable or socially and culturally specific” (Schneider, 2004:8). Also, on discussions of such negative emotions as fear and disgust, once the mind is conscious to these anxieties, expressed through the disguise of the monster, the audience can then, either directly or indirectly, derive pleasure of spectating. While Carroll arrives to the conclusion that psychoanalysis: “fails to provide a comprehensive account of the figures of horror” (Carroll, 1990, as cited in Schneider, 2004:9). However, it can still be said that psychoanalysis succeeds in providing insight into the many figures of horror, perhaps not the metaphorical meaning of them but, at least, what they suggest through the accounts of Gothic fantasy, childhood nightmares, popular culture, and cinema (Schneider, 2004). Therefore, Schneider suggests that psychoanalysis is still useful as a tool to connect contexts in horror with other areas, such as human anxieties, culture, or other narrative.
3 There have been several publications which argue for the different uses and advantages of psychoanalytic approaches in relation to cinematic horror. Scholars of this topic includes Barbara Creed, Carol Clover, Linda Williams, Robin Wood, Stephen Neale, and Noël Carroll. Such research has typically been made in the form of an interpretative analysis of a film or type of genre, or it has been made as a depth-psychological explanation of symbolism behind horror film monsters, the affect and creation of horror, or potentially perverse pleasures of viewing. A lot of inspiration is found in Freudian, Jungian, Kleinian, Jonesian, or Lacanian principles, which help build the existing foundation that psychoanalytic theory is on today. Malcolm Turvey’s contribution to the research was made through a survey which made use of different explanations suggested by psychoanalytic film theorist. The survey concerned the pleasures of watching horror films and revealed structurally similar and, to some degree, still conflicting positions which depend on the Freudian notion of repressed mental content, such as anxieties, fears, fantasies, and wishes that regulate to the unconscious during one’s childhood. There are also several theorists which argue that women in horror, especially mothers, are often shown as monstrosities that threaten men (Schneider, 2004). Barbara Creed argues that:
“The horror film attempts to bring about a confrontation with the abject (the corpse, bodily wastes, the monstrous-feminine) in order finally to eject the abject and redraw the boundaries between the human and the non-human. As a form of modern defilement rite, the horror film attempts to separate out the symbolic order from all that threatens its stability, particularly the mother and all that her universe signifies.” (Creed, 1993, as cited in Schneider, 2004:4)
Similarly, Stephen Neale among other theorists argue that horror film monsters are typically defined in their role as male while women remain in the role of victims. Neale explains his own theory on this as: “In this respect, it could well be maintained that it is women’s sexuality, that which renders them desirable – but also threatening – to mean, which constitutes the real problem that the horror cinema exists to explore” (Neale, 1980, as cited in Schneider, 2004:4). Adding to these discussions, Laura Mulvey applied the ideas of perversion in film viewing and the concept of the “male gaze”, which has inspired the work further theorists such as Creed and Clover (Schneider, 2004). Mulvey’s psychoanalytic theories will be supporting this research, as it pertains the core idea of women’s role on cinema screens.
In the late 1970’s, there was a lot of diversity of psychoanalytic approaches to horror film. Also, women in past cinema contain some interesting theories that have become a part of cinematic history (Schneider, 2004). Laura Mulvey (1973) wrote in her paper, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, about using psychoanalysis to investigate the cinematic constructs surrounding the portrayal of female characters on screen. The paper investigates how film reflects, reveals, and even plays on the straight, socially established interpretation of sexual difference which controls images, the erotic ways of looking, and spectacle. The aim of Mulvey’s research is important to understand how cinema and its magic have been in the past while attempting a theory and practice which will challenge it. Therefore, a psychoanalytic theory was used as a political weapon to demonstrate the way the unconscious of patriarchal society has structured film form. (Mulvey, 1973) The theories addressed by Mulvey will be presented in the next part, to lay out a foundation of psychoanalysis which is suitable in the context of this study.
4 2.2 Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema Laura Mulvey’s theories can be used as a continuing point of this research and psychoanalysis, dating back to research done on video games and horror. It suggests points which could already be applied to horror film but also researched further if and how it affects the screen of video game culture. Mulvey (1973) describes how women stand in the patriarchal culture as a role in which a man or spectator can live out his fantasies and obsessions through the visuals of the woman:
“Woman then stands in patriarchal culture as signifier for the male other, bound by a symbolic order in which man can live out his phantasies and obsessions through linguistic command by imposing them on the silent image of woman still tied to her place as bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning.” (Mulvey, 1973: 7)
Mulvey (1973) states that there are several different pleasures cinema can produce for its viewers, one of which being scopophilia. This is the instance of looking itself is the pleasure, as well as the pleasure of being looked at. The Freudian meaning behind it suggests taking other people as objects, subjecting them to a controlling and curious gaze. As an extreme, it signifies fixation on perversion and obsessiveness within the sexual satisfaction which can come from watching, in an active controlling sense, an objectified other. Mulvey continues that such a phenomenon might appear separate from cinema, but that the mass of mainstream film and its conventions show a magically unfolding and indifferent world in which the audience can separately play into their fantasies while following the journey. While the purpose of a film is to be seen by an audience, the conditions of screening and narrative conventions can give the audience an illusion of looking into a private world. There is also a narcissistic aspect of scopophilia in which the spectator may recognize and identify with the acting roles of the cinematic world. Cinematic structures of fascination are powerful enough to allow the spectator a temporary loss of ego while simultaneously reinforcing the ego (Mulvey, 1973).
There are two aspects of pleasurable structures within the conventional film, scopophilia, firstly, the pleasure in using another person as an object of sexual stimulation through observation. Secondly, developed narcissism and the constitution of the ego, which comes from the identification with the images. The pleasure of observing has been divided into the active male role and passive female role, while the male gaze of the spectators projects a fantasy on the female character which is styled accordingly to their desires. Mulvey describes the woman through the constructs of cinema as: ”she holds the look, plays to and signifies male desire” (Mulvey, 1973:11). The woman has traditionally been displayed as two representatives, as an erotic object for the characters within the story of the film, and as an erotic object for the spectator within the audience. The woman performs within the narrative as the gaze of the male characters and the spectators are combined while not breaking the ongoing narrative on screen:
”What counts is what the heroine provokes, or rather what she represents. She is the one, or rather the love or fear she inspires in the hero, or else the concern he feels for her, who makes him act the way he does. In herself, the woman has not the slightest importance.” (Mulvey, 1973:11)
5 This is an interesting aspect when gazing into the world of video games. Much like in a film, there is a camera, however, the player is the position of both a spectator and an interactor. Mulvey’s theories of scopophilia become an intriguing topic when thinking about its correlations to horror and video games. Mulvey speaks of how the heroine provokes and represents human emotions in the “hero”, the real actor on screen. A horror situation is defined by powerful emotions, specifically fear, anxiety or terror, so it raises the question of if any of Mulvey’s psychoanalytic theories applied to film, applies to horror games. In a game where a player is acting through the horrific escape of a young female protagonist, or where a protagonist is being chased by a monstrous feminized nurse, is there any usage of gender and, if so, how does it play on the emotions of the real actor?
If there is a possibility that a game character's gender is used as a way of extracting certain emotions from the player in horror games, does a character's specific gender or perhaps stereotype apply to the feel of narrative or game design? Of course, many famous horror games use a male protagonist, such as titles of the Resident Evil or Silent Hill series. However, there is also a tendency of mixing the gender of protagonists in horror games. According to Mulvey (1973) and the principles of ideology and physical structures and their applicability to the cinema of the past, the male figure cannot burden being the object of sexualization. The spectator may, through developed narcissism, identify with the main male protagonist as his screen surrogate. Therefore, the spectator may project a sense of control over the events, and the male role’s glamorous looks are not based on sexual objectification but as the more complete, perfected, and powerful, ideal ego of the spectators' identification (Mulvey, 1973). Mulvey’s thoughts on the relationship between a male character and the male spectator could be considered quite aged since one can argue the representation of male characters can also be found sexualized or stereotyped in film and video games. However, the idea of identification in a protagonist is an interesting discussion in terms of horror. Identification could be an important factor in experiencing the frightful situation of a game character, but it begs to question if gender plays an important part in identification in horror games.
The psychoanalytic background of this paper has discussed the pleasure and unpleasure shown in traditional narrative film. It is the scopophilic instinct, the pleasure of looking at another person as an erotic object, and the ego libido, the process of forming an identity. These factors act as formations and mechanisms that cinema of the past has played into. The woman working as a passive image for the active gaze of men through the structure of representation. The representation of the woman signifies castration, stimulating curiosity or fetishistic mechanisms to avoid any sense of her threat. These layers are not exclusive to film, however, a film can play into such themes through its shifting emphasis on the look. Cinema defines the focus of the look and controls the possibility of varying or exposing it. Going beyond the focus of simply highlighting a woman’s appearance or presence, cinema controls the way the woman is to be looked at into the unfolding events of the narrative. Film controls the dimension of space and time through editing, narrative, and camera work. Cinematic constructs create a gaze, a world, and an object which can thereby create an illusion based on desire. The different looks within cinema can be broken down into the camera, the audience, and the interacting characters within the screen illusion (Mulvey, 1973).
6 2.2.1 Continued Research and Critiques on Mulvey Mulvey’s theories were certainly something unique of its time and are still an interesting take on cinema. However, it was written in the 1970s and as time has gone by, people have visualized and debated her theories further. Therefore, it is still important to take note of the criticism and development that have been made on her paper. Clifford T. Manlove (2007) reconsiders the psychoanalytic theory derived from Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan that Laura Mulvey uses to support her theory. Manlove states that Mulvey’s theory has spread its influence beyond feminist film critiques of mainstream film, to film and cultural theory, and to theories of perception in general. Mulvey uses the gaze to specifically examine male pleasure in narrative cinema, however, Manlove claims that Lacan argues: “the gaze is a much more primary part of human subjectivity than patriarchy, which, although powerful, is a secondary manifestation of culture” (Manlove, 2007:84). While Mulvey’s thesis could be considered a historical document by many in feminist film theory and film studies, her ideas about the aspects of pleasure and control through gaze are highly influential in several academic disciplines. There are many aspects of gaze which are used to help explain the hierarchical power relations between two or more groups or between a group and an ”object” (Manlove, 2007).
Over the years after Mulvey released her thesis there has been several responses to her work on gender, class, and spectatorship in journals, articles, book chapters, and entire books. While most responses do agree with her point of the presence of a gaze in culture and power relations, many respondents wish to redefine her meaning of ”gaze”, depending on whether their focus is feminism, film, or psychoanalysis. However, some reject Mulvey’s theory and, in some cases, the use of psychoanalysis, feminist film theory, or other critical approaches to film. Regarding Mulvey’s use of psychoanalysis, she correctly notes the power of the eye and the look, however, there needs to be clarity in the way power travels and how it affects the gaze upon the subject. Freud distinguishes between active and passive behaviours and motives but does not align these with a specific gender. (Manlove, 2007) Although Mulvey’s theory is very useful and interesting to align with this study on gender representation in the horror game genre, it is important to define the use of scopophilia or visual pleasure in games through multiple aspects and a non-discriminatory manner. The discussions which followed Mulvey’s theories are rightfully discussing the topic in a broader sense of other social, cultural, sexuality, or gender issues.
However, Mulvey’s theories still create an interest in investigating scopophilia and gender representation further. Scopophilia, or the idea of observing and objectifying a character or group on screen, could still be applied to the aspects of horror and video games. Video games have the same power as films which can tailor a specific experience depending on what emotions they want the player to feel in a moment. They use this power through the sculpting of narrative, camera, graphics, and design. Also, there is the argument for action and intent in Mulvey’s theories which could be applied to horror games and female protagonists as well. It questions what the intent is behind the female character based on her portrayal, what her power or lack of power over a situation is. This study will specifically apply Mulvey’s theories by focusing on gaze and where control and vulnerability is placed on characters, and the identity behind, within the game space. Therefore, some of these interesting views on cinema of the past will be applied to the theory and research method of this study.
7 2.3 The Horror Cinema and Women Horror cinema is a genre with an interesting history that has a lot of literature written around it, especially within the topic of women and horror. The traditional relationship between horror and gender often surrounds the exaggeration of existing gender stereotypes. Carol Clover (1992) claims in the book Men, Women and Chain Saws that women in horror movies are used as a kind of feint in which the male character can experience forbidden desires and, at the same time, distance himself from them. However, the traditional relationship between horror and gender often surrounds the exaggeration of existing extra- textual gender inequality. D’Hont also touches on Laura Mulvey’s theories and describes horror films as the most extreme example of cinematic scopophilia (Coco d’Hont, 2018). This can be expressed through the basic formula of all horror, which consists of the idea of “normality is threatened by the monster”. It is the relationship between the victim and the monstrous which “constitutes the essential subject of the horror film” (Balmain, 2008:4). There is then a suggested paradox of horror which combines the two processes of attraction and repulsion simultaneously. The specific form of repulsion must still be able to be found pleasurable to some extent. The monstrous aspects of horror articulate a morbid desire in the observer “to see as much as possible of the unimaginable”. The threat of the monstrous is also connected to “the fear of losing oneself and one’s boundaries”, as the antagonist represents the imagined trauma one could experience as both the victim and the offender (Balmain, 2008:5).
It is common to most horror films that female or feminized characters are represented as ’others’, either as agency-less victims or as a threatening monstrosity. Women depicted as occult monstrosities often occur in films that depict some form of female adolescence. The Exorcist (1973) and Carrie (1979) are examples of this subgenre, in which the female characters are depicted as ”the monstrous-feminine”, suggesting that their powers are an unnatural source of evil that should be eradicated. Other more recent films still rely on this plot with the view that female adolescence is a supernatural danger that needs to be controlled to maintain a peaceful order in society (Coco d’Hont, 2018). Carol Clover (1992) discusses the relationship between people and horror movie trends by looking into the female main character of the horror movie Carrie, a book first written by Stephen King (1974). Carrie is a character tormented at home and in school but manages to find supernatural power through her body. King compares the revenge Carrie gives to her enemies at the end of the movie as something any student can relate to:
”Carrie’s revenge is something any student who has ever had his gym pants pulled down in Phys Ed or his glasses thumb-rubbed in study hall could approve of.” (King, 1981, as cited in Clover, 1992:4)
However, King still speaks from the perspective of a male audience or, specifically in this example, an adolescent boy. The words of King suggest that a boy who is threatened and humiliated also recognizes himself as a girl who gets tampons thrown at her after getting her period and drenched in pigs’ blood at the senior prom. Clover states that King’s remarks admit the possibility that male viewers are prepared to identify not just with women on screen, but with the women in the horror-film world who are in fear and pain (Clover, 1992).
8 2.3.1 The Audience of Horror When it comes to the audience of horror, Clover states that it is especially understudied and that horror movies tend to be made less based on the audience statistics and more on hunch and imitation, which produce a common occurrence of sequels and rip-offs. And in cases with a higher budget, they may be based on test audience results. Another point Clover made at the time is that horror movies had short theatrical runs or none at all, instead they return their investment on videocassette rentals, an audience that is primarily hidden from view in terms of research (Clover, 1992:4). It is important to note that this was the situation a few years ago when renting video cassettes was still active. In our current time, people may download movies online almost whenever, and wherever they choose. In terms of research, this might mean that the audience of horror has shifted or changed in size over the years of movies becoming more or less accessible through the internet.
Referenced formal surveys and informal accounts mentioned in the book suggest that King’s remarks were quite accurate to reality, as the audience at theater screenings seem to most commonly be young men, going alone or more frequently in a group. The other part of the audience breaks down in order of size as heterosexual couples mostly on the younger side, solo ”rogue males” as the sources define them, and adolescent girls in groups. The proportions vary somewhat depending on the subgenre and the movie by explaining that more mainstream films result in a more average audience. However, young males dominating the audience appear to be constant. Looking into the videocassette rentals, Clover (1992) collaborated with employees at rental outlets about clientele for certain films, Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974), I Spit on Your Grave (1978), Ms. 45 (1981), Witchboard (1986), Videodrome (1983), and The Evil Dead (1981) and also confirm the prevalence of a young male bias. Three local outlets tracked the rentals of the rape-revenge films, I Spit on Your Grave and Ms. 45 and the results were consistent. Ms. 45 was rented about four times out of five by men and in the cases where the renters were of both sexes, they were all under the age of twenty-five. I Spit on Your Grave, a movie which Clover considers grislier than the two, was rented nine times out of ten by male viewers, mostly under the age of twenty-five but sometimes older. However, the renter does not necessarily mean it is the viewer of the film and this survey held in the chosen outlets does not represent the whole audience but continues that the numbers are suggestive and do follow the standard profile of theater audiences of horror (Clover, 1992: 7). This also raises the question about the audiences of horror games, or the specific audience of the Fatal Frame series.
2.3.2 Idenfification in Horror When it comes to the subject of identification, Clover divides the term into two: primary identification, which happens with the camera and whatever it is actively focusing on, and secondary identification, which is with the characters of empathic choice. Both actions are fluid as character identification happens on psychoanalytic grounds in which competing figures resonate with the competing parts of a viewer’s psyche. Camera-identification happens on cinematographic grounds that the camera can manage different positions and focus through characters or by adding flavor through different shooting techniques. These discussions lead us to the theories of Mulvey and how the cinematic gaze is not gender-free but structured by male or masculine perceptions, especially when the camera’s focus is on a woman. Horror movies spend a lot of time focusing on women and in first-person ways that seem well described by Mulvey’s voyeuristic gaze. However, when dealing with horror, the standard format calls first for different positions and character sympathies but as it
9 progresses there is a point of unification of story and cinematography and finally an organization around the functions of the victim and the hero by the final phase. Clover (1992) argues throughout the book that horror is far more victim-identified than the general view would have it and raises the question about the assumption that cinematic practices are organized around the experience of a mastering, voyeuristic gaze such as in Mulvey’s theories. Patrons of slasher films or rape-revenge films know more or less what to expect before watching a movie and mentions the statement of one horror director, named William Friedkin, who suggested that their emotional engagement with the movie begins while they are still standing in line. This scripted expectation which every viewer of horror may hold before watching a movie is an interesting aspect and perhaps very unique to horror cinema. As a quote from Andrew Britton describes it in the book:
”The film’s total predictability did not create boredom or disappointment. On the contrary, the predictability was clearly the main source of pleasure, and the only occasion for disappointment would have been a modulation of the formula, not the repetition of it.” (…) ”This highly ritualized and formulaic character is the most striking feature of the contemporary entertainment film.” (Andrew Britton,1986, as cited in Clover, 1992:9)
A lot of discussions have been about the ways that horror manages cinematographic moves to constitute ”identification” and, understandably, horror does make use of a lot of camera work. However, it is important to remember that the ”identifications” of horror are already in place through a gross or deeply structural sense, even long before the movie was being put into place by a director. The ”art” of horror may be described as an art of rendition or performance. An example of a movie title may have unique or original qualities to it, but the real quality of a horror movie comes from the way it delivers the cliché. Therefore, a quote made by James B. Twitchell recommends an ethnological approach to analyze the stories as if none of the individual stories mattered. Instead, you search for what is stable and repeated, not what is considered ”artistic” and ”original”.
”The critic’s first job in explaining the fascination of horror is not to fix the images at their every appearance but, instead, to trace their migrations to the audience and, only then, try to understand why they have been crucial enough to pass along.” (Twitchell, 1985, as cited in Clover, 1992:11)
The idea of what makes horror crucial enough to pass along goes in similar ways for ghost stories and fairy tales is through Clover’s words: ”it’s the engagement of repressed fears and desires and the reenactment of the residual conflict surrounding those feelings” (Clover, 1992:11). This is interesting considering this study’s intention is to research a horror game series, which has been produced into several sequels. If future research were to deconstruct the other games of the series, it would have been interesting to explore what changes have been made to the original formula. Digging into the analysis of the horror within these games, there is an idea of acknowledging the set schematic which, at least, horror movies follow in terms of satisfying their audience. A quote mentioned by Robin Wood in the book sums up the interpretation of the creative situation with horror quite well: ”At once the personal dreams of their makers and the collective dreams of their audiences – the fusion made possible by the shared structures of a common ideology.” (Wood, 1978, as cited in Clover, 1992:11)
10
Moving towards the characters in horror, they can accurately be divided into casts of functions or subject positions. The monster or villain of any horror story, no matter the shape or form, boils down to the same purpose in terms of the narrative. The male and female characters are not evenly distributed over categories such as victim or hero. The functions of a monster are far more represented by men than the functions of a victim which is more commonly represented by women. In fact, at the moment a female monster or hero appears, they are masculine in dress and behavior, while male victims are shown in feminine postures during the rising tension of the narrative. This suggests that gender is inherited by the function itself, the function of a victim calls for a female manifestation, while the function of a hero or monster wants to be expressed through male manifestation:
”A figure does not cry and cower because she is a woman: she is a woman because she cries and cowers. And a figure is not a psycho-killer because he is a man: he is a man because he is a psycho-killer.” (Clover, 1992:13)
When relating this to the Fatal Frame series, there are female protagonist, as well as a few male protagonists, however, the main antagonist of the series is always a woman. Therefore, the play of women as victims and males as the monster, may be act differently in the Fatal Frame game. In the cases where women, or femininity, is the deciding trait of a victim, Clover (1992) states that this is not simply a pattern invented by cinema but was simply given visual expression to the proposition that their death is the most attractive idea for horror narrative, such as Poe’s famous statement how the death of a beautiful woman is “the most poetical topic in the world” (Poe, as cited in Clover, 1992:42). Horror director Dario Argento was quoted through Schoell (1985) and has a similar notion: “I like women, especially beautiful ones. If they have a good face and figure, I would much prefer to watch them being murdered than an ugly girl or man” and Brian De Palma’s elaboration was also quoted in the same source as: “Women in Peril work better in the suspense genre. (…) If you have a haunted house and you have a woman walking around with a candelabrum, you fear more for her than you would for a husky man” (Schoell, 1985, as cited in Clover, 1992:42). Such ideas are also interesting when referring to the Fatal Frame series, which uses a majority of female protagonists in threatening and haunting situations (List of Important Fatal Frame Characters, 2016). While the series does make use of a few male protagonists, they reuse the thematic of always including female, young protagonists. Therefore, this is another point of analysis in which the game can be investigated through in terms of their usage of female protagonists in horror scenes.
2.4 Japanese Horror Film Japanese horror cinema has a different approach in creating their narrative and frightening their audiences compared to the West. There is a suggested complexity of the socio-political context which provides a background to Japanese horror cinema. Bailman (2008) mentions this in a reference from McRoy:
“… A myriad of complex political, social and ecological issues, including – but by no means limited to – apprehensions over the impact of western cultural and military imperialism, and the struggle to establish a coherent and distinctly Japanese national identity.” (McRoy, 2005, as cited in Bailman, 2008:7)
11 McRoy also argues that Japanese horror cinema can, as a substantial component of Japanese popular culture, allow an artistic avenue through which visual and narrative metaphors can be applied to aesthetically engage the audience with a transforming social and cultural landscape. The traditional theatrical forms of Japan, such as Nō and Kabuki, the embedded belief in the supernatural through Buddhism and Shintō, as well as cultural mythology, are elements that have influenced the development of Japanese horror cinema. Japanese history is also a heritage that has affected the development, one of their most crucial experiences during the Second World War and the subsequent Allied Occupation, is embedded in many Japanese horror films, specifically during the 1950s and onwards. Examples of this are the prevalence of hibakusha, a representation of female victims of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki being a defining feature of the genre. Such aspects make it necessary to locate cinematic texts historically and culturally, rather than using a larger narrative to erase such crucial differences. Fairy tales are forms of storytelling that could be considered universal, however, they are still rich in culture-bound characteristics which make them unique. Storytelling in horror cinema works the same way (Bailman, 2008).
