Traditional Ecological Knowledge for Application by Service Scientists

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U.S. FishFish & & Wildlife Wildlife Service Service Traditional Ecological Knowledge for Application by Service Scientists

Fishing at Ninepipe Natiomal Wildlife Refuge, Montana / USFWS

Working Definition of Traditional Ecological Knowledge Traditional Ecological Knowledge, Rumphius’ index included the plant’s recognized, C. Hart Merriam was also called by other names including name, illustrations, description for also an amateur anthropologist who Indigenous Knowledge or Native nomenclature, place, discussion spent decades of five to six months Science, (hereafter, TEK) refers to of the plant’s use to the local each year traversing the country the evolving knowledge acquired by inhabitants, stories, folklore, and interviewing Native Americans and indigenous and local peoples over religious practices. During the 18th writing down voluminous records hundreds or thousands of years century, Carl Linnaeus referenced of what they were still able to tell through direct contact with the and relied upon Rumphius’s him. He recorded the distribution environment. This knowledge is work, and also corresponded with of words to ascertain the precise specific to a location and includes other people all around the world distribution of dialects, languages, the relationships between plants, when developing the biological tribes, families, and their beliefs animals, natural phenomena, classification scheme that now and customs, similar to the way he landscapes and timing of events underlies the arrangement of much recorded the distribution of song that are used for lifeways, including of the accumulated knowledge sparrows, grizzly bears, and wolves but not limited to hunting, fishing, of the biological sciences. In in order to delimit life zones. The trapping, agriculture, and forestry. addition, during the 19th century, idea that TEK has guided modern TEK is an accumulating body of Charles Darwin, the ‘father’ of biology (or Western science) should knowledge, practice, and belief, evolutionary theory, on his Voyage encourage conservation biologists to evolving by adaptive processes and of the Beagle took interest in investigate TEK more thoroughly. handed down through generations the local biological knowledge by cultural transmission, about of peoples he encountered. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Use the relationship of living beings of TEK (human and non-human) with one Contemporary naturalists and An increasing number of scientists another and with the environment. biologists also acknowledged the and Native people believe that It encompasses the world view of importance of TEK as it relates to Western Science and TEK are indigenous people which includes Western science. For example, C. complementary. Although an ecology, spirituality, human and Hart Merriam was one of the great integration of indigenous and animal relationships, and more. naturalists of his generation. In western scientific ways of knowing 1886, Merriam became the first The Use of TEK is Nothing New chief of the Division of Economic and Continues to Evolve Ornithology and Mammalogy of Local biological knowledge, collected the United States Department of and sampled over these early Agriculture, predecessor to the centuries, most likely informed National Wildlife Research Center the early development of modern and the United States Fish and biology. For example, during the Wildlife Service. He was one of the 17th century the German born original founders of the National botanist Georg Eberhard Rumphius Geographic Society in 1888 and benefited from local biological developed the “life zones” concept knowledge in producing his to classify biomes found in North catalogue, Herbarium Amboinense. America. Although not widely Grizzly bear in Wyoming / USFWS