Depending on the decade of Japanese horror film production, different origins, themes, and conventions have influenced the cinematic narrative and the monstrous within. In the aftermath of the Second World War, the forced modernization of Japan created great economic opportunity, as well as a profound social effect on Japan’s sense of nationhood and identity when differentiating themselves from the West. The stage of incomplete modernity can often be seen in the embodiment of a pre-modern monster, a revenant of Japanese culture and mythology which brings the threat of apocalypse and disaster. Furthermore, uprising ideas of democratic values in a largely feudal society ruled by the emperor caused social and cultural anxieties around the demise of tradition seen through the ie system of obligation and sense of duty which determines relationships through hierarchies. This creates a reoccurring theme where untrammeled individualism is the cause of horror in addition to concepts of unrestrained appetites of commodification and materialism, where such greed leads to death. Other common themes of horror spiral out from the figure of the “salaryman”, absent fathers, and mothers, the increased of domestic violence during an economic recession, abused children, and isolation through modern technology. Another aspect of Japanese horror, especially during the 1970s and 1980s, was sexual violence, rape, and issues around gender representation as a major trope in Japanese culture. Older media of Japanese mythology, folktales, and traditional archetypes such as “the tragic lovers”, “the wronged woman”, and “the vengeful ghost”, show the transformations in the social and political structure of Japan from the early 1950s (Bailman, 2008). These facets are especially relevant when breaking down the mythology used in the Fatal Frame series as one of the major working themes of horror and emotional storytelling.
First, an important part of Japanese horror, and perhaps storytelling in general, is the warlike relationship between ninjō and giri manifesting themselves within the ie system. The ie system is based on the worship of ancestors, giri is a concept that refers to a strong sense of obligation that binds the social structure of Japan. Meanwhile, the concept of ninjō refers to the spirit of generosity or sympathy one can have towards the disadvantages or towards each other. Ninjō promotes avoidance of conflict but, at the same time, opposes the concept of giri. Giri is superior to ninjō in the eyes of Japanese society and such duties one has, in the following order, towards superiors, family, relatives, ancestors, debts, reputation or personal vendetta, and observance of social proprieties should be protected. It is on this
12 foundation of the ie system in which conflict between the two begins to arise. As an example of this, the forbidden romance in Godzilla can be mentioned where Emiko is in love with Ogata but engaged to Serizawa, the natural successor of Yamane as dictated by the ie system:
“Emiko and Ogata’s romance, therefore, seems to threaten the very structures of Japanese society, in that ninjō (personal feeling) comes into conflict with giri (social obligations). As such Emiko’s duty to her father, under the ie system and the wider notion of On, should take precedence over her own feelings.” (Bailman, 2008:37)
The system of On is based on the concept of obligations that bind the living to the dead in terms of the debt that is owed to them. The conflicts between social obligations and personal emotions also inspired stories of doomed love. At the center of these stories, is the concept of shinjū, when translated means “inside the heart” but also “double suicide”. This brings the archetype “the tragic lovers” to life in Japanese Horror narrative. It is commonly referring to a story with two star-crossed lovers who cannot be together mostly due to class differences, or through the demands of the ie system already mentioned. Such stories tend to result in the couple both dying, only being able to be together in death. When discussing this trope, it can be said that its nature is to reinforce society’s boundaries, but the “tragic lovers” also contain an element of social protest (Bailman, 2008). This instance of conflict between personal values, needs, and desires, is often present in the narrative of Japanese horror cinema. It puts characters who are born, or made sworn by loyalty, against each other.
The Edo Gothic period includes a period setting of archetypes like the “deceitful Samurai” and “wronged women”. This setting accounted for most Japanese horror films during the 1950s to 1960s and makes use of a mixture of religion, specifically from Confucianism, Buddhism, and Shintō. The stories commonly use obsession with status and material wealth that provides the narrative with motivations for crimes of murder, blackmail, and adultery. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Japanese cinema can be most accurately described in terms of a distinction between mind and body expressed through the opposition of romantic love and carnal desire. Edo Gothic films were traditional and were inclined to reinforce conservative values, instead of representing social problems. Fatalism is the key conventionalism to traditionalistic media of Japan, which is known through the term as mono-no-aware. Mono-no-aware is the resigned acceptance of one’s fate, as the observance of the way things are and the appreciation of the inevitable. The Edo Gothic films manage to reinforce the traditionalistic mindset through the victims on screen, who are trapped in a nightmare shown as a subjective articulation rather than an objective reality, defined as a type of “post-defeat-victimization”. In Japanese, this would be referred to as higaisha ishiki, or “victim consciousness”. In the conflict of choosing morality in a materialistic environment, Edo Gothic films embody such themes through the physical scars of the vengeful spirits, through which trauma of the individual and history become displaced from the ‘self’ on the ‘other’ (Bailman, 2008).
However, a common notion is that the woman in an Edo Gothic setting holds a tragic grudge towards her husband and returns after her death as a terrible vengeful spirit, which is also a similar theme to what many of the major antagonists of the Fatal Frame series tend to follow. While many women in Japanese Gothic fiction are victims of male abuse, their spirits are capable of powerful vengeance which they enact on those who hurt them. They are often the victim of the dispossessed Samurai, as he defaulters from his duties, she often finds
13 herself, either intentionally or unintentionally, abandoned or murdered. The archetype of the wronged woman is often the figurative and symbolic outcome of the loss of traditional and pre-modern values. The Ghost Story of Yotsuya is a classic example of an Edo Gothic narrative between the deceitful Samurai, Iemon, and the wronged woman, Iwa. The story was based on an old Japanese folktale of Oiwa, where a man ends up killing his wife and her spirit seeking out vengeance on him after death. Iwa, the remastered version of Oiwa from the old folktale, is also the prototype of the vengeful woman who often reoccurs in contemporary Japanese horror films. The figure is visualized through her long dark hair and disfigured face, which has been provided as a template for other vengeful women to come into film. Before the scene of Iwa’s death, caused by the poison, which was given to her by her husband, she goes to look at her face in a mirror, an iconic symbol of female vanity and sees her face covered with wounds, sores, and her eye swollen shut. The disfigurement is a part of the original folktale but could also serve as a metaphorical reference to the traumatized Japan after the Second World War. Iwa dies as a result of her husband’s sins, and it is a moment that empathizes his crimes and the nation’s historical trauma through the suffering of a woman, who is the symbol of nationhood. Before her disfigurement and ultimate death, Iwa was a representation of an idealized version of femininity and valorized image of Japanese motherhood. The very concept of the good wife, wise mother, was considered a vital part of the establishment of Japan as a nation-state during the Meiji Period to the First World War. At the end of the story, Iwa appears from the ground, as a demon-like presence or Oni, who has come to take Iemon with her to the underworld. Iemon begs his wife for forgiveness and she transforms into her former beauty, shining in bright light while holding her son lovingly in her arms. Once she has completed her quest for vengeance, she is turned to eternal rest or nirvana in Buddhism (Bailman, 2008).
The glorification of motherhood is a common theme to Japanese horror and the feminine, represented as both polluted and pure in contradiction, is not only a result of male anxieties around female sexuality. Instead, it needs to be understood through the creation myth of Shintō, in which two sibling deities, Izanagi and Izanami, descended from Heaven to an island to become husband and wife. Izanami gave birth to nature and many other God-like beings but died from giving birth to the Fire God, which cast her into the land of the dead instead. Izanagi followed her and found his former beautiful wife as a disfigured and swollen creature, transformed by the pollution, decay, and death of the land. Before Izanagi laid eyes on his wife, she begged him not to look at her, and the prohibition of not to look, a common feature of many fairy tales, originates from a Japanese female character told through the story The Bush Warbler’s Home. In that story, a woodcutter meets a beautiful woman in a strange mansion, but as she leaves for the town, she tells him to never look inside the other room. As soon as the woman leaves, the woodcutter goes against her injunction and finds riches and treasure but breaks three eggs in the process. The woman returns and reveals that he caused the death of her three daughters by breaking her eggs. She turns into a bush warbler and flies away, leaving the woodcutter alone once more. It is very rare in Japanese fairy tales that the one who breaks injunctions is punished, instead, the woman disappears after the death of her children and the reader is left with a sense of mono-no-aware, the resigned acceptance of one’s fate. Similarly, Iwa is faced with harsher punishment and fate which results in her disappearing from the narrative world as a consequence of her husband’s choices (Bailman, 2008). Again, there are remnants of scopophilic ideas even in the narrative of fairy tales and mythology that are also tied to the female figure in these examples. The stories show the breaking of guidelines and moral values, causing distress
14 upon the women, with fewer consequences held for the male protagonist. The woman in The Bush Warbler’s Home sets up one rule for the man in her home while considering the safety of her children. The man breaks her rule and is rewarded with riches while also breaking, in his eyes, the seemingly worthless eggs. Not knowing these eggs are invaluable to its mother, she is the one who is punished for the actions caused by his curiosity and disrespect towards her boundaries. This narrative could in turn be considered similar to the idea of the male gaze or scopophilic intent in horror most often seen in cinema. Other aspects of Japanese horror and mythology which can be seen in the games of the Fatal Frame series will be discussed in greater detail of similarities during the analysis.
2.5 Female Representation in Video Games – Lara Croft Video games and female representation has been a topic of discussion in many areas, such as female game characters or female players within the gaming community. Research made in the representation of women in video games is an important baseline for this research, as it gives insight into what kinds of discussions and thoughts there are around the subject. It shows the methods that have been used in previous gender research studies and Tomb Raider (1996) is one of the first games with a female protagonist and is one of the most popular games in video game history. During the year of two thousand, another game called The Sims (2000) was created and became popular with female players. Xeniya Kondrat (2015) continues to explain how video games allow players of all ages to discover experiences and may have the possibility of doing anything within their fantasies. Video games can teach and influence players to learn about discoveries that might not necessarily be good for a person’s perception and minds, such as violence, sexuality, and aggression (Kondrat, 2015). However, it should also be mentioned that Samus Aran from Metroid (1986) is the fully armor-clad protagonist and was revealed to be a woman at a secret ending of the game. Lara Croft, on the other hand, is a very distinct game character through her history of being one of the first, clearly marketed, female game protagonists and the discussions around her nature as a representation of women to other players. Helen Kennedy (2002) analyses Lara as an object of representation, first as a visual spectacle, and then considers how her role as an actor disrupts the relationship between the spectator and “spectacle”. To begin with, Lara Croft was a significant addition to games that differed from the typical role female characters had in games. There were female characters in games before Lara and several fighting games offered the option of playing as a woman, however, the hero was traditionally male with females largely being part of the supporting cast. Lara being cast through marketing as the protagonist – or hero – of the game was in itself a refreshing experience, typically for female players (Kennedy, 2002). The games themselves were a great success with the latest advancements in game development, hooking game narrative similar to Indiana Jones, and the controversial yet captivating female protagonist at the center of the stage. Kennedy (2002) also makes the point that Lara’s status was as an object of sexual desire, which was also a factor empathized through marketing and advertisement of the game. However, it is also clear that the producers of Lara wanted to market her as a potentially appealing character to women as well, as her creation was favorably in tune with the age of “girl power” during the 1990s (Kennedy, 2002). In that sense, Lara can be seen as a complicated representation of what could be a female role model to women. In one sense, she is presented as a powerful and strong woman, but in other aspects, it can be argued that she has lost parts of her "womanhood" to remain an accepted and marketable pawn for profit. It
15 boils down to the question of whom and for what purpose she was developed for, as a protagonist to identify with or as an object to fawn over.
Mulvey’s theory on scopophilia or the male gaze is a reoccurring theme, not only in horror film studies but also in the discussions regarding the representation of Lara Croft. Kennedy (2002) also makes use of Laura Mulvey’s (1975) theories in feminist film studies and describes how two key insights which appear relevant to Lara, is the argument that the female body operates as an eroticized object of the male gaze and provides the male viewer with fetishistic and scopophilic pleasures. Secondly, the idea of an “active” or “strong” female character signifies a potential threat to the masculine order, however, this argument is more complex as it is dependent on a psychoanalytic reading of unconscious processes. Mulvey’s thoughts of the fear of castration could be signified through the narrative that Lara’s female body is castrated, however, still fully capable, and as such represents the threat of castration itself. Kennedy argues that this threat can be rendered safe by replacing Lara’s femininity with a heavy layering of fetishistic signifiers such as her glasses, her guns, holster belts, and long hair (Kennedy, 2002). This remains an interesting topic of representation when analyzing the use of female protagonists in the Fatal Frame. When discussing the amount of identification a player has with Lara, Kennedy (2002) argues that any identification that a male player may have with Lara is pushed aside through the objectification of her:
"If anything, any kind of identification with Lara is disavowed through the production of stories and art that tends to want to securely fix Lara as an object of sexual desire and fantasy." (Kennedy, 2002, Lara Croft as Action Heroine)
The notion that the identification with Lara is subdued through the objectification of her, could be interesting when relating such discussions to a horror game with a majority of female protagonists. In comparison to Lara, there is a question of how the representation of the women as protagonists in Fatal Frame is done and for what purpose. Also, looking at different game titles could give insight into what changes there have been in terms of female representation.
2.6 The Fatal Frame Series Fatal Frame is a horror game series with such a trend of female protagonists and antagonists is interesting to this study to examine what kind of representation there is on the female characters. The Fatal Frame has released five games, the first one was released in the year 2001 and the currently most recent title of the series was released in 2014. The game which will be of focus to this study is the first, released in 2001 by Koei Tecmo, Fatal Frame. The first game is what built the foundations of the series and to start an analysis on a game series, of course, it is favorable to start at the very beginning. The other games of the series are also very interesting, as they show the progression of the formula made in the first title. By starting at the first game, this study opens up an opportunity to further analyze the following titles as well. First off, the general formula of the Fatal Frame series is that they are all heavily inspired by what could be considered as the genre of Japanese horror and Japanese mythology. The games are situated in a haunted setting, filled with ghostly remains of the deceased who are confined to the place. The games tend to make use of a lot of female protagonists and focus on the use of young women at the center of attention when being the heroes, victims, and
16 villains of the story. The protagonists make use of spiritual powers or objects to protect themselves whenever the violent spirits try to harm them. There is a lot of mystery surrounding each game and the player is encouraged to solve it if they want to stay alive. The series is heavy with Japanese mythology in the context of a horror experience. It could also be considered to use methods of the uncanny, as the characters in the game possess a special connection with the spiritual by their ability to interact with spirit radios, the Camera Obscura. There are different ways of conceptualizing the uncanny, Laura Hoeger and William Huber (2007) described it as “the familiar-made-unfamiliar”, in their analysis of Fatal Frame II: Crimson Butterfly and its interpretation of the game through a psychoanalytic model of the avatar and theories of the twin. Through that conceptualization, it is possible to identify the “gamerly uncanny”, which is activated by its implementation in a software-based environment in a fictive game-world (Hoeger, Huber, 2007:152).
The instrument of the uncanny is the iconic camera, which can capture spirits on film as a form of combat and exorcism. When Hoeger and Huber (2007) observed and analyzed the second game of the series, they extended the means of observation to see the video game uncanny but not only through a film or literary sense, but “as a distinctively designed effective experience in which the textual elements are deeply entwined with the mechanical and spatial aspects” (Hoeger, Huber, 2007:153). Observing a game experience as more than film or text is important to understand the defined choices a game designer makes when constructing the complete experience. Just like with film production, there are active creative choices and techniques which can be used through game media or the technology of a console that defines the experience (Hoeger, Huber, 2007). This relates to the observation which will be made in this research study as well, as the purpose of this study is to investigate the creative choice which was made when the developers followed through and iterated their iconic formula of using an abundance of female characters as different roles in horror. Furthermore, after the game has been observed and broken down into parts of interest to the research, it will be analyzed through a method of textual analysis. This means that the game will be broken down as a text normally would and analyzed through a set of lenses, taking credit of each part of the game. The method of using textual analysis and how it will relate to this study will be described in greater detail in the next part.
17 3 Problem
Now that the foundation which intends to support this research has been discussed, the next layer of the research problem and purpose of the study will be considered. To begin with, the purpose of this study is to analyze the representation of the female characters in horror games, through the perspective and references which have already been made through horror cinema. The reason for this is to have a solid connection to associate the information within the games. Also, there are claims which suggest that the connection between games and film as digital media is close enough to be compared and applied to one another. Shail, Holland, and Gerrard (2019) write how previous research into horror cinema has focused on the manners in which the horror genre can play out expressions of patriarchal repression and violence or, more uncommonly, how to facilitate resistance towards such dominance. They continue by explaining how women are often cast as either the victims or cause of horror, violence, and abjection and how that has caused a lot of concern and debate in the horror genre over the way audiences identify or seek pleasure in its products. The resurgence and popularity behind the horror genre have lead to the followed development of horror in the visual form of comic books. Shail, Holland, and Gerrard proceed to argue that if comics based on the horror genre are inspired by the previous works within cinema, then there is an even stronger link with video games which are often built on existing franchises such as Resident Evil and Silent Hill. (Shail, Holland, and Gerrard, 2019) This gives an incentive to investigate the connections between the two digital media in greater detail to see what potential similarities or differences there are within their designs of creating fear. It is through these aspects of analyzing sections of horror cinema and its focus on the female gender, where connections can be drawn between the horror game world and what has already been seen on film.
Another vital point of reference in this research is Mulvey’s theories on scopophilia, which has been a reoccurring subject on several parts of the background, a connection which, in a way, ties them all together. In Clover’s analysis on gender in the modern horror film, there is a reference of Mulvey’s theories through the context of camera and identification:
“Laura Mulvey has famously maintained that the cinematic gaze (constitutive of primary identification) is not gender-free but is structured by male or masculine perceptions, a fact revealed when the camera’s object is a woman.” (Clover, 1993: 8)
Applying Mulvey’s ideas of the gendered cinematic gaze, to the cameras within a video game becomes relevant especially when considering that the older game titles of Fatal Frame make use of a fixed camera during gameplay sessions to control the players gaze, much like in films, and also contain cinematic cutscenes in which the player could be argued to practically watching a film sequence of the game. In the analysis of the second game of the series, Fatal Frame II: Crimson Butterfly (2003), Hoeger and Huber (2007) describe their experience with the fixed camera design as:
“Incomplete control pervades the game: like many horror games, Fatal Frame II offers almost no extra-diegetic camera control when navigating the virtual game space. The mapping between player view and avatar spatial deixis is controlled by the game software.” (Hoeger, Huber, 2007:155)
18
This is a design formula not only consistent with other horror games, but also within the first game of the Fatal Frame series, Fatal Frame (2001). This unique usage of the camera creates situations in which scopophilia could be perceived, not only in cinematic cutscenes but potentially through the fixed angles of the controlled game space as well. When it comes to discussions of how to analyze horror, psychoanalysis has been proved to be one of the most popular ways of interpretation. Balmain (2008) mentions Schneider’s (2004) argument in Horror Film and Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Worst Nightmare, that there has been a great amount of diversity in psychoanalytic approaches to interpreting horror. Schneider mentions Creed, who depicts horror film as “a respiratory of male castration anxieties and (patriarchal) fears around female sexuality”, or Neale who is claimed to “focus on the male monster, although female sexuality is to blame for the psychosexual pathology of the male killer”. Neal is mentioned to argue in this section that through their sexuality, women are rendered as desirable but also threatening to men, which creates the main problem of horror and the concept of what is seen as monstrous. Also, of course, Mulvey’s approach is finally mentioned as a feminist interpretation that “focus on gendered assumptions behind representations of the monstrous in horror film, using theories of absence and lack of derived from Freud and Lacan” (Balmain, 2008:6). Balmain (2008) argues that using these approaches, especially in the context of non-Western forms of horror, can be reductive if it is utilized unproblematically.
Helen Kennedy also makes the point of using Mulvey on the analysis of the well-known female game character, Lara Croft, claiming that she provides both fetishistic and scopophilic pleasures through her presentation as an eroticized object and that she signifies a threat to the masculine order through her representation of being an active and strong character (Kennedy, 2002). However, while Lara could be seen as a very popular and famous female character in the game world, this does not necessarily mean that the characters in Fatal Frame are made or represented in any similarity. Lara remains just one example of the different discussions there have been within the game world on the topic of female representation. There are some aspects of the discussions of Lara which can be seen as relevant to the research made in this paper, as a form of reference point to turn to when seeking out the different opinions on what makes a “good female protagonist”. If Lara is deemed as a “strong and active role model” or “eroticized object for male viewers”, such discussions can still be used when relating them to what the women in Fatal Frame are or are not in relation to Lara’s character. By focusing on the discussions surrounding Lara Croft, there is a basis of discussion to turn to when analyzing the women of Fatal Frame. For example, it provides the research with insight into what aspects of a female protagonist, in regards to her femininity, is kept or discarded for the sake of creating a specific type of player identification, appeal, or relatability.
The game which is to be analyzed may have obtained certain inspiration for the horror setting from Japanese culture and history, which should also be considered during the analysis. By looking into Japanese horror it can provide a background of socio-political, historical, or other culturally based forms of context. The background referenced Japanese horror film methodology and themes which were often used as a popular formula during certain periods of film production. One of such themes will be a vital point of reference when analyzing the different horror aspects which are an iconic part of the Fatal Frame series. The Edo Gothic period of Japanese film was produced during the 1950s and 1960s, however, the
19 foundations of the ie system which were laid out during the Edo period was during the reign of Tokugawa Ieyasu. This period could also be referred to as the Shogunate or Shogun and was during the years of 1603 to 1867 (Balmain, 2008). The Edo Gothic period, which has already been discussed in the background, had inspirations of traditional Japan, mythology, and different roles of women as both the monstrous and the victims of the sins most commonly made by a man. This reference is important since the main narrative of what sets the horror first in motion is, in each game used in this research, made through sacrificing unwilling women. These events result in their return as the familiar archetype of the vengeful spirit. Also, at least the first game, which has the main antagonist Kirie Himuro, mentions that her sacrifice during the Strangulation Ritual supposedly happened December 13, 1837, a date which is accurate to the Edo period (Strangling Ritual, 2021). Cultural aspects of the game will therefore be considered when analyzing the female representation through the narrative or visuals. This paper will go through two steps of research, the first step involves reaching out to the community of players who enjoy the Fatal Frame series to hear their own opinions and thoughts on the character representations of the game. This step intends to support the final and main research question with secondary information regarding the player experience, impressions, and opinions regarding their relationship with the Fatal Frame series. As for this step, the research question entails to answer: What opinions, interpretations, and experiences does the audience within the survival horror series Fatal Frame have regarding the execution of the protagonists and antagonists? Secondly, the first game of the series will be analyzed through textual analysis to bring out an understanding of how the women in the first game have been presented through a specific set of data points. Furthermore, the information gathered from the previous step will help support the final analysis. The final research question and purpose of this paper is to answer: How do culture and cinematic practices of narrative and visuals represent female characters in the Japanese survival horror game, Fatal Frame (2001)?
3.1 Method The research method which will be used in this study is, firstly, a data collection of the community opinion of the Fatal Frame series online and then, the first game of the series will be analysed through a framework with data points of interest. The textual analysis method will be based on the framework that will assist the examination of the points of representation in the game. The developed framework will consist of parts from the theories discussed in the background of this paper as a way of investigating their relevance to the video game. Parts of the collected theory will only be used if they relate or are applicable to video games, the horror genre, and female representation. For example, there are a lot of other existing social, cultural, or psychoanalytical factors which come into play when discussing the term scopophilia used in Mulvey’s theories. However, there are still elements to Mulvey’s theory on scopophilia that are considered useful to the analysis of these games, for example, objectification or the role of a female character on screen. It is important to note that the analysed game experience and gender representation of these video games will be part subjective based on opinion and impression as a Scandinavian researcher, gamer, and woman. However, this does not mean that the analytic process will exclude or go beyond
20 the measurements of the framework. The framework will be accurately described, followed, and critiqued through this process, no important data should be disclosed, and no dishonest data should be purposely included to create a certain result.
3.2 Methodology on Game Analysis To analyze the game structure and narrative regarding the female representation, construction of the method needs to first be established. The article Textual Analysis, Digital Games, Zombies by Diane Carr (2009) regards the methods of analyzing digital media, such as video games in different contexts based on the purpose of research. The paper is a contribution to the discussions about the value and limitation of textual analysis in digital games research. It has been argued that when identifying the nature of a digital game, both structural analysis and textual analysis are important. Neither method will completely determine the meaning of a game experience, but they are aspects of the cycle through which meaning is produced during play. This paper references theory of structural analysis, textual analysis, and inter-textual analysis to locate useful tools and when it is most accurate to use them (Carr, 2009).
Digital games are situated in culture and society, and to accurately understand them it is not enough to just study the games themselves, but also through the context of interactive play. Therefore, textual analysis possesses limitations, but it is possible to theorize textual analysis in different variations depending on the model of textuality employed. One can adapt theory by considering how games differ from other media forms. Game research is concerned with how meaning and interpretation in games struggle to fully integrate contexts such as rules, representation, culture, and history. A game experience is complete with such complex layers of play, which does not make theorizing game textuality a straightforward process. However, the research is still important and useful to inform about related issues such as representation or interpretation. It is valuable to both those who engage in the practice of game analysis, as well as those who are designing the research for games and learning (Carr, 2009).
Carr (2009) conceptualizes structural analysis as it relates to game design and form, while textual analysis relates to signification and the game as actualized in play. The structural analysis involves the importance of understanding games as systems, constituted by a set of parts that create the complex whole. Structuralism interests itself in systems and the relative placement of units within the systems, rather than the qualities of each unit. The structural analysis of a computer game may involve the organization of the game's units and the way they inter-relate in time and space. However, the position of units working inside a game, as well as the relationship between them, might not be constant or consistent, as the scope for alteration and change is controlled by the game. If structural analysis can be described as the objective structure of the text, then the textual analysis is founded on the act of reading. The textual analysis relates to practice, while structural analysis relates to the schematic which accommodates the practice and in the context of game research, the practice is play. However, this method can cause problems when used with games, since it is difficult to break down the parts of a game into a text in the same way as you usually would with literature. When using textual analysis, the practice involves breaking down the text into lexia, which may be a certain number of words or a group of sentences and are then read, classed, and discussed with a set of codes. Applying these codes to video games may cause
21 problems when the meaning of a code can be interpreted in more than one aspect of the complete game experience, such as mechanics, puzzles, story, or visuals. However, the analysis method of inter-textuality is more interesting regarding the purpose of this research study. Inter-textuality relates to the idea that texts cannot be understood in isolation and consider the aspects of the relationship between text and user. As explained in Textual Analysis, Digital Games, Zombies:
"(...) texts cannot be understood in isolation, but rather than proposing a straight switch to audience studies on that basis, they consider aspects of the relationship between text and user, finding that the reading or viewing subject arrives at a text with a set of 'reading formations' in place, and these will influence if (or which) aspects of that text will have resonance for that subject." (Carr, 2009: 4)
An observer or a user will interpret a text according to their own social, cultural, and historical perspective. Therefore, inter-textuality refers to "the social organization of the relations between texts within specific conditions of reading" (Carr, 2009:4). By using models of inter-textuality, it is possible to have a starting point for different discussions addressing, for example, the relationship between a specific game title and other games in the franchise. The emphasis remains on the cultural shaping of interpretation. This is relevant to this research study as well since it is based on an investigation on a survival horror game series, deeply rooted in Japanese culture through its expression of horror, mythology, and history, as well as female representation through its large cast of young women as protagonists and antagonists. This research calls for an analysis method that considers these multiple aspects and the subjective interpretation of a researcher.
3.2.1 Methodology, Representation, and Games Another article made by Diane Carr is a good foundation and inspiration for this study, since it describes the use of textual analysis, its advantages, and shortcomings, and uses the game Deus Ex: Human Revolution (2011) as a reference. Carr brings up a discussion about textual analysis, methodology, and presentation in digital games, while also including textual analysis as a procedure, the role of fragmentation, and how a player-as-analyst should work in relation to their own subjectivity and interpretation. The article was inspired by Deus Ex: Human Revolution and mentions some of the methodology problems that it posed, such as relating to the role of the player-as-analyst, the remit of textual analysis, its practicalities of method and process, and questions regarding thoroughness and omission. To begin with, there is a need of clarification regarding the procedures that support fragmentation and asks what it means to fragment a text as variable as Deus Ex: Human Revolution. Also, what it means to fragment a text as variable as Deus Ex: Human Revolution and what it means to describe a game as a text and the ontological implications. Finally, there is a need to decide the extent these ontological considerations shape our understanding of the applicability and limitations of textual analysis. These questions will be explored through the reflections on the experience of playing and analysing the representations in Deus Ex: Human Revolution (Carr, 2017).
Carr (2017) uses the term “representation” to connect a long tradition of work within humanities-oriented screen, media, literary, and cultural studies that addresses the ways that social groups are depicted in popular media. The study made in this paper will also make use of the same term of representation, to expand upon the previous research that has
22 been made within depictions of social groups in popular culture. The purpose of such research is to inform of tendencies that has an interest in centrality and marginality, normalized inequality, privilege, and “othering” of particular social groups. Such research remains important, as analysing popular text and media helps reflect on the cultures that they emerge from and Carr bases that significance on the idea: “how we are seen determines in part how we are treated; how we treat others is based on how we see them” (Dyer, 1993, as cited in Carr, 2017: 708). Furthermore, when looking into game experience, Carr points out that playing a game is a necessary step in understanding that game as experience, that each building block of a game is experienced differently and worth experiencing. Carr states that: “the experience of playing a game is very different from that of watching a game being played” (Carr, 2017: 709). The interactable aspects of games help game theorists who are writing about textual methods, acknowledge the limitations, scope, applicability, and advantages of textual analysis. When game theorist call games a text through textual analysis, it does not disregard the fact that it still involves play, mutability, chance, interactivity, or change. Instead, textual analysis of games focuses on embracing story and representational gambits and are, alongside code, rules, and mechanics, created as readable textual artifact. Also, when analysing a game through a gendered perspective: “the gendered video-game experience is not solely – or even primarily – an issue of visual representation but is expressed through game mechanics, structure, and goals” (Kirkland, 2009, as cited in Carr, 2017: 710). Through this study, a choice was made not to play the games but to observe footage of a complete game experience. By doing so, spending a lot of extra time and risks were avoided, however, it is still important to remember the loss of information it brings to the study, when the game experience is not taken in through the player-as-analyst representative. Although, in this study it would perhaps be more appropriate to refer to the researcher as observer-as-analyst.
Carr’s approach to textual analysis involved: “playing a game, fragmenting it, and then considering these fragments through three overlapping lenses: structural, textual, and intertextual” (Carr, 2017:710). The idea of this method was to analyse an object in a game through a structural lens defined by its in-game purpose, for example, as a key or as armour, and then through a textual lens defined by its qualities, as valuable, gendered, or ritualistic etc. Furthermore, there is a reminder of that interpretation is a culturally situated activity, which calls for a third lens which helps to culturally situate the interpretive framework of the player-analyst (Carr, 2017). Therefore, these three lenses were used accordingly to the previous discussions made on structural analysis, textual analysis, and intertextual analysis. For this study, it means that the method of analysis would be slightly different from Carr’s idea since this study does not play a game but watch one. The most appropriate lens of focus on in the context of this study is the third lens of intertextuality, considering that the game is heavy on Japanese cultural representation. However, since the study is also focused on female representation and the second lens of textuality is also an important factor of analysis. The first lens of structural analysis would be regarded as less important to this study since there is no real interaction with the game experience during the analysis. However, the analysis of this study would make use of the part of fragmenting the game, taken in from the screen. The fragments would be divided in the aspects of the game which are of importance to the study such as, for example, female-gender representation, culture, and cinematic psychoanalysis theory. Carr mentions that the point of fragmentation is “that it undermines the solidarity or totality of a the text, breaking it open so that its plurality or multiplicity can be unpacked” (Carr, 2017:712). One possible risk is that if an analyst focuses
23 specifically on representations of a certain area, they may risk closing off the game’s plural meanings to fit their narrative. This risk can be avoided by, first, acknowledging the complexity of games, and using codes or lenses to emphasize plurality, tensions, and contradictions in games. Carr express how a three-lens framework was helpful to alleviate these tensions, but that a reoccurring problem is their tendency to warp into a form of classification during use and peer review. There can then be an expectation that the method is dependent on a fixed distinction between each part of the game that is defined by a certain lens (Carr, 2017).
When an analyst begins to break apart the game, into fragments or quotes, there is an affirmation of plurality that helps expose any ideology of totality. Carr quotes Bellour’s definition of the textual analysis process by stating that as soon as the analyst:
“Quotes a fragment of it, one has implicitly taken up a textual perspective, even if feebly and one-dimensionally, even if in a restrictive and regressive fashion, even if one continues to close the text back onto itself although it is (…) the locus of an unbounded openness.” (Bellour, 1975, as cited in Carr, 2017:713)
By applying this idea to games, it means that if fragmentation is a central part of the method, then the analyst has taken up textual perspective, which makes the approach textual analysis. This means that, while the method used in this study differ from Carr’s, it is still defined as textual analysis by being focused on fragmentation of a game’s content. Carr describes that the use of textual analysis releases the analyst from the need of listing information about a game’s aspects when describing the scope and limitations or its relevance to rules, play, performance, etc:
“Similarly, once I have provided a rationale that connects a theory with a method that indicates that I am working within a coherent conceptual framework. In which case, providing additional rationales would be unnecessary.” (Carr, 2017: 713)
Another issue regarding textual analysis of games is that each player has their own unique experience and different game protagonist over time which, depending on the type of game, could have different traits, levels, skills, etc. Also, the player’s own experience shifts over time and such aspects can impact on interpretation. Every time a game or scene is being replayed, there is the possibility it will generate different acts and consequences. The fact of the uncertainty with games, raises the question of fragmentation and what kinds of choices that make the analysis process possible at all (Carr, 2017). As this study relies on pre- recorded footage, the problems regarding replayability is not an issue considering the material remains the same, but it still means that the data which will be tapped into from the footage, only remains accurate through the used footage. Watching a footage made by a different player could change the interpretation of the scene and, therefore, impact the data. Therefore, only one video of footage will be used in the analysis and is the exclusive reference example of the study.
After venturing into similar research and its methods analysis, it allows this study to have a foundation to base itself on while also moving towards a different territory of research by using different tools of execution. For this study, it means that textual analysis will be used, as the game will be observed but mainly broken down into fragments of importance to the research subject. The game will be divided into different aspects of context through fragmentation, which will allow different representations to reveal themselves. However, as
24 the study will use a method which does not make as much use of the structural lens, by not interacting with the gameplay itself, it is still important to bring forward such limitations early so that the results maintain clarity of focus. This method will make most use of the second and third lens, regarding textual- and intertextual analysis. It will give grounds to focus on gendered and cultural representation through the horror genre presented in digital media, such as video games.
3.3 Game Analysis Framework The textual analysis method which will be used in this research will be structured around the background of visual pleasure, cinematic narrative, Japanese horror culture, and game theory of the game of interest. The game that will be analysed in this study is the first, Fatal Frame (2001). The first game was chosen through its identity of being the first, as well as being a popular game of the respondents in the player survey. The chosen game title will offer a variety of female characters in different roles of protagonist and antagonist. Of course, adding more games would be interesting to investigate for this research study, but as the time is limited and each game is quite heavy on information, only one game will be focused on in this paper.
The game will be analysed by observing recorded footage of the complete game, from start to finish. This was also a choice that was made to save more time during the observation of the game. The recorded footage of this study is located at YouTube (2005, Google), an online video platform, on the channel SHN Survival Horror Network (2014). The video was uploaded in 2016 under the title: “Fatal Frame Full HD 1080p Longplay Walkthrough Gameplay No Commentary”. This footage was chosen as it was the complete game in one video with no cuts and had no commentary in it, which could have obstructed the research. Recorded footage helps save time and simplifies the process by allowing the observer to take time, pause, take notes, and rewind to get a better look at the scene. It should be noted that it would have been preferable for the footage to have been recorded by the researcher itself, however, since this process involves obtaining the games and playing them correctly, there was not enough time to complete these steps with the game. Also, the game title is quite dated at this time and would require an older console or the game to be emulated for a computer. But this process has some risks as it involves downloading altered game files, which might not be a complete and functional experience or could include potential malware. These aspects were deemed too obstructive of the research study and that is why the method decided to make use of already recorded footage of the completed games online while making sure the footage had no player commentary, as this could distract the observation process. As mentioned previously, this takes away the familiarity with game experience as the analyst, which could have been valuable when analysing the game through a structural analysis lens.
The analysis process will be observing the footage, pausing and occasionally rewatching certain segments, and record the information into a schematic of the framework. First, the time of the footage will be noted down, in case the footage needs to be rewatched again. Then the type of scene will be noted down along with a colour code representing the type of scene: cutscene, gameplay, or combat. This intends to keep a structure over the different scenes of interest, whether the information entails a cinematic cutscene or specific gameplay sequence. Then the character which involves the scene of interest is noted down, for the sake of keeping track of the important characters. The next step is describing the scene, in as
25 much detail as necessary, to capture the situation and context around it. If the scene is a cutscene or a specific scene of gameplay, then camera angles or techniques may be of importance to the experience or representation. After this, any quotes, information, or dialogue in the scene will be noted down in detail to preserve specific, vital information to the scene. Finally, the information will be given certain data points, which have been produced from the framework to determine what type of information the scene relates to.
The framework consists of three parts, which are divided into different points of interest. The first part regards the scopophilic and cinematic horror theory. This involves the subject of identification, which has been mentioned previously in papers on scopophilia and horror cinema, and the first data point asks whether the scene insinuates any identification with the character through certain methods. The player survey gathered information from the respondents on if they identify with the protagonists and how, which will be used as a way of finding any parts of identification in the scenes. The next data point involves character development, which asks how the character begins in her narrative and how she develops through the experience. If there is any development, in what way does it change her and what does it say about her character. Then there is a data point specifically on scopophilia and camera agency, which intends to discover how the camera angles and techniques portray the characters. What their focus is and what they are presenting for a player. Finally, there is the data point of cinematic horror, which asks if there are any patterns of female representation in horror seen within the game, or other patterns within horror cinema seen throughout the game series, for example, in the formula of the game.
The second part involves culture-based theory, and this part of the framework ensures that the Japanese cultural aspects of narrative and horror experience are included in the analysis. This can also affect how female characters are represented through the mythology and horror thematic of the game. This part contains the data points of Japanese mythology and Japanese horror, both of which could heavily influence the other. However, this part is important since it creates a layer to the discussion in which the context behind female representation becomes clearer. The third and final part of the framework regards Game theory, which includes any design elements within the game that affects the representation of a character. This includes the data point on character agency, which asks what kind of agency the character represents in the game world. The other data point regards the player agency and what kind of agency they possess in the game world and over the character. The final data points are visual- and narrative representation. Visual representation regards how the character is portrayed through graphics, animations, or aesthetics. Narrative representation is more focused on the parts in which a narrative is being told through the game about a character. This is more relevant to the parts of the game in which it builds up a story, or mystery, within the game space that the player can uncover. For example, if the game allows the player to observe a large hole in the floor or blood on the walls, it conveys a narrative that the player is free to interpret. These were the data points which the observation process followed, and which were discussed through the data analysis.
When discussing the different kinds of scopophilic aspects in the game, one way of simplifying the definitions for the sake of this research study is to divide them into scopophilia and voyeurism. In terms of clarity, scopophilia can be discussed as situations where the cameras angles or perspectives are put in a way to objectify characters on screen in a certain manner. Voyeurism takes the meaning to a second level by putting an intention or narrative on that objectification. Once the data is gathered, it will be analysed through its
26 different data points, or fragments, and discussed in the analysis chapter. Down below in figure 1, there is an image of what the empty framework would look like:
Figure 1: A clear example of the analysis framework.
Figure 1 displays the empty version of the analysis framework, containing space for the time, character, type, description, quotes, and data points. Figure 2 below shows an early description of the data points of interest:
Figure 2: An example of the descriptions used to determine the data points of interest for the game analysis.
The descriptions used in figure 2 were used when determining the certain data points of interests for the framework. These data points were produced through the theory, research, and data collected in the background and audience analysis.
3.3.1 Constructing the Player-based Online Survey The survey was constructed with a focus on qualitative data, while still attempting to simplify things for respondents who are not interested in writing long answers for each question. Therefore, the survey made use of many “yes” and “no” questions with the extra alternative to respond “no opinion/I don’t know”. After a question with multiple options, which the respondent could respond to rather quickly, the question followed up with a non-required question asking “why” to encourage a more detailed answer. For this pilot study, the follow- up questions regarding why a respondent responds or feels a certain way was not made required to make the survey more accessible for moments when the respondents did not have a detailed response in mind. The respondent might not always know the reason behind
27 their response, which is why the follow-up questions regarding their reasoning were not required.
The General Section
The first section was general questions to identify the respondent and gain some aspects of culture and background by asking them how old they are and where they are from. It was also considered important to ask them which gender they have. These questions were still not required, and the respondent could write their reply. The first required question was “have you played any game(s) of the Fatal Frame series”. This was an important question to understand what part of the community the respondent was in, to determine if they were a player of the series or had found an interest some other way. This question was followed up by a non-required question asking, “if yes, how much have you played”. This question had multiple choices to make it simpler for the respondent, they could state if they had completed one or several games or if they had not finished it. The second required question regards what other experiences they have of the series. In case a player responds that they have never played a game of the series, it is important to know what their experience is. The next required question to this part of the survey asks, “which game(s) of the Fatal Frame series have you played/are you experienced with”. This question intends to understand which type of game the respondent is experienced with. The survey relates to an entire series and must relay the information from each respondent while also making it clear which type of experience the respondent has. The last two questions to this part were not required but did ask about their general experience with the game series and who their favourite character is and why to understand which character in the series they value the most and to start a discussion.
The Protagonist Section
The second part of the survey relates to the protagonists of the game and opinions on them from the respondents. This part starts by asking “what is your general experience with the protagonist(s)”, if it’s “positive”, “negative”, “mixed/both” and “no opinion/I don’t know”. The respondents are asked why they have that opinion about the protagonists to get a clearer understanding of what parts they focus on. The next required question asks, “how do you feel when playing as the protagonist in the Fatal Frame games” and allows the player to respond with multiple options. They can also write their option if they find the list of options lacking. This question regards the potential feelings of identification or emotional effect that the protagonist can enact onto a player and why they feel this way. The next question asks, “is there any protagonist/moment with the protagonist that you remember strongly” and asks, “if yes, why and what impacted you”. This is to dig deeper into what the player focuses on and is left remembering the most. The next two questions ask, “have you ever felt an attachment to the protagonist(s)” and “do you ever feel that you can identify with the protagonist(s)” and why. Specifically, the identification question can be valuable considering the game is very focused on the female cast of characters. If there are a lot of specific respondents, either men, women, or non-binary, identifying or feeling an attachment with the female protagonists, it is also valid to understand the reason behind those feelings. It is important to remember that these questions which intend to know the overall relationship with the characters may look very different from player to player, but the interesting part is what different kinds of relationships there might be within the community. The next question asks, “what part(s) of a protagonist in the Fatal Frame series do you enjoy the most”
28 and if it is functionality, design, or story, etc. The respondents may choose multiple options or write their options depending on their response. Then the survey asks, “do you think the protagonist(s) play an effective part of the horror experience” and “what parts do you find effective/ not effective”. The games are classified as survival horror, so it is also relevant to ask them specifically how they feel about the protagonists through the aspects of horror. The final question asks, “is there anything you would like to change about the protagonist(s)” and “if yes, why and what would you change”. This last question to the protagonist section intends to specify if there are any aspects of the characters that the respondents disapprove of or would prefer to be improved.
The Antagonist Section
The final section of the survey briefly concerns the opinion of the antagonists of the game. Since this is a horror game, the role of the antagonist may most commonly be in the form of the scare. The antagonists are not the main focus of the thesis project, however, they are still a valid area to research during this pilot study. Just like the protagonists, the antagonist may have a strong incentive to emotionally affect the player, especially since the series is made up of survival horror games. The structure of this section resembles the one made for the protagonists. It begins by asking “what is your general experience with the antagonist(s)”, to understand what kind of opinion the player has and why. It is to identify their primary focus on the characters, whether it is centred around horror or not. Again, they may choose from multiple options, “positive”, “negative”, “mixed/ both”, and “no opinion/I don’t know”. The next question asks, “is there any antagonist/moment with the antagonist you remember strongly”, to identify what kind of experience the player finds most memorable with them. Their intended purpose of the game is in general to be a threat, which makes this question both interesting and slightly different from the protagonists which can be used to compare their roles. The following question asks if the respondents “think the antagonist(s) are an effective part of the horror experience” and “why and what parts do you find effective/not effective”. The final question asks, “is there anything you would like to change about the antagonist(s)”. This question is also a way of discovering if there is any discontent in the respondent.
3.3.2 Ethics The online survey will use a set of voluntary participants gathered from the fan page of the Fatal Frame series on the Reddit.com forum. The goal with the online survey and the cooperation with the community participants was to follow an ethical approach to give them as much control as possible regarding what personal information they desired to share and to allow them to remain largely anonymous through any of their contributions. This was made by not asking for any names or user ID’s where they might be known through the online forum, instead the online survey mainly asked for general information that could be helpful when determining the audience, while still giving the respondent the option of disclosing such information. The online survey was also produced through Google Forms and the results from the survey did not disclose any information about the participants, other than the information they themselves agreed to share through the survey questions.
29 4 Results
4.1 The Online Survey Data There were 36 respondents in total after posting the survey for a week on the r/fatalframe community page on Reddit.com. The general section shows that there was a fairly even distribution among gender. There were 19 male respondents, 13 female respondents, one respondent who identified as bigender, and three respondents who did not share their gender. This could suggest that the audience of the Fatal Frame series is diverse and not solely made up of adolescent males, seen in previous discussions of horror film audiences. Secondly, the majority of the respondents, a total of 15, were from the United States of America, but there was also a larger number of Europeans taking part, nine respondents. Both Canada and Central- South America had three respondents each originating from there. Finally, there were two respondents each from Asia and the Middle East. One respondent chose not to say what country they were from. Lastly, the age ranges of the respondents showed a slight majority in the ages of 25-30 by just one respondent. Ages between 17-24, and over 30 had 11 respondents each. One respondent chose not to give their age, while another replied with just a ”2”, which was also treated as an undisclosed data point.
A vast majority of the responses had played games from the Fatal Frame series. 34 respondents (94.4%) had answered that they have played the games of the series, while the remaining two respondents answered that they had not. Out of the 34 respondents who had played the game, a majority of 27 respondents (79.4%) answered that they had played ’a lot’ and have completed more than one game of the series. Six respondents (17.6%) answered ’I have completed at least one game’ and only one other respondent responded ’only a bit’ and that they have not finished it. These results show a majority of experienced players of the series and, also, that they have other experiences besides completing at least one game of the series. 33 respondents (91.7 %,) answered that they had read about the series online. 29 respondents (80.6%) answered that they had watched gameplay videos online and 21 respondents (58.3%) take part in discussions. Only three respondents (11.1%) answered that they had no other experiences, or that they had only played the game. Other experiences that were mentioned from respondents were having an interest in the music in the game, reading manga based on the series, streaming the game online, creating fan content such as drawings, and writing fanfictions. One respondent said they have commissioned people for Fatal Frame merchandise, claiming it was because there practically is none available on the market.
Respondents tended to have experience with several game titles. 34 respondents (94.4%) answered that they had experience with Fatal Frame III: The Tormented (2005), which makes it the most popular game in the survey. The second game of the series, Fatal Frame II: Crimson Butterfly (2003), is also the second most popular game (91.7%) and the third most popular game (88.9%) is the first game of the series, Fatal Frame (2001). Another popular title was the fourth game, Fatal Frame: Mask of the Lunar Eclipse (2008), with 20 respondents (55.6%). The remake of the second game, Project Zero 2: Wii Edition, had 17 respondents (47.2%), and Fatal Frame: Maiden of Black Water had 16 respondents (44.4%) in total. Only eight respondents (22.2%) had played the spin-off game in the series, Spirit Camera: Cursed Memoir (2012). Still, there was no game in the series that the respondents lacked experience with.
30 The next question to this section regards the general thoughts the respondents had of the series. There were a great number of positive opinions, however, the focus on why they enjoyed the series was connected to three points of interest: emotional narrative experience, effective game design, and Japanese mythology or horror. One respondent described it as: ”a uniquely emotional experience among survival horror, in my opinion, it's only comparable to ’Silent Hill’ in that ’quiet sadness among visceral psychological horror’ atmosphere”. Another interesting part was that some respondents already mention the female cast of the game and are shown to have mixed opinions in this segment. Some greatly value it as a part of the story, while others felt a lack of interesting male characters and villains in the game. This respondent had a positive outlook on the female characters, appearing in a different variety of roles: ”I love that the series cast is made up of so many women, both as the heroes and as the villains. I love how thematic it is, and I love that it plays on different kind of relationships”.
A different response described the game as being unique for having a focus on female characters as well as the sense of empathy the player can develop for every one of them: ”It's a fantastic realisation of Japanese horror in video game form, with a unique emphasis on female characters, developing empathy for both the protagonists and enemies alike, and confronting fear”. The first respondent of the mentioned answers is female while the second respondent is male, which shows that both genders may find value in the largely female cast. However, a female Asian respondent, like most characters of the series, replied that she had a great love for the series but that she disapproved of the lack of diversity and the way female characters was often used:
”I love the story so much especially fatal frame 2001 settings was based on a real location which is popular for its dark history. I love the music too. But I don't like how they're lacking male ghost and the series has the same pattern, innocent women who were sacrificed for rituals”.
Which shows there is a mixed opinion regarding the execution of the female cast in the game, some appreciate a large number of female leads, others express the representation is stereotypical or lacking.
Regarding the game design, the community expressed that it was unique and interesting, especially the camera mechanic of the games: ”It draws upon everything that makes Japanese horror scary and suspenseful and the gameplay of the camera is very well done”. The responses specifically mentioned the way a player feels forced to wait for the scariest point to do the most damage to the ghost as a very good design choice: ”Forcing the player to confront the ghosts by having them use the camera and having the most damaging shots be the most frightening to snap is pure genius”. The sound design of the game was also mentioned as being very effective and atmospheric. The third point of focus in their response was the Japanese folklore thematic of the series. Many of the respondents expressed an interest in the series and the mythology that is represented in it and Japanese horror. One response made the point of the series introducing Japanese folklore into the game genre, which could be seen as uncommon to the horror genre at the time:
”Great horror series that became a landmark on the Survival Horror genre by offering a distinctive spin on gameplay (…) with the Camera Obscura as well as by introducing and popularizing Japanese folklore into the genre (at a time where most Japan-developed horror games had a Western setting)”.
31 The general responses from the survey show that some of the most major points of interest are Japanese folklore and horror, the gameplay and camera mechanics, and the emotional and atmospheric storytelling.
The most favored characters were Miku Hinasaki (Fatal Frame, 2001), Mio and Mayu Amakura (Fatal Frame II: Crimson Butterfly, 2003), Rei Kurosawa (Fatal Frame III: The Tormented, 2005), and Sae Kurosawa (Fatal Frame II: Crimson Butterfly, 2003). Miku Hinasaki, the first protagonist of the series, showed that a lot of respondents preferred her solely on her memorability of being the first: ”Miku Hinasaki, because she's the start of the franchise and then accompanies you through the other games, even if just in the story or by family relation. (...) If you get the right endings you see Miku Hinasaki from 17 to 37 years old, which is an interesting story”. Other respondents expressed their favor of her because of her courage and strength throughout the series: ”Miku. She's in the first one, third and fifth. She always pulls through and has been through the most”. Based on the responses it can be argued that the players have an emotional attachment to her through her long connection to the series. However, some responses greatly disapprove of her development in the fifth game, in which she is in a posthumous marriage to her deceased older brother, Mafuyu Hinasaki (Miku Hinasaki, 2021).
The twin sisters, Mio and Mayu Amakura, could be considered even slightly more popular, with a preference of Mio: ”Probably Mio Amakura. Despite her sister making arguably the dumbest decisions ever (possession can only excuse so much), she sticks by her side and doesn't abandon her no matter what”. Their emotional storyline and relationship as sisters are shown to invest the respondents in these protagonists, slightly even more so than for the first protagonist of the series: ”Mio Amakura (…) Her story and conflict was the most emotionally potent for me”. Rei Kurosawa appears to be an interesting character based on her story and personality, but some also preferred her because of how relatable she felt: ”Rei Kurosawa. You get to know her more and more (…) and she's overall such a relatable character, with an actual job instead of being a schoolgirl. (…) The themes of loss and depression she deals with are also very pronounced”. Rei can be seen as one of the most relatable and emotionally memorable characters of the survey. Just a few male characters were mentioned as being the favorite and one response did not care for most of the characters: ”To be honest, I don't really care much for the characters of the games since they're mostly stereotypical Japanese schoolgirls that run like anime characters”.
The Protagonists
Overall, the general opinion of the protagonist is mostly positive to the respondents. 24 respondents (66.7%) answered that the general experience with the protagonists was ’positive’, while 11 respondents (30.6%) answered it was ’mixed/both’. No respondent said it was ’negative’ but one respondent answered ’No opinion/I don’t know’. Most show little concern with the protagonists and might feel differently depending on the character. The positive connections are that they show real emotions, feel immersive, relatable, and how they overcome their hardships: ”They aren't Mary Sues. They are relatable characters (…) the mental issues that they have to go through, and I like how they overcome them”. Some of the complaints or dislike to the protagonists were turned to certain characters of the series or the side characters which are still focused on in the story: ”My preference is usually dependent on the story of that particular game, and their uniqueness as a character as far as what they bring to the table. Rei is a very good protagonist with her story, however, Kei
32 seems dull even as the way he's introduced and designed”. The good parts were their relatability, emotional nature, bravery, and loyalty towards their loved ones.
When it came to the feelings while playing as the protagonists, a majority responded that they felt ’scared’ (77.8%), ’capable’ (55.6%), and ’it depends on the character’ (44.4%). Other responses expressed that they felt ’weak’ (38.9%), ’powerful’ (22.2%), and ’frustrated’ (13.9%). Two responses answered ’I don’t know/No opinion’. Some felt the characters were very brave in overcoming their conflicts while saving their loved ones, and even powerful because they had a special ability against the ghosts. The camera, which players use to fight the ghosts, gives them the feeling of being in control: ”Without the camera obscura you would practically be nothing in the situations the protagonists find themselves in”. The camera is often mentioned in the explanations and can be seen as one major part affecting their feelings, but it happens in some variation: ”Though the combat can be fun to master I've never felt powerful, because everything is so unpredictable and hostile” and ”I imagine the point of Fatal Frame is to feel weak and/or scared, but frankly I feel powerful. You've got your camera, you just need to know how to use it effectively”. The responses suggest that the capability or power players feel mostly comes from their use of the camera as a weapon.
Some respondents expressed that playing as a young girl, or seemingly emotionally- and physically vulnerable, does assist the feeling of being scared: ”You play a young girl in all the games and have only a camera as a weapon”. One response felt that ”the girls in the game are portrayed as too weak” and another response mentioned that while the characters are presented as passive, they still represent power through their spiritual abilities:
”While the protagonists typical for a Fatal Frame game are quite young and passive (…) They are at a disadvantage physically, but the battleground is spiritual, which is where they have an advantage”.
The protagonists are often described as being brave and selfless, but the capability and power are applied mostly through the camera. When asking the respondents if there are any protagonists or moments with the protagonist they remember strongly, a majority (75%) said ’yes’, while the remaining respondents (25%) said ’no’. Just a few responses talked about scary experiences of the game as being memorable, the large majority of responses focus on an emotional moment of the story. Rei Kurosawa is the character arc which is most apparent as her story and tragic loss of her partner was a powerful moment for them: ”Rei seeing Yuu in the real world. Having lost someone close to me, I'd have mixed emotions about seeing them again”. Miku Hinasaki was also mentioned several times as having an emotional story, but Rei’s character was mentioned more often in the responses. However, no matter which character or moment the respondent is mentioning, the overall appearance is that the emotional journeys of the characters are what was remembered the most.
The majority (66.7%) felt an attachment and answered ’yes’, a smaller number of respondents (19.4%) answered ’no’ and, lastly, five respondents (13.9%) answered ’no opinion/I don’t know’. Similarly in the previous responses, many felt a responsibility to the characters for helping them on their journey, many felt empathy with them, and felt like they could relate with some of their emotional experiences, such as their motivations, loss, depression, or fear. Other responses answered that they cannot relate to the characters or the experiences, or explaining that, to them, it is just a game. Therefore, there is a sense that the
33 majority of the respondents feel an attachment to the protagonists, mainly through their emotional journey with them and relating or feeling sympathy for their struggles.
Regarding identification the numbers have changed a bit, but the reasoning is fairly similar to the previous question. When asked if they could identify with the protagonists, the majority (55.6%) answered ’yes’ while the remaining respondents answered ’no opinion/I don’t know’ (25%) and ’no’ (19.4%). The responses which can feel identification in the characters explain: ”Mio goes above and beyond for her sister, I’d do the same for my sibling”. Several responses recite their previous response regarding their attachment to the protagonists. Some respondents talk about their experience relating to the characters as women, and there is a mixed opinion on how easily they can identify with them:
”I feel like they’re all normal, but emotionally connected, and for the most part, women. (...) I love the vulnerability of horror that reflects some of the vulnerability I feel as a woman in my own life. I feel competent when I'm able to overcome the obstacles in the game. Makes me feel like I can overcome my problems in my life as well.”
This respondent describes her own experience identifying with the character as a woman and finds value and strength through how horror reflects vulnerability through the characters. Another response explained her situation identifying with the female characters quite differently:
”I sympathize with them, but I can't say I especially identify with them even if I am a young Asian woman as well. They're all put in fantastical situations that are too different from what I feel ’in real life’, and the loss I've experienced personally is not similar to theirs.”
This response describes how fantasy can disrupt the feeling of identifying with the characters, feeling that their experiences are so otherworldly that it separates her from relating to them. It also mentions how pain and loss can be different for people, which can be another reason why some might not feel that they can easily identify with the characters the same way. Again, some responses note that it also depends on the characters.
A great majority (91.7%) of the responses valued the story and background of the protagonists the most. The design and aesthetics of the protagonists were also greatly valued (69.4%) along with their personality (55.6%). Some also enjoyed the functionality (33.3%) and two respondents (5.6%) answered ’no opinion/I don’t know’. This result is quite normal considering that responses have been heavily focused on the storytelling, however, it is interesting that their visual aspects were also highly valued and slightly more than their personalities. The respondents were asked if they felt the protagonists were played an effective part in the horror aspects of the games. A clear majority (83.3%) answered ’yes’, four respondents (11.1%) answered ’no opinion/I don’t know, and only two respondents (5.6%) answered ’no’. Some responses comment on that the vulnerability of the characters, as young girls, is important for the game to keep its convincing atmosphere, claiming that a visibly strong character would not have the same effect:
”It’s a reminder of how little you can really do. If you went as a big tough Chris Redfield type, it would just seem silly. Having it be people with no real combat training or anything like that really makes you feel the horror and helplessness”.
The way the characters feel emotionally relatable is another factor that the respondents feel is effective, as well as the likability of a character: ”Often you can see the protagonists
34 reacting to certain things in the environment or scares. This helps prevent them from feeling like a vessel for the player rather than actual characters”. Also, some responses focus on that the characters being immersive in the world is especially important:
”The most important part of horror is immersion. If you can't be convinced by the world it takes place in then you won't find it scary. (…) A well-designed protagonist is a good way to get the player invested (and by extension, immersed) in the world. If they can identify or understand them, see the logic in their capability and limitations, then the world – and horror – will start to feel more real”.
The final question of this section involves if there is anything the respondents would like to change about the protagonists and, if so, what parts they would change. The same number of respondents (44.4%) answered ’yes’ or ’no’ and only four respondents (11.1%) answered ’no opinion/I don’t know’. When asked what they would change, the respondents focused on the protagonists' personalities, visual representation, and diversity. Some functionality points were also mentioned. ”Once more, I'd give them more fleshed out personalities. Make them characters we can easily remember and tell apart. We should be able to tell them apart by their personalities not simply the game they were in”. Another response commented that they desired that the characters would be given more choices to be a bit more ”selfish” in their actions regarding their safety. Several responses desired more diversity in the characters, specifically older or more male characters in the game: ”I want the protagonist is male and the final boss ghost is also male. They have never done this before”. Adding more interesting male characters, as both protagonists and antagonists, giving them different ages, relationships or backgrounds can be seen as a way of creating more diversity to the series. Some comments dislike the visual representation of the female characters in the games and would like these parts to change: ”This game also had a ’fanservice’ feature. It toggled the ’movement’ of the breasts.” and ”Maybe have them at least have a little more confidence in their animations. They all run like anime schoolgirls and it has always annoyed me”. Miku Hinasaki appears several times in the survey as a very important and beloved character of the series, but some respondents want to change her story arc in the fifth game: ”Goodness... I'd get rid of Miku in the fifth game. She had her time to shine, they did NOT need to bring her back just to butcher her character, seriously!”
Section 3: The Antagonists
The final section of the survey enters the opinion around the antagonists of the series. Firstly, the general experience with the antagonists is to the majority ’positive’ (83.3%). A smaller number (13.9%) of the respondents answered ’mixed/both’ and only one other respondent answered ’negative’. Compared to the protagonists, the respondents feel more positive towards the antagonists. Many of the responses explain that the antagonists feel very interesting, have a deep backstory around them, and some express that they sympathize with them, especially after unraveling their tragic past and fate as the antagonists: ”The game does this amazing thing where it makes you feel bad for the ANTAGONISTS. For the most part, they're just decent people who got the VERY short end of the stick”. The overall responses suggest that they hold great importance to the series and its effectiveness as a horror experience: ”The antagonists of Fatal Frame games are typically good representatives of the themes of their respective games, whether it's in their backstory, design, or gameplay. Without them, the story would be missing a uniting element, and
35 some of the scarier encounters”. Many responses do also express that their design is very interesting and works well for the game’s horror atmosphere.
The same number of responses (83.3%) also answered ’yes’ when asked if they remember any antagonists or moments with the antagonists strongly. The antagonists which stand out the most in the responses are Reika Kuze (Fatal Frame III: The Tormented, 2005), Sae Kurosawa (Fatal Frame II: Crimson Butterfly, 2003), Kirie Himuro (Fatal Frame, 2001), all of which are powerful female hostile spirits and the main antagonists in each game title (Kirie Himuro, 2021, Sae Kurosawa, 2021, Reika Kuze, 2021). The responses were focused on the effective moments of horror or the emotional and tragic pasts of the antagonists, which all were powerful enough for them to impact them. When asking if the respondents felt that the antagonists were an effective part of the horror experience, an overwhelming majority (97.2%) answered ’yes’. Only one other respondent answered ’no opinion/I don’t know”. Some responses resonate with the sympathy and engagement you have with them, others describe how the design and gameplay around them are interesting: ”Difficult battles and fantastic designs”. Many responses also answered that their interesting and emotional backstory is important for them to get invested in discovering their past and learning more about who they were before they became the threat before them: ”The games would be much less engaging and hold my attention much less if the antagonists were just generic "bad guy out to get you" - giving them that emotional core makes you want to find out what happened, why, who were THEY”. Their sudden horrific appearance mixed with the sense of mystery and unveiling sense of empathy for them is an important part of the experience which makes them memorable and effective for the players:
”It’s difficult to say, but I think their body-horror appearance, reflecting their individual rituals and what went wrong and slowly learning WHY they look like that and what happened to them invokes an excellent mix of fear, horror, and empathy. By the end, you generally WANT to help them, which is more than you can say for a lot of horror antagonists”.
The antagonists being revealed as once being just ordinary people with a history of their own, is another layer which can make them impact the player to an even greater extent.
The greater majority (77.8%) of the responses did not want to change anything about the antagonists, which is interesting considering the same question regarding the protagonists was split even. Only six respondents (16.7%) wanted to make some change with the antagonists. The responses on what types of changes they would like suggested that they wished for more variety in the ghosts, which was mentioned previously in other sections of the survey, where respondents desired more interesting male characters as both protagonists and antagonistic ghosts. One point which was also repeated in the responses was that they desired more variation to their personalities and backstories as antagonists: ”To have more personality and insight other than being a maiden in love”. This is interesting considering their stories are thought of as a very effective part of the experience, however, there might be some dislike in the repeating patterns of the antagonists: ”I feel the romantic element of their backstories has been done repeatedly to different degrees of success. A more original story would be preferred going forward”. Many of the mentioned antagonists in the responses were once normal women who had been separated in gruesome ways with a loved one and turned corrupted by evil as a result. This could be why some responses feel a need
36 for more variety in the backstories of the antagonists, however, other previously mentioned responses have also expressed a dislike in some often-recurring patterns of the series.
4.2 Analysis Framework Results Below are image examples of the completed framework of analysis after observing and fragmenting the recorded footage of the Fatal Frame (2001). The purple sections are referring to scenes that are cutscenes, green refers to non-combat gameplay scenes, red refers to combat gameplay scenes, and yellow is some form of tutorial section of the game.
Figure 3: 58 minutes of framework analysis data.
Figure 3 shows an example of the framework data and the execution when recording information from the game. The complete frame consists of four hours and twenty-five minutes of gameplay. The most common data points were “Scopo”, which refers to
37 scopophilia or specific camera angles that are worthy of analysis. Player agency, or “PlayAgen”, was more common than signs of specific character agency, the reason for it could potentially be that there are more segments in the game where the player is acting out through Miku, than the character Miku acting out through herself. Furthermore, Japanese mythology or horror, referred to as “JapanMyth” and “JapanHorror”, were other common data points which were reported when a particular scene or event within the game showed signs of having cultural significance.
38 5 Analysis
The first game of the series, Fatal Frame (2001), centres around the protagonist Miku Hinasaki in her search for her older brother, Mafuyu Hinasaki, who disappeared in the mysterious Himuro Mansion. On September 24, 1986, the story begins with the aspiring folklorist, Mafuyu Hinasaki, entering the allegedly haunted Himuro mansion to discover its secrets and to find the renowned folklorist Junsei Takamine. He brings with him a family heirloom, a special camera that has the power to ”expose things the normal eye can’t see” and he discovers that ghosts of those who died there still roam around the mansion. Mafuyu fends the violent ghosts by taking photos of them with his camera and continues his search for Mr. Takamine and his team. However, Mafuyu disappears in his search and two weeks later, his younger sister, Miku Hinasaki, enters herself to find him and unravel the mysteries of the haunted mansion.
5.1 Scopophilic and Cinematic Horror Theory This part of the analysis will focus on the points in which camera angles and the cinematic narrative, portray the character and reflects itself onto the observer. The first part of this will go into the main female characters of the game, their motives, and their development in the narrative. This analysis will firstly discuss the characters and later the aspects of scopophilia or voyeurism that can be identified in the different game scenes.
5.1.1 Character Development In the introducing scene of the game, Miku Hinasaki wonders: ”How long it has been since my brother and I, began to see things other people can’t see”. Miku also begins to tell the story of her older brother and describes her close relationship with him as her only family: "My big brother he was so sweet and kind. He was the only one I could open up to about these visions. After my mother died, he was my only family”. These lines set the very foundation of Miku’s dependency on her older brother, who shares her unique abilities and is the only family she has left after her mother’s passing. This dependency that Miku has on her brother is what makes her willing to investigate the Himuro mansion in the first place. She never questions her mission or safety, even after encountering several hostile spirits in the mansion, she is constantly focused on finding her brother. Mafuyu Hinasaki, is said to enter Himuro Mansion to find Junsei Takamine and his team that has disappeared. One general thought which was prevalent during the observation of the first game and Miku Hinasaki as a protagonist was her lack of development throughout the game. As mentioned, her main motive in the game is to find her brother and she never expresses any doubts about her mission but continues without hesitation to find him.
However, in the end, when she does find her brother, he simply tells her to go on without her at their time of escape from the mansion. It could be considered a bit unclear whether her brother is already deceased at this point and that the Mafuyu she finds might be whatever remains of him. Mafuyu himself explains that he is staying behind to relieve the pain of the main antagonist, Kirie Himuro, as she is still captured in eternal torment and duties to the place. However, he does at earlier points of the game tell Miku through messages that they appear to be separated: “Dear Miku, I know it's weird, but I see you sometimes here in the mansion. I run after you, but I always end up losing sight of you... There must be some kind of warp in time here now. We'll probably never be able to find each other…”. This does not
39 specifically say that he is no longer alive but it does say that they are separated from each other. However, they do find each other at the end but are not together for a long time as Mafuyu stays behind while Miku escapes the collapsing ritual grounds.
The importance in this scene, in terms of her character development, is that Miku is originally dependant on her brother but she is never given a choice of letting him go. She is eventually forced to let him go when a rock falls and separates them both. In the final scene, Miku wakes up outside of the mansion alone and watches the spirits of the deceased gently soar up into the sky, freed from their curse. Miku does not show any signs of emotional trauma being separated from Mafuyu. While it is unclear how accurate this detail is to the first game of the series, the online fan page of the game does claim that Mafuyu has been deceased ever since the first game release and that the canon ending is the one where he chooses to stay behind (Mafuyu Hinasaki, 2021). So, while it is fair to assume that her brother has passed away sometime during his visit to the Himuro mansion, Miku is still not showing any signs of the emotional impact of this event. The final scene simply shows her staring up at all the souls that are leaving the haunted mansion and the voice of Mafuyu being heard: "Miku, I now realize why I was brought here and I will accept this destiny of mine... Miku, thank you, for everything." Miku ends the scene, and game, by saying: "Ever since that day, I stopped seeing things that other people don't see."
While Mafuyu’s voice is thanking Miku for everything, the only clear character development or change in this scene is that Miku no longer gets unnatural visions. One can argue that she has made development by being turned independent by losing her brother, however, it is more accurate to argue that this narrative is more reminiscent of the mono-no-aware that is also present in the narrative Japanese horror film. Miku does not show clear development throughout the game, but she does show herself accepting events that could be considered impactful, to the point that she accepts death and the fate which has affected her. Even Mafuyu claims to accept the destiny which he believes called him to this place, to begin with. However, at the beginning of the game, Miku mentions his original motive of going to the Himuro mansion was an unpaid debt he owes Junsei Takamine: "My brother was in search of someone. Junsei Takamine, a famous novelist and a man my brother was very indebted to, disappeared while researching a book. When he told me he got a lead on Mr. Takamine's whereabouts, I felt uneasy, like he was going far away." Both Miku and her brother show to follow a clear narrative of the mono-no-aware, of finding and accepting their fate and appreciating the inevitable without resistance. This is also a relevant point to the main antagonist of the game, Kirie Himuro. However, her story does not only follow the narrative of mono-no-aware but also the ie system which is a common factor of conflict in Japanese Edo Gothic film. This will be looked into further when discussing the Japanese horror film and mythology aspects in the game that relates to the female main characters.
5.1.2 Identification with Miku Hinasaki As for identification with the player and protagonist, the survey produced responses that describe identification through the emotional state of the character, as well as some players resonating with the protagonists as female. As for Miku Hinasaki, the first protagonist of the series, she does show some aspects within her representation that could fit a number of the identifiable aspects for the players. She is often portrayed as scared and vulnerable in the situation she is in, but also determined and brave enough to uncover the secrets hidden around the mansion to find her brother. One thing, which also a respondent of the survey pointed out, was that Miku Hinasaki’s character in the first series could be seen as ”a bit of a
40 blank state” and most of the emotions she shows in the game can be interpreted as ”shocked” or ”surprised” by the things which happen around her. She does not show a lot of powerful emotions of fear and, at least within the cinematic cutscenes of her, it mostly constitutes focused shots of her face with her mouth open, gasping, or, on occasion, raising her hand towards her chest or mouth during a frightening event. However, in the combat scenes in which she is attacked, the game always centres the camera around her, as she either struggles in a whimpering or screams out in fear or pain.
She does, however, possess a deeply emotional and, perhaps, traumatic past to her, which is shown in depth around halfway into the game. Miku Hinasaki finds photos in the mansion, which are the same as the ones her mother took and the following cutscene shows Miku overlooking a woman hanging from a tree in the courtyard from a balcony. The scene shows Miku standing in front of a tree with a hanged woman in a similar way and other scenes of Miku, looking in at her mother who is in a room taking pictures of what appears to be nothing. This scene describes Miku’s past, in which she follows her mother spiral into madness and then finding her body after she committed suicide by hanging herself from a tree. While Miku’s character in the first instalment may be considered a bit blank in her expressions and actions, the story still shows her deeply traumatic past which some might resonate or sympathize with. It puts her into her situation of being completely alone and gives an even greater incentive to her being desperate to find her older brother, especially since she at the start of the game begin to talk about her brother in very affectionate ways and that, after her mother died, he was her only family.
It also gives incentive to the player resonating with her complete isolation within the hostile environment she has chosen to explore. The identification which may happen in the first instalment with Miku Hinasaki could be as a result of her vulnerability, often shown in cinematic cutscenes or during combat sequences, either as a young woman or as a reflection of the player’s emotional state as an observer. This could also be empowered by the portrayal of her personal needs and mental state, as she is alone in her search for the only family she has left in the normal world. Her priority in life is to find her brother, even if it means facing a haunted mansion and the risk of death. This, assuming the player is playing on their own, may resonate with the player’s sense of loneliness while playing a Horror game and increase the portrayal of vulnerability in Miku Hinasaki, as it is “just the two of them”. Playing unto emotions are an important part of a horror experience, making a character alone, young, vulnerable, and emotionally or physically fragile in a player’s eyes, may give them the incentive to be more personally affected by the character’s disposition to their own as a player. This was also expressed during the responses from the online survey, where the protagonists were appreciated for being brave, while still considered quite weak and fragile as young women.
5.1.3 Visual Representation of Game Characters Regarding Miku’s visual design and representation, her general character design is quite clearly addressing her as a young girl, possibly in a school uniform. As mentioned, her introducing cutscene presents her wearing boots that cut below the knee, a short skirt, white jacket, or blazer over a red top. Miku’s outfit resembles a version of the Japanese school uniform used by many high school girls created in 1984, during a time when the students desired personal freedom and individuality over their outfits. An example of a popular school uniform at that time was the blazer uniform with a short skirt and knee-high socks. The game takes place on September 24, 1986, so it is within the time of the popularized blazer
41 high school uniform. However, Miku is wearing a quite short miniskirt and a more casual looking blazer which does resemble the fashion change of the uniform in 1995, which consisted of very short miniskirts, long, white, and loose-fitting knee-socks (LIVE JAPAN, 2020). While this outfit may not specifically be a school uniform, it does help in specifying her age to the audience. Through sources on the Fatal Frame Wiki fan page that has often been accessed throughout this study, it states that Miku is supposedly 17 years old at the time of the first game, which would fall in line with the design of her outfit (Miku Hinasaki, 2021). Therefore, while the game might not specifically make it clear to the player that she is of a certain age, her clothing can suggest that she is young of age by resembling a Japanese high school uniform.
Miku’s mannerisms as visualized in the game are quite repetitive and, specifically in the cinematic cutscenes, she tends to gasp, whimper, and occasionally raise her hand to her chest at moments of tension or downright horror. Even in moments where the main antagonist and highly dangerous ghost, Kirie Himuro, move towards her in a small room with no escape, Miku resolves to similar expressions of gasping and whimpering. However, while there are occasions where Miku screams out in fear, it is strictly consistent with the moments of combat in gameplay where spirits hurt her. It could be considered quite the contrast from her behaviour in the cinematic cutscenes, which rarely show her screaming out in fear to any of the dangerous spirits approaching her. This detail could signify that the game desires to put more of a dramatic effect on the player during the events where they are losing health during gameplay or, through a standpoint of narrative, represents a strong mental strength in Miku during the moments where the player does not have any control over her safety.
However, there are no evident signs to the first game using the protagonist, or any other character, in a sexualized manner or catering to a sexualized fantasy for the audience. The animations are all kept rather natural, the design and proportions of Miku Hinasaki and other characters in the game are kept realistic. Also, the camera angles are used respectfully to the characters on screen. As an example, while Miku’s character is dressed in a miniskirt, camera angles of her climbing up ladders or walking are kept at an angle that is not revealing to the player. Through this analysis, the miniskirt outfit used in the game is more representative of her as a teenager living in Japan, rather than a tool of sexualization for an audience. However, while there are plenty of discussions regarding the fetishism of Japanese high school girl uniforms, the game does not use this outfit as a way of revealing her in any camera angles or cinematic cutscenes of the game. This suggests it is used more as a representation of her age in the game, a detail that plays into the idea of the player being aware of themselves playing in the position of a teenage girl living in Japan. Compared to the discussions made on Lara Croft’s visual representation, Miku Hinasaki is definitely allowed to dress more feminine, in the way that she does not entertain any ideas of being clad in holsters for guns or ammunition, but instead wears a dainty miniskirt and keeps her hair kept with a hair clip. In of itself, it may be suggested that the horror genre allows her to maintain her femininity while she is in the understated role of a victim.
One could also point out that there are unlockable costumes for Miku in the game which the player can switch into as stated in the Fatal Frame Wiki fan page for Miku Hinasaki, which includes different colored versions of her outfit, hair, and skin, and short summer yukatas in different colors. There are also mentions of Miku Hinasaki’s appearance being different in the two platform versions of the game. The original Japanese version shows a Miku with
42 darker, black hair and larger eyes, while the US release shows a Miku with lighter hair in brown color, a slimmer face, smaller eyes, and redder lips. There are also mentioning that her outfit in the original version released in Japan had a clearer resemblance to a Japanese school uniform, while the outfit in the US release had her prominent focal ribbon removed to her blouse, as well as the blouse and skirt, being more streamlined and supposedly more “mature” in appearance (Miku Hinasaki, 2021). While these changes might not be considered particularly large, they were still part of the release into western markets. One could argue that the changes to her physical appearance and outfit were made to remove some of her Japanese origin and culture to a western audience meant to play as her, however, it is still hard to say as other characters of the game were left unchanged. Kirie Himuro remains as a staple antagonist in both releases and is quite heavily inspired by a lot of Japanese cultural elements, as discussed previously through the perspective of the Japanese horror film.
When looking into the antagonists’ visual representation of the game, they often play into the idea of building up fear and mystery around their ravaged bodies. The body-horror element is interesting when it relates to the female antagonists in the game, as many hostile ghosts of women in the game can be seen with either a broken neck, body wrapped in long and black hair, decapitated and as a floating head, immobilized and crawling on the floor, or without eyes. The male antagonistic spirits on the other hand, such as Koji Ogata or the priests, show themselves similar to what they looked in life, except perhaps for the spirits of the priests that can be shown decapitated and impaled on a sword, but still with the body and head working together in control. Even the spirit of the Headmaster of the family, is found wearing the mask that he also worn during rituals and fights with his sword. The only possibly male antagonistic spirit which might be considered moving closer into body-horror, is the enemy referred to as “long arms”, for lack of a referenced name in the game. While it is called a male spirit, its appearance is further away from looking human than the rest, with its non-proportionally long arms to its body (Long Arms, 2021). The injuries shown on the female spirits can still be thought of as more “intrusive” on the player’s emotions, since they are shown as quite severe compared to the priest spirits. The priests are “only” decapitated or impaled by a sword but still hold themselves up as if they would in a normal body, while the female ghosts show signs of being deformed by their injuries, for example by dragging their body on the floor or the Blinded Maiden reaching out with their arms to get a feel of their surroundings.
5.2 Aspects of Scopophilia and Player Agency Through the analysis of the observed game experience of Fatal Frame (2001), there are many moments of scopophilia, also, there are several different forms of aspects that this phenomenon may occur. Some are more closely iconic to cinematic horror and film in general, typically in the cinematic cutscenes, while others are more game-focused or even engraved into the mechanics of the games themselves. There are then several layers to the game in which it goes back and forth between putting the player in the perspective of a vulnerable character, putting them in the perspective of the danger, or even guides and encourages the player in enacting the phenomena itself on the surroundings. There are also points to the game’s narrative design, shown in the game, which can be seen as just different ways of making the player feel watched or watch others.
43 5.2.1 Fixed Cameras, Tailored Gaze First of all, the game has fixed camera angles, which means the angles of view are fixed by design and not controlled by a player. The game uses this aspect of fixed camera angles to make the player see from a certain perspective and see what the game wants the player to see. For example, many ghostly encounters in the game happen when the player explores an area from a certain camera perspective and a ghost appears within the view of the camera, passing by in front of the player or appearing in the corner of the screen. The game also shows items in the game as shining points of light, placed within the view of the camera angle, to make them visible for the player to pick up. This helps create a tailored experience, which tells a narrative through the intentions of a designer and removes that aspect of control from the player. Here are some moments within the game which exemplify how the fixed camera perspective leads the player’s eye to a new, commonly horror-inducing event.
Figure 4: The player entering a room with a ghost standing inside the room wearing a red blouse, shown within the red circle. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
In figure 4 above, the player enters a new room after following the tracks of the ghost wearing a red blouse. Right as the player opens the door to reveal the inside of the room, the camera is positioned in a manner that reveals the ghost inside the room, standing in front of a doll and slowly turning around to look at the player. It is one example of how the camera layout reveals, guides, or surprises the player through their control of all the angles.
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Figure 5: Gameplay footage of “Observatory Man” overlooking the player, Miku Hinasaki, who is walking on the courtyard below holding a flashlight. The player is within the red circle. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
Figure 5 above is another example of how the fixed camera angles help create a narrative and consistently new emotions in the player while sacrificing their comfort in control. The image in figure 2 displays an above view of Miku, or the player, walking on the yard below the rooftop while holding a flashlight, seen in the red circled area. A man is observing the player from above, clearly placed in the other half of the screen. In this scene, the player sees him looking at them from the rooftop as they enter the area and proceeds to bring out their camera to take a picture of him. Again, it is only when the player brings out their camera when they have full control over the view ahead and are now facing the man at a distance instead. In the photo he is displayed as “Observatory Man”, but in the story, he is Ryozo Munakata, a previous folklorist living at the mansion and he is also the great-grandfather of Miku and Mafuyu (Ryozo Munakata, 2015).
These events may add a sense that the player is not alone or is to be looked at, but sometimes it also sets the narrative that Miku, or more accurately the player, is also the one who should be looking at the spirits who roam the mansion. Sometimes the camera reveals a shot where a ghost appears close to Miku while not seeming to acknowledge her. In this scene it is Miku, or the player through their agency, that uses their camera to capture the person on film, recording their presence at that moment. As an observer, this moment makes the player the one who is practically engaging in scopophilic acts. It is the ghost that is the vulnerable one, as they are caught by Miku in a moment of their passing where they have been killed, trapped, and forever lost in that place. Every time a photo is taken, the game applies a sort of “title” to the picture or person on the film. This is not necessarily the person’s name or real identity, but a description of what the game, or Miku, chooses to define them as in that moment. This can set the tone that the player is engaging in an act that captures unassuming identities and stories on film and further objectifying them by a description that is determined by the game. They are the “Rope Hallway Man”, the “Man On Beam”, the
45 “Seductress”, or the “Woman in Pain”. These are just a few examples of the descriptions which the spirits are given at the moment when a photo of them is taken.
Figure 6: Collage of in game examples of the ghost titles made by the researcher. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
Figure 6 above is a collection of examples where the player captures spirits on film. These spirits come in different forms, as can be seen in the examples, and some are harder to make out than others. The reason behind their form could potentially be because of how old the spirits are, as both “Man at Window” and “Woman Turning” are the two assistants of Junsei Takamine who, therefore, must have died rather recently compared to other spirits at the scene connected to the events of the Strangling Ritual. However, no matter their film appearance, they are still given a description or title when captured on film. Some of these titles can suggest what they are doing at the moment the player takes a photo of them but there are also titles such as the “Seductress” or “Woman in Pain” which explain a different narrative than the one which was happening at the moment the player takes their picture. In these situations it is not Miku Hinasaki or the player which could be considered the victim, instead, the aspects of scopophilia are turned towards the ghosts who are trapped in the mansion, creating a sort of fascination with the deceased victims. However, it could also be seen as Miku Hinasaki and the player are capturing them on film as a way of remembering them, preventing their souls from being lost to history. No matter the intention behind these photographs, combined with the cinematic cutscenes within the game, they help create situations in which scopophilia can be interpreted in a scene. Especially when it is the player who is the one with the agency at this moment and it is a prominent occasion where the player is given full control of their view perspective through using the camera obscura.
5.2.2 Cinematic Cutscenes and Horror The cinematic cutscenes are also very precise in their camerawork. As the name suggests, the scenes are no longer “stiff” and fixed in place, instead, they are actively shifting and moving perspectives to create a different type of narrative. Of course, they resemble a film, and the player has even less control over the game in these moments, all they can do is watch the
46 clip. The very first reveal of the protagonist, Miku Hinasaki, happens in the introduction of the game after the player has gone through a short section as Mafuyu before he disappears. Mafuyu’s first introduction in a cutscene is used more like a reveal of the Himuro mansion, as Mafuyu is shot from a bridge that overlooks the mansion. Mafuyu says “so, this is Himuro mansion” and the camera pans up at the building towering ahead. Compared to Mafuyu’s introduction, Miku receives one which is more catered to the player getting a first good look of her and not just the mansion. A close low camera shot shows Miku’s feet walking towards the entrance of the mansion on the same bridge Mafuyu was introduced on. Then the camera shifts to a front view of her legs, or specifically knees, and then pans upward to her face. Followed is a close shot of her face, looking straight into the camera and calls out Mafuyu’s name in a low voice. While this panning and a focused full body shot of Miku’s first introduction could be considered as a way of objectifying her to the audience before they start the game, it is still hard to determine if this truly was the intention. Rather, it could present the player with a clear presentation of the “real” main protagonist, seeing as they first played as Mafuyu, or it could also put the player in the perspective that they are going to be playing as this young girl. At least, this introducing shot serves the player with a full view of the visuals of the character, as well as a potential clarification of whom the main protagonist of this game is going to be. However, there is nothing particularly outstanding with this cutscene in terms of what it shows us about Miku as a person. She simply walks up to the mansion her brother disappeared in two weeks ago, raises her hand to her chest, and calls out “Mafuyu” almost in a whisper. If anything it shows her worry for her brother and, perhaps, how she feels scared or defenseless before entering the mansion as she raises her arm towards her chest in an almost passively defensive position, which could also be considered one of Miku’s iconic reactions in the game as it happens quite often. The cutscene and introduction are short and straight to the point in a way of explaining that: “this is the girl you will be playing as next, this is what she looks like, and this is her passively defensive attitude towards the mission”. The next cinematic cutscene reveals Miku entering the Himuro Mansion and the first shot shows her from a front view as she is staring forward with complete darkness all around her. The camera zooms in closer on her face and then shifts position to behind her, panning as Miku shines her flashlight into the room. The following shots are focused on the deteriorated state of the mansion and the view is suddenly distorted by harshly contrasted effects in black and white, perhaps as if Miku gets a vision upon entering the mansion. The camera quickly shows a shot of Miku’s face as she gasps and looks downward. As she begins to say: “What… What is this place?”, the camera is positioned from the back and moves towards her, resembling something drawing near her from behind while the sound becomes increasingly sharper. The sound stops abruptly, and the camera shows a close shot of Miku’s face in profile as she opens her mouth, as if she is sensing a presence behind her. Then the camera proceeds to show her from a front view angle, closely focused on her face, and the shape of a young girl with pale skin and long dark hair is seen standing behind her. A voice crying out “help...” can be heard, Miku gasps and quickly turns around to find nothing standing behind her. The camera is then placed at a distance, panning over the room, and Miku, who is standing turned towards the entrance, inspecting the space with her flashlight. Finally, the camera is closely focused on Miku’s face as she looks around and thinks: “Did… Someone just…?”. This introducing scene of Miku entering the mansion and the actual gameplay is a good example of the layout on common cinematic cutscenes of the game in which Miku is the
47 object at risk of danger. In terms of scopophilia, these scenes of mixed shots of Miku’s facial expressions, overlooking behind her back, or at her unexpectedly from a distance, are good at positioning Miku as the object of vulnerability at certain points of the game. In a way, it is as if the player through the camera angles is shifting gaze from observing the unknown through her perspective, putting themselves in her shoes to experience just a piece of the expected tension she is feeling staring into the darkness. Then they are shifted to observing her from the perspective of the danger lurking in the shadows. Interestingly enough, in this example one could argue that the player is more personally connected with Miku’s experience when they were to look into the room in a first-person perspective, taking everything in as she normally would. However, they are also moved to be put in a perspective that instead looks over her shoulder which, in a way, distances them from her and her experience. If there is a moment of possible danger hiding in her surroundings, the player is equally put in a situation where they are connected to that danger, by not looking over the monstrous one’s shoulder but directly from the viewpoint of the monstrous one. In terms of identification which has been previously discussed through the online survey responses, Miku is a representation of the player being vulnerable in one moment, to different degrees depending on how closely they observe the world through Miku’s perspective, and then moved to watch from the eyes of imaginable danger instead. The identification the players felt with the protagonist through their vulnerability may be channeled through these cinematic moments where the player gets a taste of both observing through the perspective of the exposed Miku and the dangerous unknown.
5.3 Going Beyond Scopophilia While describing scopophilic aspects in cinema and comparing them to video games, one unique part which separates games from the film is interaction and the effect it has on the narrative journey. Camera angles have been discussed in both perspectives of cinematic cutscenes and gameplay footage, however, there are moments within the gameplay where interaction or other narrative elements bring the themes into a deeper level of storytelling. That said, there are moments within the game that appears to go beyond scopophilia by putting a narrative or interaction behind the event. One example of this happens quite early in the game and it is again connected to the interaction where the player is taking photos of unsuspecting ghosts, framing them in their moment of vulnerability with a descriptive title. Miku, or the player, explores a room and interacts with an object which appears to be a mirror stand with the description: “It looks like a small mirror stand, but the mirror is missing. The drawer is locked.” The player then moves towards two kimono stands which are right next to the drawer. These objects could suggest that the room was previously used by a woman in the mansion. The kimono stands are placed next to each other, creating a sort of cover obstructing the view into the corner behind them. The player directs their camera in between the two kimono stands and takes a photo, which reveals a female figure standing behind the cover with the title “Woman in Kimono”.
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Figure 7: A photography taken by the player of a female ghost behind to Kimono stands. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
In figure 7 above, there is a narrative of the player discovering a hidden spirit from behind the cover of two kimonos. This image alone may put a new narrative into the mind of the player, asking who she is and what she was doing there. Was she hiding behind the kimonos and, if so, for what reason and from who? Was she simply changing her clothes or was she hiding from someone or something dangerous? These events may to some just be considered an unlockable secret, but to others, which has already been seen as a very present part of the community from the online survey responses, it may be a way of revealing further narrative and mysteries. This scene explains nothing, except that the spirit of a woman in a kimono is behind two kimono stands, but it describes enough for the player’s mind to start considering a narrative. Therefore, just by being behind the two kimono stands and out of sight, it suggests that she is hiding and that, in turn, suggests that she at that moment is vulnerable. Again, this is not a stated fact, but a suggestion based on what the game is offering the player in terms of context. Another interesting detail to the narrative is the use of peepholes in transitions into cinematic cutscenes. In the later part of the game, when the player reveals more of the main antagonist Kirie Himuro’s past, the player moves inside a passageway and interacts with a shining hole in the floor. A cutscene begins to play where Miku bends down to look inside. The camera shows her in a front view of her face as she moves her head closer to the camera, focusing one eye on the hole. The camera then shows a view of a room below, wooden floors and a door can be seen. The view moves as if to suggest Miku is looking around and reveals another door by the side. Suddenly, two ghostly eyes, partly hidden behind black hair, cover the view. This can be considered a typically effective opportunity to scare the player, however, the existence of these peepholes in the game is what tells a narrative. The cinematic cutscene ends soon after Miku pulls herself away from the peephole on the floor and puts her hand up to her chest. It shifts back to gameplay and the player continues in the passageway until they come upon a small wooden door and another peephole in the wall next to it. The player interacts with it and a box with text appears that says: “There’s a hole in the wall.”.
49 The game then plays another cinematic cutscene, where Miku is leaning towards the hole in the wall. The camera shows the peephole and zooms in on it as it switches to another view of Kirie in the past, crying in the room. The camera switches angle which shows Kirie crying in the corner, while the peephole watches her from afar.
Figure 8: Scene of the past where Kirie is crying and the camera angle shows the peephole observing her from the wall beside her. The peephole is within the red circle. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
In this scene, the player can hear Kirie saying: “I don’t want to die...” while crying. The scene is another example of Miku’s powers through seeing visions of the past, however, she does it in a way that is a rather voyeuristic approach through using a peephole. It begs to ask why she is gaining this vision specifically from spying through a peephole and not through any other way. Therefore, this scene could also symbolize another part of the narrative which suggests that the household of the Himuro Mansion used these peepholes regularly to control Kirie’s life by spying on her. It is most likely that Kirie is the object of interest whenever these peepholes were used since her background is filled with the idea of her life being in the control of her family, but Kirie Himuro’s part in this game will be discussed in greater detail further on. The very existence of the peepholes in this passageway that Miku comes across tells another narrative of what Kirie was going through during her time alive. Also, it may be interpreted that Miku is accessing these visions through the action of obtaining the position of another observer in the time of the event. In that aspect, this scene gains a rather eerie feeling to it as the player is watching a private moment for Kirie, while simultaneously getting a depiction of Miku acting in the place of the secret observer who would have spied on Kirie at the time of the event. Other examples are similar to these cinematic cutscenes, which describes the way Miku is observing through her visions of the past as if being a part of the audience will be brought up in the next section.
50 5.4 Vengeful Ghosts and Culture Theory A lot of the Fatal Frame is connected to Japanese horror film culture and its history. There is a lot in the foundations of the Edo Gothic era of Japanese horror which can be reminiscent in this survival horror game as well. Perhaps the most grounded representative of Japanese horror film culture is the main antagonist, Kirie Himuro. She is an accurate representation of the Japanese horror film archetype, the “vengeful ghost”, while also contributing to the core narrative common of the genre. The accurate way of breaking down the complete narrative would be to first describe Kirie’s storyline in the game from start to finish and the premise of the ritual which started the disaster at the Himuro Mansion.
5.4.1 The Strangling Ritual While Kirie Himuro is the displayed main antagonist of the game, the very core of the evil happening at the Himuro Mansion is centered around the “Strangling Ritual” and the “Hell Gate”. The Strangling Ritual is an event that the people of Himuro mansion held every 10 years on December 13th to keep the Hell Gate closed, preventing the “Malice” and evil spirits from entering the world of the living and bring on disaster (Strangling Ritual, 2021). The Hell Gate is said to be the entrance to the land of the dead, perhaps similar to the Land of the Dead, or Land of Yomi, mentioned previously in the myth of Izanagi, the place where his wife Izanami descended into after giving birth to the Fire God, Kagutsuchi. While not much can be found in the game about the Malice or the Hell Game in the game, the Land of the Dead mentioned in the myth of Izanagi is associated with pollution, decay, and death. When discovering his wife, who had been turned into a monstrous creature, Izanagi escaped the Land of Yomi and blocked the entrance with a large rock. His contact with the polluted land meant that he also had to participate in rites of purification, also called O-hara, which remains fundamental to the Shintō belief (Bailman, 2008). Therefore, there are certain connections between the Strangling Ritual mentioned in the game to the myth of Izanagi, as they both pertain to the idea of a dreadful Land of the Dead, stopping evil which must be contained, in Izanagi’s case with a large rock but in Fatal Frame, the entrance is a stone gate. Also, both pertain to the idea of participating in rituals to protect oneself from the pollution of the land. However, while the Strangling Ritual focuses more on keeping the gate closed, the Rope Shrine Maiden who is needed for the ritual’s completion similarly entertains the idea of needing to be “pure” to succeed in her role of keeping the gate closed. A note in the game named “Strangling Ritual” describes the event as: “On the 13th day of the 12th month, a maiden, cut off from the outside world for 3669 long days, shall be torn apart to provide power to the rope.” (Fatal Frame, 2001). Another piece of information can be found in one of the notes which Mafuyu has left behind in the mansion, which seems to suggest that the rituals of Himuro Mansion could have potential connections with other Shintō rituals: “Himuro Mansion was once the home of a large landowner that controlled vast areas of land. They also say that the site held some special significance that had to do with Shinto rituals of the region. (I couldn’t find any detailed books about these Shinto rituals, though.)
The last master of the Himuro family line massacred his entire household. Later, another family that tried to live there disappeared. Because of incidents like these, nobody visits the mansion today, and it lies in ruins. Maybe that’s why there aren’t any accounts of the Shinto rituals, and why the exact location of the place isn’t recorded anywhere.” - Mafuyu’s Note (Fatal Frame, 2001)
51 However, this does not mean that the brutal rituals are indeed based on the Shintō belief but might just be inspired by certain elements of it, which causes the apparent similarities between them. As mentioned, the Strangling Ritual requires the participation of a Rope Shrine Maiden who is sacrificed by the usage of ropes, tied to her limbs, and pulled until they are torn off her body and saturated by her blood. These ropes are later used to bind the Hell Gate shut until the next ritual is to be performed (Strangling Ritual, 2021). The Rope Shrine Maiden is chosen through another preparation ritual called the “Demon Tag Ritual”, or also the “Blind Demon Ritual”. This ritual requires the participation of the “Blinded Maiden”, the “Blinding Mask”, and a group of girls of the minimum age of seven years, nine months, and 25 days. They were to be gathered at the mansion to participate and it involves the Blinded Maiden playing a game of tag with the group of girls. The first girl to be caught was to be the next Blinded Maiden and would participate in the “Blinding Ceremony”. The last girl caught by the Blinded Maiden would become the Rope Shrine Maiden and the next sacrifice of the Strangling Ritual. The chosen maiden would be attended by masked priests and have all of her earthly ties cut off from her existence to fulfill the role in the Strangling Ritual. The purpose of this process is to make sure that the Rope Shrine Maiden is willing and eager to die at the time of the ritual and has no earthly attachment or pollution for it to be successful (Demon Tag Ritual, 2019). Several cinematic cutscenes are shown to describe the events which took place in the Himuro mansion in the company of the women used as sacrifices, the priests, and the head of the Himuro family. These scenes will be discussed in greater detail when going through the complete narrative of Kirie Himuro's story.
5.4.2 The Blinded Maiden On the topic of voyeurism in the narrative and scopophilia, one of the villains in the game is a character who entertains a role of her own in the disastrous Strangling Ritual, similarly to Kirie Himuro. She is a woman who is referred to as the “Blinded Maiden” in the game and there is no sign of her actual name. Also, the Blinded Maiden is not a singular person in this story but is a role that several women have supposedly played during any Strangling Ritual that has previously been held. The ghostly figure of the Blinded Maiden, who also poses as a threat to Miku and the player, is seemingly the last Blinded Maiden of Himuro mansion, who performed her duty during the Strangling Ritual involving Kirie Himuro’s sacrifice. Her character creates an interesting narrative to the game and will, therefore, be discussed in regard to her connection to the narrative as a female game character and the Strangling Ritual.
As mentioned in the details regarding the Strangling Ritual, the Blinded Maiden was chosen through the Demon Tag ritual and was the first girl to be caught in the game. The role and fate of the Blinded Maiden is a tragic one and just like Kirie Himuro, her life must have been bleak ever since she was chosen in the Demon Tag ritual. However, in contrast to Kirie Himuro, it is fair to assume that she was not as highly regarded as the Rope Shrine Maiden in her role as the Blinded Maiden. First of all, her role was simply a necessary part of the preparation rituals held to decide the next Rope Shrine Maiden. Secondly, she is branded as the “demon” of the preparation ritual after becoming the Blinded Maiden through her Blinding Ceremony. The role of the Blinded Maiden was possibly not as respected as the Rope Shrine Maiden considering these two parts of her participation in these rituals at the Himuro mansion. During the Demon Tag ritual, she is the one who is playing the “demon” of the game which the young girls are meant to avoid. The child who is first to be caught by this “evil figure” searching for them in the game, was possibly not particularly favoured when
52 being the first one to go. She failed to avoid the evil in the room, therefore, was sentenced to become the next demon to play in future rituals. It could potentially symbolize the holiness of a person’s character, seeing as the Rope Shrine Maiden is revered for being able to avoid the demon the longest, therefore, considered to have the most “Holy Power” among them (Demon Tag Ritual, 2019). By looking at it through this perspective, both girls are punished into two separate lives determined by their purity and holiness. One is tortured into life without sight and branded as a “demon”, while the other is to be secluded into life without earthly desires to maintain her purity for the day of her ultimate sacrifice. Neither life pertains to a particularly happy ending, but one of them still holds a fabricated idea of virtue.
Miku comes across visions of the Blinded Maiden’s past during the game. She is represented in cinematic cutscenes with scopophilic aspects that paint her as a helpless victim of torture, but her spirit also frequently appears in the gameplay as a villain out to hurt Miku. These moments in the game will be presented separately and to be analysed through their own unique set of contexts. In the first moment the player meets the spirit of the Blinded Maiden, they are exploring a room when and entering a new camera angle where the ghostly figure of the blinded maiden appears to the right of the player.
Figure 9: The player is exploring a room and the Blinded Maiden suddenly appears in view, standing on the right side of the screen. It is the first appearance of the Blinded Maiden. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
The player takes a photo of her and she disappears soon after. The photo does not show any title or description of her this time, which might be because she is a more prominent villain than previous spirits. Or it is another way of showing her insignificance in her previous life, close to faceless when made into the “demon” of the coming Demon Tag ritual.
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Figure 10: The photo of the Blinded Maiden without any clear description or title. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
The next time she appears is in a cinematic cutscene where Miku is walking forward on a dark passageway outdoors. She is carefully moving forwards while holding her hand towards her chest and light in the other. There is a sound of a sigh and the camera shows a close shot of her face, but a ghostly figure appears behind her with her hands outstretched. The camera focuses on a shot looking upward unto the Blinded Maiden, who is slowly moving towards the camera while wailing in pain. The camera then shows a close front shot of her screaming face, her bloodied eyes are covered in bandages and the blood is running down her cheeks. Through her wailing, she can be heard saying: “It’s dark… It’s so dark…” and the next scene is a combat scene where the player is meant to defend themselves from her.
Figure 11: A close shot of the Blinded Maiden, wailing "it's so dark... It's so dark...” during a cinematic cutscene. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
54 The Blinded Maiden remains in her place, fading in and out as she moves closer towards the player who is directing their camera at her. She speaks out: “Is no one here…?” and the player takes a photo of her to deal damage. The damage causes her to fall backward and fade away, but the player can still hear her presence as she repeats “is no one here…?”. The player is attacked by the Blinded Maiden and as a negative image effect is put on the screen, the camera shows Miku screaming and struggling as the ghost holds her in place. The player gets freed from her grip after some time and the ghost cries out “my eyes…!” and “is no one here…?” repeatedly. The player takes a finishing shot with the camera and the spirit of the Blinded Maiden fades away in a moan, however, this is not the end of her as she is a reoccurring threat in the game at this point. What this scene says in terms of analysis is that the opening cinematic cutscene of her, shows vulnerable Miku in the dark with her light and the Blinded Maiden, suddenly appear as a ghastly spectacle from behind while wailing in pain. What this scene shows is simply two women in vulnerable positions. One is a young girl in the dark, seemingly afraid as she holds her hand to her chest and slowly moves forward, while the other is also moving slowly due to being unable to see and with her hands outstretched. She makes sounds that show that she is in pain and tormented by the darkness caused by her loss of sight and her condition is also grotesquely shown through bloodied bandages and cheeks. She does not show any signs of being in the condition- or wanting to hurt anyone, but she is still made into a threat through her sudden appearance from behind and through the camera angles looking at her from below and focusing in on her screaming face. Again, there is this sense of fascination over death and her tragic state, she is dangerous but also interesting to the player through the narrative which is told through her injuries.
The player discovers her once more at a later point, where she is again moving in a room with outstretched arms, calling out: “Is no one here…?”. In the gameplay, it seems that her inability to see is implemented into the unpredictability of her design as well. She is not turned towards the player at first, instead, she is turned towards a different direction but suddenly turns towards the player as she gets closer. Again, she manages to hurt the player and the camera shows her holding Miku with both hands around her shoulders. Miku makes a whimpering sound and struggles loose after some time and the Blinded Maiden falls forward onto the ground while crying out “My eyes… My eyes...!” repeatedly. The player puts themselves at a distance from her while she cries out “Please...” and takes a photo of her, dealing damage. The gameplay repeats itself with the Blinded Maiden moving towards Miku, attempting to grab her while wailing, Miku screaming and the player controlling her away to move away. The Blinded Maiden keeps reappearing behind Miku’s location and moves around with outstretched arms, calling out for anyone.
This combat scene works as a primary example of what occurs when the player fights the Blinded Maiden, but when analyzed through the perspective of the narrative being shown on screen, the Blinded Maiden presents herself as more of a victim in distress than as a threat. She is shown vulnerable with her outstretched arms and vocal lines calling out for another person and expressing the pain of losing her eyes. She does not laugh in a villainous manner or threaten the player, but she poses a threat through her “grotesque” appearance. Even when attacking the player, she does not hit or flail with her arms violently. She reaches out her arms for someone to hold onto and falls forward when Miku struggles to free herself. This behavior does not symbolize a hostile individual but is still used as a threat, either as an example of the horrors which has befallen the people of the Himuro Mansion, through her
55 identity as a ghost or through her mutilation. These scenes could also be seen as a form of power-play between the player and the Blinded Maiden, as they position themselves further away from her and take photos of her while she is, in the narrative, unable to see, which in turn helps create another scopophilic fantasy. However, she is still made a physical threat within the game through her ability to hurt the player. The question remains, however, if it is within her intentions to hurt anyone or is simply seeking out help. In the gameplay, she is an interesting example of a villain in the game who does not show signs of being a typical threat but remains one through her identity as a ghost, her tortured body, and state of mind.
One cinematic cutscene of the game describes in detail the horrors she was put through before her death. Before the cutscene takes place, the player discovers a research scrap called “The Masks And Their Significance In Rituals”, which describes the rituals in further detail:
“The Binding Ritual and the Demon Tag Ritual are performed by the Himuro family master. The master wears a mask when he performs the ritual. This is probably to eliminate the maiden of all worldly connections. All participants of the ritual are family members. Meaning, ‘The one who is sacrificed and the one who performs the sacrifice’ may be directly related. My theory is that the mask serves to eliminate the maiden’s attachment toward her family. Gouging out the eyes of the demon in the Blind Demon Ritual may have similar meaning.” - Research Scrap (Fatal Frame, 2001)
This information may describe the similar purpose of the rituals for both the Blinded Maiden and the Rope Shrine Maiden. Both are made to be separated from their family and all worldly connections through the rituals, torturing them with a male family member in the lead. The following cutscene shows the Blind Demon Ritual mentioned in the text which involved the Blinded Maiden, the Himuro family master, and his following of priests.
The scene opens up with Miku interacting with masks, hanging on the walls around her. The camera is focused from the back and she swiftly turn around, as if something is grabbing her attention, or perhaps, watching her, as there are emanating sounds coming from the mask directly behind her. The camera zooms in on the mask and its dark, hollowed eyes, as something moves inside. The scene shifts to Miku's shocked face, but then she steels her gaze as if she has become determined. She leans forward towards the mask and slowly looks into the eyes of the mask. Miku gets a vision of a room with priests, holding a woman between them, with another man wearing a demon mask in front of them. The demon masked man is directly in front of the struggling woman. She looks up, and the camera shifts focus on the demon masked man, panning the camera view from his feet to his hands and zooms in on one of his hands, which is holding the Blinding Mask. At the sight of the Blinding Mask, Miku curiously asks: “What’s that?” and the camera then shifts back to a view from behind the woman and the two monks holding her in place. The demon masked man walks towards her and holds up the Blinding Mask. He raises it upward and the shot reveals two spikes in each eyehole of the mask. The man then rapidly thrusts the mask towards the camera view, the screen goes black, and the sound of a woman screaming in pain is heard. The camera then shows Miku's one eye, looking through the eye hole of the mask, as if she's still peeking in at the ongoing scene. The hand of a priest is shown, holding the woman's wrist as her fingers are stretched out, twitching in pain. The camera then shifts to an angle looking down on the woman, still held down by two priests on each side as she covers her face with her
56 own hands. The demon masked man looks directly at the woman. The crying woman struggles to turn around with her hand to her eyes while reaching her other hand outward. The woman cries out: “My eyes… My eyes...” and the camera shows Miku, from a side view, grabbing the mask with her hands and moving closer as if to get a better look at the scene. Suddenly, a sound is made, and the scene shifts to the priests and demon masked man, swiftly turning their gaze towards the camera. Miku gasps in surprise and pulls herself back with her hand on her chest while saying: “What was that?”. As the camera pans around her, the Blinded Maiden appears behind her, with her hand covering her eyes and an arm reaching out. It focuses on the Blinded Maiden in a front view, struggling to move forward while saying: “It’s so dark…” and the cinematic cutscene ends.
This event shows a few interesting aspects, again which could be considered scopophilic in nature. The beginning shows Miku sensing the presence of something emanating from the mask and she places herself as the observer of a previous event, the Blinding Ritual meant to create the next “demon” for the Demon Tag Ritual. Miku observes as the woman is being held down and mutilated in the eyes while the head of the family and his gathering of priests controls the scene. The camera angles in this cinematic scene could be considered motivating the player to take in the fear the woman must have felt, as the two spikes thrust forward into her and so, into the camera view of the player itself. The scene also gives the player context of understanding who she is, as the repeated lines of the Blinded Maiden that go “My eyes… My eyes…” and “It’s so dark…” seem to originate from this moment.
This moment is a display of what was previously mentioned in the research scrap before the cinematic cutscene begins, a maiden being separated from her family, all members of the group are male and the leading one is wearing a mask through the mutilation. As previously described, the masks are probably a method for the male figures in her family to distance themselves from her during the ritual, or to take on a different identity in this gruesome moment to instill some idea of perhaps also separating themselves from the act itself. This scene and the cinematic cutscene in which Miku is looking at Kirie crying through a peephole, share scopophilic aspects as they both show Miku looking at the moment in secret. This scene especially entertains this idea as they show focused shots of Miku leaning into the eye of the mask to look inside, as well as a close shot of her watching eye the moment the Blinded Maiden’s eyes are gouged. Also, her voice gasping or curiously asking about the ongoing events can be heard as if to show that her mind, as well as the players, is also active in this scene. At no point does she think to look away from the horrible scene, only when the masked men are turned to face her directly does she fall back in shock with her hand raised to her chest. They look directly into the camera, at her, to signify that she has been caught while spying on the events. Again, it tells a narrative that is scopophilic in nature as it makes the horrible torture, turn into a spectacle to the observer. The observer, at the point of being caught, is made to realize that what they are doing is wrong, either in the eyes of the men or to her morals.
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Figure 12: The Himuro Family Master, wearing a mask, and two priests on each side of him are turned towards the camera, looking at Miku who is watching the event on the other side. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
There are some moments during the unfolding events where Miku appears to steel herself and is determined to discover all the mysteries in the mansion. For example, right before she leans into the eye of the mask or at the moment where the eyes have been struck and the woman screams in pain. She can then be seen in a side view shot holding the mask in a firm grip and moving a bit closer right before the mask makes a noise which grabs the attention of the group of men. This is reminiscent of the player’s motivation of uncovering all the mysteries and what happened to the tortured souls of the mansion. It is almost as if the act of finding out the mysteries of the past, overshines the reasoning of following one’s morals by not spying on an assault. It might be that Miku almost symbolizes the audience of players’ motivations to uncover all gruesome mysteries in these moments where she is taking in her visions of the past. However, it does not take away the idea that it is also a moment where the horrible truth of past crimes is finally revealed to the outside world. After this moment, the player will have other combat sequences with the Blinded Maiden, but these examples show how much of a victim a villain in the game can be.
5.4.3 The Rope Shrine Maiden After describing the Blinded Maiden, the next and perhaps most prominent female character of the game is the Rope Shrine Maiden of the Strangling Rituals. The Rope Shrine Maiden, Kirie Himuro’s story begins when she was a child and the daughter of the Himuro family. When she reached the age of seven, she was part of a ritualistic game of tag, the Demon Tag Ritual, where she and the other girls were tasked to avoid getting tagged by the Blinded Maiden, who played the “demon” of the game. The last girl to be caught by the “demon” in the game was made into the next Rope Shrine Maiden and human sacrifice in the Strangling Ritual. The Rope Shrine Maiden is considered to be most suitable for the ritual since she was able to avoid the “demon”, or more accurately, the Blinded Maiden, during the game of tag. The girl who is chosen to be the next Rope Shrine Maiden will be secluded for 10 years and removed from her family, to prepare for the Strangling Ritual. Kirie’s spirit is likely to appear early in the game, in the introduction where they are first playing a short sequence as Mafuyu Hinasaki. In the final cinematic cutscene before Mafuyu’s disappearance, he is
58 walking in a corridor with a mirror on the wall behind him. There is an iconic chiming sound, which is often played when Kirie makes an appearance, and Mafuyu turns around at the sound. He stares forward into the camera and the screen fades away with Miku’s voice saying: “It’s been two weeks since I last heard from my brother.” which makes this scene the most recent moment before his sudden disappearance from the game. It is very possible that Mafuyu did encounter Kirie Himuro’s spirit behind him, considering Kirie has the power to travel through the mirror behind him and the chiming sound which was played is iconic to her presence. However, there is another reason why Kirie would have been especially interested in Mafuyu, which will be discussed further on. Kirie Himuro is a complicated character with a tragic past, gruesome end, and several forms of herself in death. When Miku enters the mansion and finds herself in the very same corridor Mafuyu was in before his disappearance, a cinematic cutscene plays of her finding the camera obscura on the ground which had been previously dropped by Mafuyu. The camera is laying on the floor, right in front of the mirror, and Miku kneels to pick it up. Right as her finger touches it, she is given a vision of Mafuyu running through the corridor with arms reaching out to him from the walls. There is another chiming sound, and the camera shows the spirit of Kirie standing behind him. Mafuyu keeps running, but spectral arms reach out towards him from Kirie’s location. He calls out “Miku” before the vision ends and Miku wonders: “Did something happen to my brother?”. Miku looks up and into the mirror in front of her as another chiming sound can be heard, and the reflection shows Kirie’s spirit standing behind her. The camera shows a quick shot of Miku’s shocked face but in the next view of the mirror’s reflection, Kirie is gone. Another cinematic cutscene shows Kirie’s attack on one of the more prominent male victims in the game, Koji Ogata, the editor of Mr. Takamine’s team. He is one of the first ghosts Miku will have to fight against and in one cinematic cutscene, Miku walks towards a tape recorder that is making strange sounds. She reaches out to it and the ghostly hand of Koji Ogata suddenly grabs her wrist. Miku soon gets another vision of his past, where he is running in fear and opens a door to hide inside what appears to be a small space. The camera shows close shots of his panicked face and then how something is moving towards the door. He peeks outside of it and sees Kirie’s spirit moving towards him. Her face is suddenly close to the opening of the door and as the man begins to scream, he is covered in arms, which ends the clip. It is possible that the space in which Miku found the tape recorder is the place where he went to hide and soon after dying. In a separate cinematic cutscene, there is a more detailed vision of Kirie killing another one of Mr. Takamine’s assistants, a woman named Tomoe Hirasaka. The first cinematic cutscene takes place near the waterside of the courtyard, it shows Miku exploring through a camera shot of her at a distance and how the arms of a woman are being pulled up by a water wheel in the corner of the screen, slowly revealing a body attached to the wheel. The player finds a shining object on the ground which triggers the next cinematic cutscene, a vision of Tomoe struggling in pain as if she is being strangled by an invisible force. She is holding her arms up to her neck and calls out for help and Mr. Takamine, when suddenly the camera shows close shots of her wrists and neck being branded by rope marks. As the music stops, she turns her head to look behind her and sees Kirie’s spirit leaning towards her. The sounds of rope pulling can be heard and Tomoe screams out “No…!”, as the camera shows a front shot of Kirie and several arms shooting out to grab Tomoe one last time. The next shot shows her falling to the ground and Mr. Takamine standing shocked at a distance. He sees Kirie’s spirit standing next to the body of Tomoe and calls out “Kirie…”, as she turns around to face him.
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These are the scenes that describe what happened to Mr. Takamine’s team members, each of them was killed by Kirie and their souls were then bound to the place. One interesting note is that Tomoe appears to have been more successful at reaching out to Kirie’s spirit than Koji ever did. There are points in the game where Miku, the player, is finding the spirit of Tomoe wandering around the mansion and her voice can be heard saying: “She was trying to say something...” as if to understand conversations she has had with parts of Kirie’s spirit. Soon after taking a photo of the “Wandering Woman”, who is Tomoe’s spirit, the player finds a red notebook scrap which says:
“I saw that woman in the white kimono again. She’s trying to tell me something. She knows I have this special sense for ghostly things… The woman’s name is… Kirie. So, it’s Kirie, huh? I shouldn’t get any closer than this. I don’t want to get any closer… I’m scared.” - Red Notebook Scrap (Fatal Frame, 2001)
Another moment where the player interacts with the spirit of Tomoe, shows her voice saying: “What are you trying to say?”, which symbolizes Tomoe’s quest in life to understand Kirie’s spirit. Soon after, the player finds a black notebook scrap describing Tomoe’s current state of mind:
“Tomoe’s condition is getting worse and worse. She can’t stop shaking, and she keeps mumbling the same words over and over. I don’t know if what’s happening is anything supernatural or not. But in any case, I think we’d better leave as soon as possible.” - Black Notebook Scrap (Fatal Frame, 2001)
Kirie’s spirit has been shown reaching out and communicating with Miku in the game as well, however, it is especially through the form of a young girl with a white kimono. This is a separate form of Kirie, and perhaps even a different spirit of her, representing the innocence in Kirie that still desires to fulfill her destiny as the Rope Shrine Maiden. Her spirit is a non- hostile one which appears at several points in the game to guide and protect Miku. She is sometimes referred to as “Girl Pointing” in the photos taken of her, but in reality, she is a fragment of Kirie’s soul.
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Figure 13: "Girl Pointing", the spirit of a young girl wearing a white kimono guiding the player. This spirit is another form of Kirie Himuro. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
What can be understood through the previous cinematic cutscenes is Kirie’s dangerous and ruthless nature, however, it does not necessarily describe her as the archetype of the "vengeful ghost", seeing as these two people have never done any harm towards her. Her ruthless nature is explained further into the game when looking into her past and death. In the later parts of the game, the player may encounter the history of Kirie before she was turned into the hostile spirit that roams the mansion. In one cinematic cutscene, right before the final chapter of the game, Miku is again having visions of Kirie undergoing the Strangling Ritual in the past but Kirie’s spirit finds her, so Miku attempts to escape her grasp by climbing a ladder upwards. When reaching the top, the spirit of the white kimono girl tells her “This way!” and she grabs Miku’s hands and, as the screen goes black, she says: “We need to hurry! Please… Please make it stop. Stop me!”. In the next shot, Miku wakes up in a separate room with the spirit of young Kirie and Miku asks her who she is, but the girl simply points to an instrument in the room, hinting to Miku that she should play a song on it. This unlocks the passageway in which the player can interact with peepholes to look into visions of the past where Kirie is crying to herself, scared to die. However, after this passageway, the player reaches a new room with a wooden cage in it. A cinematic cutscene is played with Miku looking into the darkness and a ball suddenly rolling out from within the wooden cage. Miku goes to look inside the wooden cage and finds the spirit of the white kimono girl sitting inside. Her wrists are tied to two poles and she looks up into the camera before fading away in a familiar chiming sound, previously present during the appearance of Kirie’s spirit. The cinematic cutscene ends and the player walks into the wooden cage, which could resemble a small room. Sounds of a woman crying can be heard and an item called Kirie’s Hairpin is on the ground with the description: “I got a beautiful golden hairpin. Maybe it was Kirie’s, that woman in the prison…?”, referring to the cage-like room.
Another cinematic cutscene is played where a man and a woman are in front of a sakura tree in bloom. The young woman, Kirie Himuro in the past, looks up at the young man and he turns around to face her. They share a moment and the cutscene ends with the text with
61 Miku’s thoughts: “Kirie and… Mafuyu? No, it’s not him. Maybe it’s the man she loved when she was alive.” and the room is now filled with parts of Kirie’s Diary which the player can interact with. These parts are very important since they describe Kirie’s past, her desires, and internal conflicts, which would ultimately result in her becoming the archetype of the “vengeful spirit”. The diary entries are not necessarily found in the correct order when playing the game, which is why they have been placed in an order which appears accurate in this paper, however, the first section of the diary tells:
“While I was looking out the window today, I saw somebody walking in the garden. He didn’t notice me. He was just walking around leisurely, gazing at the trees and hills.
I saw him again today, walking in the garden. He saw me once, too, and waved to me. I don’t know why, but my face got hot, and I ducked out of sight. When I told the chief priest about it, he was terribly surprised. He told me I wasn’t to look out the window again for a while.” - Kirie’s Diary (Fatal Frame, 2001)
This moment begins to describe the imprisonment Kirie was in during her seclusion from the outside world. She was trapped inside the room and was even recommended to avoid looking out the window, as the chief priest would be concerned with her getting curious about what lays outside. The next scrap of her diary tells:
“Today is the day I get to walk outside. I was walking in the mansion’s atrium when he suddenly appeared from out the guest room. It’s the first time I’ve talked to an outsider since I came here. It was so much fun!
He came to see me. He let me out of the room, and we went outside. He taught me the names of all the flowers. Everything about this is so new to me! My face got hot again today. But I didn’t want to hide this time…” - Kirie’s Diary (Fatal Frame, 2001)
The stranger she has met opens up a new world to her which is beyond her purpose and understanding of being the Rope Shrine Maiden. He teaches her the names of flowers, which shows her unexplored territories of the world as she understands it and it is what ultimately results in disaster, this becomes especially clear when looked from the perspective of the mono-no-aware and foundation of the ie system which has been discussed previously.
“He came to see me again today. The chief priest said we mustn’t go out into the garden, so we just stayed in the room and talked. He told me so many interesting things about the outside world. I feel so happy when I’m with him…! So very, very happy!
I walked in the garden with him today. How beautiful the cherry blossoms are! He’s taught me so much since we’ve met. I never even feel lonely anymore.” - Kirie’s Diary (Fatal Frame, 2001)
Kirie admits in her diary the loneliness she must have felt during her isolation. The purpose of her seclusion is to warp her mind into a very limited understanding of the world, which keeps her priorities as the Rope Shrine Maiden intact since nothing else is there to compete.
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“The Strangling Ritual will be held soon. The master and the priests are performing their ablutions. And it looks like the whole family has gathered here at the mansion for the ritual. This mansion is usually so lonely… But for today, anyway, it’s bustling with life.
One of the priests was staring at me today. He looked so sad. I’m the Rope Shrine Maiden… I have a very important obligation to fulfill…
But how can I perform my duty as the Shrine Maiden now, feeling the way I do? Now that I’ve found the true joy of living? And now that I’ve gone and gotten the poor man involved…?” - Kirie’s Diary (Fatal Frame, 2001)
This section of her diary tells of the internal conflicts which have begun to rise within her. She acknowledges her duty as the Rope Shrine Maiden, however, she places her worth in that role which makes her conflict even greater as she begins to have a will to live. Kirie feels several layers of guilt, through her responsibility and worth as the Rope Shrine Maiden, through her newfound desires in life, and her debt to the young stranger. The player is after leaving the prison room, chased by Kirie’s spirit who appears from a mirror on a wall. Miku, the player, enters another room and finds one more piece of Kirie’s diary which tells:
“It’s been five days already since he stopped coming. When I asked about it, the chief priest told me he’d gone back to his home village. Why would he leave all of a sudden like that…? Especially now, when I soon won’t be able to see him anymore at all…?
I had a dream about him. He was looking at me with sad eyes. Such sad eyes! His eyes looked like they wanted to tell me something… He didn’t go home. The priests did something to him… But why?” - Kirie’s Diary (Fatal Frame, 2001)
The priests did act against their blossoming relationship and the impact he had on her as well through his teachings of the world. There is another diary scrap after this one which shows Kirie’s fall into massive guilt once she realizes the truth about his disappearance:
“The priests hid him because they thought I wouldn’t have been able to properly be the Shrine Maiden otherwise… What did I get him into…? It’s all my fault! I just wanted to be with him… I wanted us to be together forever and ever! That’s all I wanted… I didn’t want him to get hurt!” - Kirie’s Diary (Fatal Frame, 2001)
The priests’ part of the story becomes clearer as Miku and the player get closer to the priests’ graves. When coming upon one of the gravesites, a cinematic cutscene plays where the camera zooms in to one of the tombstones and a male voice can be heard saying: “Kirie… Poor girl… It’s too bad, but it must be sealed” and the player is then faced to combat the restless spirit of a priest. After defeating him, his voice is heard again saying: “Rope Shrine Maiden, huh? Her only purpose is to die…”, which again describes the mindset which the priests desired for Kirie to have until the time of her sacrifice. Shortly after, the player finds a note called “Priest’s Writings” which says:
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“Kirie has been acting strangely ever since she met the young guest. I do not suppose she is attracted to him…? If she becomes too deeply involved with this world because of him, she may lose her potential as a proper Shrine Maiden. We will have to do something, and quickly.” - Priest’s Writings (Fatal Frame, 2001)
The next gravesite the player finds has another cinematic cutscene, zooming in on the grave while another male voice says: “Kirie…! Why did you become attached to this world? You’ll only suffer!”, words which blame Kirie’s internal conflict. Not only does her desire to live risk disaster upon the household, but he also states that she will suffer through her actions. Another note called “Priest’s Writings” is found after battling the priest’s spirit:
“We followed the master’s orders and hid the guest. I told Kirie our guest had gone home. We will have to carry the body far, far away, so that Kirie never finds out. I felt sorry for the poor man, but what else could I do? We priests must protect the Rope Shrine Maiden at all costs.” - Priest’s Writing (Fatal Frame, 2001)
This shows that possibly either the headmaster of the family or the chief priest decided that the young man was to be killed and hidden away from sight so that he could not prevent the ritual’s success. Another note is that the priests are given the duty to protect the Rope Shrine Maiden, which possibly means that they are sworn to protect the idea of her, rather than the individual behind it. As some parts of the writings show that the priests are remorseful of murdering the young man, the most primary reason behind their action is based on the thematic of Japanese narrative, the ie system. Where their personal feeling, such as guilt and remorse, is subdued by their duty towards the Himuro family.
5.4.4 The Mono-No-Aware and the Ie System Moving forward, into a chapter focused on the Strangling Ritual and its results, clarity is brought forward into the symbolism of the mono-no-aware and rulings of the Ie system, both commonly present in the Japanese Horror film and present in the Fatal Frame as well. Past visions of Kirie’s events of undergoing the Strangling Ritual are quite commonly present throughout the game, which again pertain to some aspects of scopophilic fantasy within them. One example is the cinematic cutscene in which Kirie appears from a mirror and reaches out to Miku while saying: “I’ll make you feel my pain…”, accurate for the archetype of the “vengeful ghost”. The camera shifts to a vision of Miku, laying sprawled out on a stone table with ropes tied to her limbs and neck. There are rapid shots of her struggling and the ropes being pulled, representing the torment that Kirie had gone through. Later on in the game, closing in on the ending, the player enters the room where the ritual happened and a cinematic cutscene takes place. The cutscene shows Miku having another vision into the past, where Kirie is laying down on the stone tablet with her limbs and neck pulled by ropes, viewed from above. She is making pained sounds and the camera shifts from focusing on her face, her struggling body on the stone table, and Miku’s face, who is watching the event as one of the crowd.
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Figure 14: An image of Miku, located at the centre of the screen, looking out at the scene where Kirie is being going through the Strangling Ritual. Kirie’s body wearing the contrasting white kimono can be seen laying down, directly above Miku’s head. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
While the image of figure 14 above can be quite hard to make out due to the visual effects, the scene shows the back of Miku’s head at the centre of the screen, with Kirie’s body wearing a white kimono seen directly above Miku. Kirie is sprawled out on a table with priests rotating the wooden poles. This cinematic cutscene is another clear example of how Miku is used as a tool of creating an enhanced sense of scopophilia, as she is placed directly in the crowd of the events, making the whole scene more “real” as the player’s identity as Miku is placed within the room. It creates a sequence in which the camera is focusing on Kirie’s torture, then showing Miku’s reaction to the scene, then the player watching Miku’s reaction and events through the camera angles. By adding Miku into the room, the player is at the same time pulled into the scene as an observer through the screen. It is possible, that if Miku was not present in the scene, the player could feel a greater distance between themselves and the acts on screen. However, as the game shows Miku’s presence in these visions of the past, it becomes sensible that the player is also present, as they are reminded by the fact that they too are taking part in watching. There comes a point in the cinematic cutscene where the turning wooden poles and all sound stops, the camera focusing on Kirie’s pained face and her tied wrists being pulled. The scene is silent and the camera shows an above view of her sprawled-out body, now laying still on the stone table, symbolizing that the priests and the audience is expecting the moment where Kirie finally has been suffocated by the ropes, being pulled around her neck. There is almost a sense of anticipation in the silence, but it is broken during a shot of Miku, looking at Kirie’s tied wrist and saying “stop” in a low voice.
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Figure 15: An image of Miku, looking at Kirie's hand laying limp, during a silent part of the cinematic cutscene. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
This “stop” could have different meanings in the context shown on screen. Either Miku is saying “stop hurting her” or “stop fighting it”, almost as if to speak through the audience themselves, still waiting for the moment she finally stops screaming and dies. Because everyone knows she will die, she is the antagonistic ghost of the game. However, sitting through the torture, hearing, and watching her scream, could enhance the anticipation for the end, no matter how uncomfortable or enjoyable the scene is for the player who is watching. Finally, the silence is broken again as Kirie lets out another scream and the camera show a close shot of Miku’s face, yelling “No!” and the screen goes white in an explosion. The scene after shows the priests gathered around the stone table and a close shot of Miku’s wide-eyed face, her hands covering her mouth as she lets out “No… No…”. The masked man is shown raising the ropes upwards and the scene ends with a combat sequence with a ghostly woman, who is a previous Rope Shrine Maiden that was seemingly successful at completing her own ritual. Before this cinematic cutscene takes place, the player finds another note Mafuyu has left behind which describes the knowledge he has of Kirie:
“The force behind the curse of Himuro Mansion is a woman named Kirie. She was sacrificed in a ritual, and her sad spirit was exposed to the Malice that spilled out of hell when the Calamity happened. Now she’s a miserable creature that taints everything she comes into contact with. Apparently, I remind her of the man she was in love with. (…) Kirie laments her ill-fated life but, at the same time, she also regrets not having been able to fulfill her duty as the Shrine Maiden. I saw the image of Kirie as a child. She was looking for somebody to help her- to help her other, tortured self. Kirie is like a person divided in two…” - Mafuyu’s Note (Fatal Frame, 2001)
The divide in character which Mafuyu is referring to symbolizes the two forms of Kirie in the game, the antagonistic, hostile ghost and the non-hostile, young ghost. But it also refers to
66 her divided internal conflict, feeling guilty for desiring more and being unable to perform her duty. Duty is what Kirie’s existence surrounds itself with, which makes her story have such a strong connection to the Ie system. This will be especially clear towards the ending scene of the game, in a cinematic cutscene after Miku has defeated Kirie’s spirit. In the cinematic cutscene, Miku manages to complete and place a mirror into a stone pedestal, with the help of the young spirit form of Kirie, and the light of the mirror appears to purify Kirie’s evil form. Kirie looks upon the spirit of her younger self. The spirit girl points towards the Hell Gate and tells Kirie: “Don’t forget your duty.”, and Kirie’s spirit slumps down before standing up before the gate. She puts her hands towards the gate, and they begin to shine in a bright, white light, which closes the gate. Kirie sighs and says to Miku and Mafuyu: “My duty is to keep this gate closed.”.
Figure 16: The purified form of Kirie's spirit, realising her duty, and sealing the Hell Gate. SHN Survival Horror Network. (2016)
Two ropes, hanging on each side of the gate latches onto her wrists and pull her body upwards, so that she hangs in front of the gate as if crucified. The hell gate begins to move, but Kirie’s body keeps it shut and she says: “Leave this gate to me. The rest of you, hurry and escape!”. Mafuyu asks: “But what about you?” and Kirie replies: “I must stop the Calamity, or else it will happen again!”. She turns her head to look away but adds: “Don’t worry about me. You must go”. The cave begins to collapse and Mafuyu decides to stay behind, as Miku is forced to leave him. When the screen goes black, Mafuyu’s voice can be heard:
"The whole time Kirie was guiding me, I could hear her screaming. Screaming for help. As the Rope Shrine Maiden, she was destined to seal the gate, yet she also wanted to be with the one she loved, but she couldn't have both and was being torn apart by those two feelings, which resulted in the Calamity. Her spirit was touched by the Malice and she became a creature that wanted to make others suffer as she had. Now, free of the Malice, she is about to fulfill her duty as the Rope Shine Maiden.
67 Her soul must remain here, keeping this gate sealed off, for all eternity. All alone. Endless pain. As long as she is free of pain, as long as she is not left hopeless, I wish, to be by her side…" - Mafuyu Hinasaki (Fatal Frame, 2001)
This final scene of the game describes the truth behind Kirie’s fate through the ie system, dedicated through the contrasting feelings of ninjō and giri. Kirie’s conflict throughout her life was based around this concept, commonly found in the Japanese Horror film and Edo Gothic horror. At the final fight and after Miku succeeds in restoring the mirror which appears to purify Kirie’s restless soul, she is greeted by the young spirit form of herself, the pure form of Kirie, which reminds her of her duty. The duty, or giri, Kirie has towards her ancestors and towards the role that they gave on to her as the Rope Shrine Maiden, is of top priority. Only by complying to her duty, can she be freed. Meanwhile, the personal feeling and desire she felt, her competing ninjō, puts her to shame and promises disaster, as it opposes her duty. Giri is superior to ninjō in the eyes of her culture and societal structure, which shows through even at the very end. Even at the point of her purification, she is not blessed as the other spirits, or given the freedom she sought through her ninjō. She is instead reminded of her duty and she complies. Another contrast can also be seen in the two forms of Kirie’s spirit, the one representing her duty is presented as an innocent child wearing a pure white kimono and guides the player through the game, the other represents the result of Kirie’s personal feelings and doubts towards her duty, and is monstrous, polluted, and murderous. This is another way of how the game’s narrative, similar to how Japanese horror film has done in the past, puts a positive emphasis on duty and a negative emphasis on defying one’s duty or conflicting feelings. The torture she had previously gone through by the use of ropes is yet again tied to her wrists so that she can be hung in front of the gate, symbolizing that she, or her duty even in death, is the link that binds it all together. While the other spirits of the mansion are freed and returned to their rightful place, Mafuyu reminds us that Kirie’s spirit is still bound to this place. He describes her afterlife as a type of personal hell, where she is still lonely and in pain, just like in the past. However, this is not so much hell, as it is what is expected of her through her duty as the Rope Shrine Maiden and to her ancestors, especially after failing the Strangling Ritual in the past. Therefore, not much freedom is given to her at the end of the game, but instead, it is a moment used as a reminder of what is to be prioritized through ie system and the ideal ending. Of course, her sacrifice is a virtuous one as well, since it still sets the other spirits free from their captivity, the captivity she put them into, to begin with after being tainted by evil. Like the archetype of “the vengeful ghost”, she was made tainted by the results of several male figures in her life, as they lied and killed the man she loved. One could also argue, that in the eyes of her family and the priests, she was already tainted by the time she started having a desire for love, ninjō.
Even Mafuyu’s decision to remain with Kirie is rooted in a sense of duty. While he does state that he wants to alleviate her pain, he also says at the end: “Miku, I now realize why I was brought here and I will accept this destiny of mine... Miku, thank you, for everything.”, as if to say that his decision was also one made through a sense of newfound duty. This leads into the second trope of Edo Gothic horror that exists in the game, the mono-no-aware. It exists throughout the game, especially for our main female characters Miku and Kirie. Miku decides to enter a haunted mansion to find her brother, however, he is taken away at the end which results in her being alone in the end. As mentioned previously, this does not have a
68 dramatic impact on her, she appears to simply accept his decision. Perhaps, it seems most strongly in Kirie’s final decision of taking on her duty again. While she appears determined, she does not seem to be particularly happy in the end, telling Mafuyu and Miku to not worry about her and escape. In her purified form, it appears all vengeance she once felt is gone and is replaced with acceptance towards her duty and end. It is reminiscent of the words of the priests, which told her: “Why have you become attached to this world? You’ll only suffer!”, foreshadowing the mono-no-aware that there would never be a true escape from her suffering, in the end, no matter the choices she makes. Once she went against her duty, she was also facing the consequences of it, and the best way of action is shown in the end is acceptance.
As a result of looking into the complete game, it raises the question if Kirie Himuro, the main antagonist of the game, is truly the main villain of the game as well. As previously discussed, many female antagonistic spirits are shown victimized through the visualized torture they went through before their death. As examples, Kirie Himuro’s hostile spirit-form is seen with the ropes still hanging from her wrists and neck, the Blinded Maiden wanders aimlessly around the mansion with bloodied bandages around her eyes, and the female “Broken Neck” spirit is floating with her back turned and hanging down in a disfigured way. Kirie and the Blinded Maiden, while being antagonists, were not the cause of evil to begin with. Even though Kirie Himuro is shown as the main villain to begin with, it was still several male figures in her life which turned her into the vengeful spirit. Perhaps specifically, the Himuro Family Master, is shown in the cinematic cutscenes gouging out the eyes of the Blinded Maiden and leading the Strangling Ritual. The true evil in the story is in the Strangling Rituals, Hell Gate, and the one who is supposedly forced to uphold the tradition in the family, the Himuro Family Master. As the head of the family, he is also the one who everyone, due to the ie system, must submit to. He keeps the tradition going and decided that the visitor who Kirie fell in love with, were to be murdered and thrown away. Another interesting piece of information mentioned in the game, refers to the nature of the mask which he wears. In one of the research scraps found in the game, it is described that the mask he wears is known to change depending on the person who wears it:
“The mask worn by the Himuro family master is called the “Mask of Reflection”. The legend goes, ‘It can become the face of an angel or a demon,’ meaning its facial expression reflects the nature of the one who is wearing the mask. (…) The document mentioned that the mask, when worn by the master, turned into the face of a demon at the last ritual.” - Research Scrap (Fatal Frame, 2001)
Which means that the Himuro Family Master was most definitely not a kind person, at least during the time of the rituals. It is then suggested that the true evil of the Himuro Mansion is not Kirie Himuro in actuality, but the Family Master who was leading it all. However, similarly as when discussing the meaning of the narrative of the “tragic lovers”, the ending with Kirie Himuro purifying her soul and returning to serve through her duty, suggests that the narrative follows through with the ideal of the ie system, showing that one cannot escape their social responsibility in life and is better off accepting one’s fate. However, it is difficult to say if it is then meant as a way of reinforcing such a social structure or as a protest against it, showing the horrors which could potentially be brought from it.
69 6 Conclusions
6.1 Summary This study intended to investigate female representation in the survival horror game series, Fatal Frame, by opening a conversation with the online fan community of the game series about their opinions on the characters and analysing the first game of the series through a framework based on data points of interest, founded by the background chapter. The data collecting phase consisted of several steps, investigating previous research to find a base to structure the work on, using that base to build an online survey to receive more in-depth information from the experienced players of the community, finally, creating a framework through the background and survey data which could help textually break down the game, Fatal Frame (2001).
The Online Survey
To begin with, the online survey produced a great amount of detailed information from the fan community of the game series. The results were very interesting and show that the community has a lot of affection towards the series and the characters through emotionally charged storytelling. The elements of Japanese folklore and horror were also an attractive part of the experience, in which players were able to unravel the mysterious and tragic past of the antagonists and protagonists alike. Some approve of the largely female cast, while others disapprove of their execution and wish to change some provocative or stereotypical elements, which shows there are still some in the fan community who desire the female representation to be improved. The female characters were, however, praised for being selfless, realistically in tune with their emotions, and relatable to some.
The female antagonists were very well appreciated and interesting, but some wish that they would develop different stories to their pasts as humans, claiming they follow a pattern of women being separated from a loved one and tortured into their next life as a vengeful spirit. The male characters were mentioned, but often in the context of being lacking or uninteresting. Overall diversity to the protagonists and antagonists was desired and some wish for more developed male characters and relationships. A majority felt attachment and identification, depending on the character, based on their emotional nature as vulnerable normal humans. Some identified specifically as women, however, a majority appear to relate in other ways as well, perhaps through their vulnerability in a horror setting, which is shown when many expresses that the characters being very fragile and scared, resonate well with their emotional state as players.
There is then an interesting connection between vulnerability in general and as young women when it came to the identification. Playing in an immersive environment and the characters expressing both their physical and emotional vulnerability were all major effective points to the horror experience. The camera mechanic was seen as very effective and could also present the players with a sense of capability or power to varying extents. The overall results show that players mostly appreciate emotional storytelling when it came to the likability of characters, attachment, identification, and memorability. Which shows how important effective emotions can be in the context of a horror experience.
70 The method which was used for this pilot study was useful and effective to gain in-depth opinions from the community of the Fatal Frame series. There is a possibility that this method would function differently depending on the nature of the targeted community. The Fatal Frame community which was accessed through the online forum Reddit.com, can be considered quite a niche and, after this study, heavily populated with loyal fans of the series who are interested in sharing their opinions. This might make it obvious that the overall opinion was vastly positive, however, some criticism and desire for change with the series and characters was still found in the community. The method was useful since it was easy to execute and accessible for the community. It managed to gather a lot of extensive, valuable data, which may be in credit to the invested community. This method would be recommended for other studies which intend to investigate the opinion within a community and conduct an audience analysis, but it may need to be customized depending on the purpose of the study and the nature or size of the community.
At the start of the pilot study, there was an expected risk of not many responses or detailed answers, which is why the study implemented many questions to pull enough information to the study. However, there were a lot of responses, as well as detailed answers, so much data was gathered it was a tough process to go through them all, especially on an individual level. Therefore, if this research study could have been changed, it might not make use of as many questions. The variety of respondents was fairly diverse, however, a more Asian opinion would have been preferred, considering the games are so heavily influenced by Japanese culture. Regarding the ethical and societal aspects, it would have been preferable to reach out to a more Asian community of the series, since the accessed website Reddit.com may be more inclined towards a western audience, which is seen in the nationality results of the respondents. It would be interesting for future research to investigate the Japanese- or Asian opinion in greater detail, to see how well it is executed by people who are familiar with the culture, folklore, and history.
Also, a population of experienced people who are not specifically fans of the series would be valuable to get a more diverse opinion of the series. This might be done by asking a more mixed community of horror game fans, who may have less attachment to the specific Fatal Frame series. Overall, this method was very useful and interesting for this research study and worked well. Changes to the method would be done in changing just some parts of the survey by reducing some questions or asking more questions regarding the antagonists since there was such a large affection towards them. Applying interviews to the study would also have been interesting, perhaps from a more female audience of the community, to gather more information regarding their opinion of the female cast. However, due to time constraints and making the pilot study accessible to a larger audience, interviews were not used.
The Game Analysis
The background produced for this study discusses the advantages of using psychoanalytic methods to reveal the to connect contexts in horror with human emotional and mental states, such as anxieties, fears, and pleasures. Whether intentional or not, it is common to find Freudian theories in the past Gothic literature, which helps inspire the narrative of the horror genre as well (Schneider, 2004). The connection between psychoanalysis and horror, make it useful to tap into through this study as well, while focusing on a specific part of psychoanalytic theory clearly. For this study, Laura Mulvey’s ideas in the paper Visual
71 Pleasure and Narrative Cinema (1973) was used as source of psychoanalytic theory, relating to female representation in cinema through the control of camera and narrative to create a spectacle for viewers. Mulvey makes use of the term scopophilia to define the sense of pleasure an audience may feel through fixed cameras and a tailored gaze. Also, it represents the purpose and role which female actors take on as they are written on set and then produced on screen. Mulvey defines the two parts of scopophilia as, firstly, subjecting the actor on screen with a controlling and curious gaze, making them an object of sexual stimulation, the second part relates to developed narcissism and constitution of the ego, as the audience feels open to identify with an actor on screen (Mulvey, 1973).
Mulvey’s theories were used to investigate the usage of cameras and presentation of female characters in the game, Fatal Frame. The game shows signs of varied aspects of identifiable scopophilia, both within the cinematic cutscenes and gameplay. The cinematic cutscenes make use of their tailored camera movement and angles to objectify characters, specifically the protagonist Miku Hinasaki, as vulnerable in threatening events with an unknown danger present. This can be seen in the way the camera puts itself in the position of the unknown danger, moving towards or around Miku’s surroundings. The camera also tends to position itself behind Miku’s shoulder so that the player gets a good view of her experience, as well as her reactions, with unfamiliar or threatening situations. While the protagonist in the first game does not show any signs of obvious sexualization, Miku is often placed in cinematic cutscenes in visions of the past as a direct part of the audience. It can be speculated that she replaces a previous spectator in the visions, as she accesses visions by looking through peepholes or standing part of a crowd. No matter the reality, a familiar theme of watching a spectacle, as the player does through the screen, is shown through the moments where she is experiencing the past as if she were there in person. Also, the cinematic cutscenes focus on a lot of imagery of the past where particularly women are shown as victims of torture or suicide. Both the Blinded Maiden, Kirie Himuro, and Miku Hinasaki (through replacing the body of Kirie) are shown as victims of torture in visions with camera angles focusing the eye on their entrapment, tied, or held down, building up the tension before inflicting pain on them. In a separate vision of the past, Miku’s great-grandmother Yae Kurosawa’s body was seen hanging from a tree, which in turn triggers Miku to remember her own mother’s suicide as well. Again, Miku may be present as a part of the audience in these scenes and shown reacting to them through the camera angles.
Regarding gameplay, the game allows the player to gather information and combat spirits by taking photos of them with a mystical object called the camera obscura. This object creates mechanics where the player takes photos of unsuspecting, lost souls in Himuro Mansion and naming them with a description which suits the captured moment. They are not given their rightful names, instead they are identified by what can be distinguished from the photograph. This gives a feeling of them being faceless, placing focus on narrative rather than the person behind the event. As an example, “Woman in Pain”, “Female Head”, “Man on Beam”, etc. This focus on narrative, either gruesome or mysterious, may resonate with the audience as the responses from the online survey suggests they are motivated to uncover secrets in the game, especially if it is related to the ghosts, their past, and death. As for the fixed camera angles during gameplay, they are most accurately used to guide and control the player’s gaze when playing. This means that they can position themselves in angles which shows the player where to go or who to see, by surprising them with a sudden appearance of a ghost. But they also maintain the theme seen during camera angles of cinematic cutscenes, shifting positions to make the player feel watched or lacking control of their surroundings.
72 One example of this is placing the camera at an angle looking from above, down on the player and even showing spirits close to the camera, looking down at the player. However, the player is given practically full control of the camera once they actually use their camera obscura on the spirits. Similarly to the cinematic cutscenes, the focus in camera is constantly shifted from the perspective of being watched, to watching others through their own camera lens. In a way, the gameplay events of taking pictures of ghosts, makes them the object of fascination, for example in terms of their death. Miku in the cinematic cutscenes and at some points of gameplay is made an object representing player vulnerability by being placed in angles which are no longer in her control. The game has a tendency of switching back and forth between who is the focused object and in a vulnerable position, from Miku and the player to the lost souls wandering the mansion, to major antagonists such as Kirie Himuro or the Blinded Maiden. Character who are presented as vulnerable can in another moment be placed as the one in control, and vice versa.
Miku as a female protagonist, is shown to be selfless and brave by going against hostile spirits to find her brother, however, she is still lacking development and can present herself as quite stale. Her expressions in cinematic cutscenes vary from barely any expression, to shocked. But there are some moments in the cinematic cutscenes where she can appear to fix her gaze in determination, which could lightly reflect to her bravery. During gameplay she does let out screams of, either fear or pain, in combat scenes where she is attacked. But as for her character, it is not as developed as, for example, Kirie Himuro who is shown to have a complex story and several layers to her emotional states. Kirie goes from devoted in her role, to in love with life, crushed by guilt, and turned by malice into a vengeful spirit. Miku does show to have an emotional past when remembering her mother’s suicide, but the game barely goes into the details about her past of dealing with loss and grief. She simply states that Mafuyu is important to her since he is the only family she has left but is in the end still rather accepting of his departure as well. The reason why Miku is left with such an overbearing acceptance of things might be due to the mono-no-aware narrative, which is quite common in Japanese horror (Bailman, 2008). It could make her represent such a narrative by making her accepting or she is left as a blank slate in a way which is deemed suitable for female actors in Mulvey’s theories, as women on screen matter in the way she provokes and represents by inspiring the true “hero”, which would be the player, the one who is in control. She could inspire the player with love, fear, or concern, feelings which in turn make them act the way they do. Through this idea, Mulvey states that: “In herself, the woman has not the slightest importance” (Mulvey, 1973:11). This idea of Mulvey’s theories also resonates quite well with the respondents’ opinions on how the young girls were effective as protagonists, as they could simply have value by being a pawn to mirror the player’s own feelings of vulnerability while playing a horror game. It could place less focus on the person behind the identity of a protagonist, and more focus on their gender serving a purpose or as a mechanic to the audience. However, while Miku can be seen as a bit plain, she is still one of the most favoured protagonists from the online survey and the respondents did seem to have bonded with her, especially due to her being the first protagonist of the series and reoccurs in later games. They were even quite passionate about her development in the last game, where she is revealed to be in a posthumous marriage with Mafuyu. Both of which are the parents of the female protagonist Miu Hinasaki (Miu Hinasaki, 2020). This part of Miku’s narrative was severe enough to make several respondents express dislike and a desire to change it. Therefore, it is possible that Miku still pertains affection value in the eyes of the audience by just being the first protagonist of the series and then strengthening
73 that bond by reoccurring in later games, with the possibility of enhancing her character. There are also other protagonists of the series who were very valued by respondents and mentioned to have a more developed past history, emotional journey, and relatability, which could differ to Miku Hinasaki’s presentation in the first game.
Moving into the main antagonist of the game, Kirie Himuro, as mentioned her story could be considered more complex in comparison to what is shown and not shown in Miku’s story. In contrast to Miku, Kirie shows to have a tragic past and an emotional journey through it as well, which already gives her character more depth. Both Kirie Himuro and the Blinded Maiden can be considered good examples of characters which, through their visual in-game representation, intrigue the audience’s interest in mystery and the grotesque. As respondents mentioned through the online survey, the antagonists were more well-liked than the protagonist, due to the amount of intrigue they contribute to the game experience. They expressed that the antagonists, through their body-horror, reflects their individual rituals and that the mystery around their deaths help create an interesting mixture of feelings in the player made out of fear, horror, and empathy. As discussed previously in Horror film theory on gender usage on different roles, the masculine being the monster or hero and the feminine being the victim, the female antagonist of Fatal Frame still uphold a certain identity as Japanese women, as they are mostly seen wearing their traditional outfits. However, their bodies are broken which still gives them a victimized appearance, even though they are meant to play the part as the monster.
Furthermore, the cultural aspects of Japanese Horror are highly present within the game, as the core narrative can be seen as typically referencing to the mono-no-aware and the conflicts surrounding ie system and interests of social obligations (giri) and personal feeling (ninjō), in both characters who are part of traditional and modern Japan. The ie system is based on the worship of ancestors and the giri refers to a strong sense of obligation that binds the entire social structure of Japan. Ninjō refers to the idea of generosity or sympathy towards another or each other, consisting of personal feelings or desire. However, in the conflicts between the two, giri is always deemed superior to ninjō (Balmain, 2008). Kirie Himuro especially is a good example of a character which belongs to a more traditionalistic time period, where she is given a role of a human sacrifice as a child, which she shall then aspire to for the sake of her ancestors and family, the giri. When she fails to fulfil the demands of her role, by obtaining a will to live through the affections of another person, she is severely reprimanded with lies about her companion’s disappearance and weighed down by an immense guilt when realizing he has been murdered by her own family members. Kirie now finds herself in two internal conflicts, she feels guilty for not being able to fulfil her duty and that her will to live took the life of her loved one. When the ritual takes place, she is too far gone into misery and doubt that it results in failure, the malice of Hell Gate takes over her body and she is made into the classic archetype the “vengeful ghost”. Also, the archetype “the tragic lovers” can be seen through their relationship, blossoming and innocent at first, but quickly turned to a tragedy once social constructs enter the equation. Kirie Himuro is unwillingly sacrificed, which turns her into the evil spirit, seeking vengeance for both her death and for failing at her role as the Rope Shrine Maiden. In the end of the game, Miku manages to purify Kirie’s evil form and Kirie is reintroduced with the spirit of her younger self, representing her purity. This spirit has appeared as a guide throughout the game and it now guides Kirie’s spirit by reminding her of her duty and Kirie submits to her role as the Rope Shrine maiden. She is not freed in death but is instead tied to her duty, where she is trapped maintaining to her role throughout eternity.
74 Finally, to return to the main research question of this study: “How do culture and cinematic practices of narrative and visuals represent female characters in the Japanese survival horror game, Fatal Frame (2001)?” The over-arching conclusion is that the female characters of Fatal Frame (2001), while having major roles in the narrative and maintaining their femininity, are still victimized to varying degrees no matter the role they play, by both cultural- and cinematic practices. This can be seen in the levels of body-horror shown on the female ghosts compared to the male ones and the usage of femininity as a victim-label commonly seen in the Horror genre. The cultural aspects of Japanese horror are very pronounced in the game and there are no clear signs of the game or narrative differing from what can already be found in Japanese horror film. Fatal Frame follows the Japanese horror narrative accurately by using archetypes and narratives previously seen in Japanese horror film, which in turn shape the presentation of the characters in the game. There is the overbearing sense of the Ie system, judging Kirie Himuro’s personal feelings conflicting with her duty and shows that salvation can only be gained by staying true to one’s social obligations. The mono-no-aware, flowing throughout and showing characters maintain a calm acceptance towards their own fate, no matter how unjust it may seem. The main antagonist both represents the archetypes of the “tragic lovers” and “vengeful ghost”, as she has a history of being a virtuous woman, abused and tortured by the choices made by a malicious man and (in this case) several other men, which results in an unjust death that brings her back to life for vengeance. As for the cinematic practices, the camera angles and positions are used to frequently place different characters in vulnerable viewpoints, no matter their role or gender. It could be argued, however, that there is a higher focus throughout the game on female characters, being quite pronounced as either the main protagonist, main antagonist, and several other female antagonists with prominent body- horror designs. A possible exceptions to this being Mafuyu Hinasaki and Kogi Ogata, who are the only male characters shown vulnerable or killed, but it can still be argued that female characters are more pronounced with detailed scenes descripting their deaths compared to such male characters. The cinematic cutscenes show Miku Hinasaki in ominous surroundings with a possible danger observing her through the perspective of the camera or detailed visions of the past where female characters are either vulnerable, killed, or tortured. Also, the cameras within gameplay are also fixed and angled in ways where Miku, or the player, is surprised by sudden ghosts or watched by ghosts from above.
6.2 Discussion This study made on female representation in the Japanese survival horror game, Fatal Frame, made use of several steps to work through the main research purpose. Relevant information to the background chapter was gathered on psychoanalysis, visual pleasure, women in horror cinema, Japanese horror film culture, and textual analysis methodology. The study then gained information from the audience by reaching out with a survey on the online forum, Reddit.com, and made an analysis on the respondents’ interpretations of the Fatal Frame series. First of all, the research made through the online survey, reaching out the audience of the series and gaining their opinion and making use of their experience, was very valuable and interesting to the main research purpose of the study. Especially since this method involved textually analysing the game while the analyst did not play but watch recorded footage of the game instead. This secondary step to the study helped support the research with some player experience and thoughts on identification with the protagonist while playing, which might not have been researched enough without the online survey
75 results. The online survey method, reaching out to a niched part of the horror game community with a specific and sometimes heavy interest in the Fatal Frame series, gave the research a heavy amount of unique information from experienced players.
Besides supporting the main purpose of this study, the online survey could function as a useful tool for understanding the audience of experienced game series, their needs, and their culturally localized opinion to culture-based games, in this case inspired heavily on Japanese culture and horror. The online survey reached out to a mainly western audience of the series by using the online forum Reddit.com. Making use of similar platforms can give researchers a pool of localized information through the internet on the audience experience. Perhaps especially in this case, a Japan-based game series could obtain data on what different cultures perceive when interpreting their game. It is important to consider that when reaching out to audiences on a specific online forum, there is a possibility of the nationalities being in line with the users of that forum. If a researcher desires a specific localized opinion from their audience, then it is advised to do some research into what online forum or other channel they exist on. When reaching out to an audience using the survey method on online forums, a researcher could expect to get answers of what the specific audience needs, enjoys, dislikes and relates to in terms of game concepts, and potentially what cultural aspects fascinates players if they are from a differently localized audience.
As for the game analysis itself, the textual analysis method was quite suitable for this study. Fragmenting the game in theory subjects which deemed to be, either relatable or interesting, was effective. However, not all data points in the framework had a lot of presence within the game, or clarity, compared to others. Maintaining a variety of different data points can be useful to explore the game and differentiate the parts that are of most value, but it is also important to have data points which are still relatable to the research purpose. It is recommended that a sturdy foundation of previous research and theory is gathered beforehand, to ensure that the accuracy of the data points is good. For this study, some data points still did not feel as understandable in terms of the game content than others, so in this case there was a bit of a process, pin-pointing an event with a data point. After some time, patterns relating the game and specific data points could be found, which made the analysis clearer, determining which aspects were most prominent.
Another advice when managing a framework similar one used in this study is to document everything as neatly as possible from the beginning. If a scene relates to a one or more characters and at least one is relevant, be sure to mark them down with their names. In the Fatal Frame game used in this study, a lot of characters goes by different names or titles sometimes, especially the ghosts, which made the analysis more problematic, since sometimes a certain character was relevant but they were marked down by their title, or sometimes a title or description was more relevant and they were marked down by name. It is recommended to be as clear as possible when marking down your data, so that when you go through your framework it’s an efficient tool that helps you keep track on important information. When using recorded footage, the time stamps are the most valuable piece of information. Writing descriptions for the scenes did not appear as important as firstly assumed, as the scene of interest would be rewatched several times either way. However, writing down dialogue or text from the game was helpful to get a good idea of what type of information you are interested in and receiving accurate information directly from the game is very valuable when analysing.
76 6.3 Future Work Regarding the usage of the online survey and audience analysis, the effectiveness of the method suggests that future research could have use of a similar method as well. For future work, the online survey could expand onto different audiences from other cultures, examining their interpretation of the game. While no information could be gained from a Japanese audience, it would be interesting to make a comparison of how differently localized audience value and interpret the game series, especially in terms of cultural value. For example, was the change of Miku’s appearance in the western release necessary, appreciated or disliked by any part of the audience? Or what opinion does a western audience have on dubbed versions of the game, from Japanese voice acting to English? Is there a difference in quality or is there a part of the audience, who are not part of Japan, that still opt for the Japanese release due to the changed voice acting? How was Miku’s development in the sixth release thought of by the Japanese or Eastern audience? Judging by the dislike found in the responses from the online survey on Miku’s development in the sixth title, is her narrative interpreted differently in a Japanese audience? How are the protagonists and antagonists thought of by a Japanese or Eastern audience? Are they accurate, inspiring, relatable, or lacking in terms of their representation? These are some examples of interesting questions which arose from the online survey data and audience analysis results.
For the main purpose of this research, the representation of female characters in Fatal Frame would be interesting to explore through other titles. While a lot of time and work was required to analyse the first game, the other game titles would still be valuable to explore to gain insight into how the series have developed and how that relates to the audience opinion made through the survey. Especially when discussing the theme of horror film, reproducing prequels and continuing titles with repeating elements that are familiar t0 satisfy fans. Also, Miku Hinasaki is a reoccurring character in both the third and sixth title, which makes her a link in which it might be possible to examine character development in long-lasting characters. By continuing the investigation of the Fatal Frame series, there is a possibility of obtaining more details into how the identity of the series is developed and maintained through aspects related to horror film and Japanese culture.
77 References
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80 Appendix A - Online Survey
Questions marked with a “*” were mandatory questions.
Survey – The Characters of Fatal Frame
What country are you from?
How old are you?
What is your gender?
1: * Have you played any game(s) of the Fatal Frame series?
• Yes. • No.
1.1: If yes, how much have you played?
• A lot. I’ve completed more than one game. • I have completed at least one game. • Only a bit. I have not finished it. • Not much. I stopped playing.
2: * What other experience do you have with the game series?
• I have watched gameplay videos/series online. • I take part in the community and discussions. • I have read about the series online. • No other experiences/I have only played the game. • Other…
3: *Which game(s) of the Fatal Frame series have you played/are you experienced with?
• Fatal Frame (2001) • Fatal Frame II: Crimson Butterfly (2003) • Fatal Frame III: The Tormented (2005) • Fatal Frame: Mask of the Lunar Eclipse (2008) • Spirit Camera: The Cursed Memoir (2012) • Project Zero 2: Wii Edition (2012) • Fatal Frame: Maiden of Black Water (2014) • Other…
4: What are your general thoughts on the Fatal Frame series?
5: Who is your favourite character of the series and why?
I Fatal Frame – The Protagonists
6: * What is your general experience with the protagonist(s)?
• Positive. • Negative. • Mixed/Both. • No opinion/I don’t know.
6.1: Why?
7: * How do you feel when playing as the protagonist in the Fatal Frame games? (You may choose multiple options.)
• Capable. • Frustrated. • Powerful. • Weak. • Scared. • It depends on the character. • No opinion/I don’t know. • Other…
7.1: Why?
8: * Is there any protagonist/moment with the protagonist that you remember strongly?
• Yes. • No.
8.1: If yes, why and what impacted you?
9: * Have you ever felt an attachment to the protagonist(s)?
• Yes. • No. • No opinion/I don’t know.
9.1: Why?
10: * Do you ever feel that you can identify with the protagonist(s)?
• Yes. • No. • No opinion/I don’t know.
10.1: Why?
11: * What part(s) of a protagonist in the Fatal Frame series do you enjoy the most? (You may choose multiple options.)
• Functionality.
II • Design/Aesthetics. • Personality. • Story/Background. • No opinion/I don’t know. • Other…
11.1: Why?
12: * Do you think the protagonist(s) play an effective part of the horror experience?
• Yes. • No. • No opinion/I don’t know.
12.1: * Why and what parts do you find effective/not effective?
13: * Is there anything you would like to change with the protagonist(s)?
• Yes. • No. • No opinion/I don’t know.
13.1: If yes, why and what would you change?
Fatal Frame – The Antagonists
14: * What is your general experience with the antagonist(s)?
• Positive. • Negative. • Mixed/Both. • I don’t know/No opinion.
14.1: Why?
15: * Is there any antagonist/moment with an antagonist you remember strongly?
• Yes. • No. • I don’t know/No opinion.
15.1: If yes, why and what impacted you?
16: * Do you think the antagonist(s) play an effective part of the horror experience?
• Yes. • No. • I don’t know/No opinion.
16.1: * Why and what parts do you find effective/not effective?
III 17: * Is there anything you would like to change about the antagonist(s)?
• Yes. • No. • I don’t know/No opinion.
17.1: If yes, why and what would you like to change?
- END -
IV