In Alaska, the Service, as well as the of the interview questions. For State of Alaska Department of Fish example, questions about a species and Game Subsistence Division, may include such topics as the collect and use TEK for research species itself, its habitat, interactions and monitoring fish populations with other species, traditions and under the Federal Subsistence ceremonies surrounding the species Management Program. The or its parts, identification of who primary objective is to collect and or what positions hold knowledge catalogue TEK observations from and rights to the species, taboos, local residents through interviews cyclical events, and vocabulary. with local experts on the ecology, harvest, and use of salmon and Focus groups have also been non-salmon fish species. Another used to provide direction for more recent objective has been to additional subject matter and Polar bear / USFWS produce a drainage-wide portrait of identification of experts. Focus climate and environmental change, groups can be helpful to determine and managing wildlife can be emphasizing those that are related who within an indigenous difficult to achieve, successful to subsistence fisheries. Use of TEK Tribe holds the knowledge for integrations have occurred. For also contributes to local capacity the species being studied. example, during the 1989 Exxon building by utilizing a framework of Valdez oil spill in Prince William community involvement in research. Participant Observation is another Sound, Alaska, Federal and state research method used, which agencies recognized the vast Collection of TEK involves extensive time in a culture traditional knowledge of the Native Methods for documenting TEK watching and recording what community who could provide derive from the social sciences people do. Participant Observation detailed information on conditions and include ethnography. can be a source of information to in the years prior to the spill. The Social scientists and cultural verify that which has been spoken Native community had knowledge anthropologists use a wide range of and a source of information for of the historic population sizes techniques to collect ethnographic that which the Tribe forgets to and ranges of many of the species data. Below are some of the tell because it is considered either injured by the spill as well as methods that can be used, but universally known or assumed. observations concerning the diet, they are not necessarily in the behavior, and interrelationships order TEK should be collected. In addition, Linguistics can provide of injured species. Optimal use Permission from the indigenous insight into a culture and its view of scientific data and traditional government should be received prior of the natural world. Some Tribes knowledge while increasing the to beginning any research project. now have written dictionaries for involvement of communities in their languages. A native speaker oil spill restoration enhanced the Literature review is an important can provide information about success of restoration effort. component in any research words, their meanings, associations project. All most all of the Tribes and similarities. For example, the Most recently, the U.S. Fish and in the United States have been Yupik language on Nelson Island in Wildlife Service used both western studied by an anthropologist at Alaska is very intrinsically tied to scientific data and TEK to justify one time or another. During a the environment – there are words listing the polar bear (Ursus literature search, ethnographies to describe plants, activities, and maritimus) as a threatened as well as collections of stories/ elements in the Yupik language that species under the Endangered myths/legends and songs will be are non-existent in other languages. Species Act. Ecological knowledge instrumental to one’s research for These words help Yupik people to provided by Chukotka, Inuit, and information on societies, clans, other indigenous coastal residents keepers of knowledge, ceremonies, with regard to polar bear habitat, uses, processes, and interactions. density estimates and population numbers provided valuable data The semi-directive interview is used in making the decision. The a standard ethnographic method final listing rule stated that both for gathering information and traditional and contemporary can use both an open-ended and indigenous knowledge recognized close-ended (yes or no questions) climate-related changes occurring format. A skilled and experienced in the Arctic, and these changes are ethnographer can help a novice to negatively impacting polar bears. determine the appropriate reach Alaskan salmon / USFWS

determine how they interact with who make and abide by decisions into formal management structures their immediate environment. based on that information. In cross- to address a changing environment. cultural settings, the latter is often Ethnography is the process which difficult. The use of TEK offers one TEK in Journals and Professional non-indigenous people interpret way of bridging gaps in perspective Organizations indigenous people’s lifeways. The and understanding, especially when Interest in TEK has been growing ethnographic process for collecting used in conjunction with knowledge in recent years, partly due to a TEK results in a wealth of derived from the scientific method. recognition that such knowledge information that must be carefully can contribute to the conservation considered for its use in a specific TEK and Climate Change of biodiversity and sustainable project. The researcher will get As mentioned above, the Service resource use in general. In 2000, more than he needs and should often uses TEK in Alaska. For the journal Ecological Applications accept all that is given during the example, comments from Yukon produced an invited feature which collection phase. The one providing River subsistence users in Alaska focused on the subject of TEK in the information during an interview are beginning to identify a suite of order to encourage the discussion of will be sharing lifeway surrounding environmental changes attributed TEK in environmental management. the topic. Only afterwards should to climate change that impact the researcher begin to decide on fish, fish habitats, and fishing The Ecological Society of America what is relevant to the project and activities. Observations include has a Traditional Ecological what is not needed at the time. To the drying-up of wetland areas, Knowledge Section. The purpose try to edit the one speaking would lakes, and waterways, as well of this Section is to: (1) promote be considered a lack of respect as changes in weather patterns, the understanding, dissemination and would potentially stymie which in turn affect river levels and respectful use of traditional the researcher from obtaining and average dates of freeze-up ecological knowledge in information that on second and break-up. What is currently ecological research, application consideration could be instrumental needed is a directed, systematic, and education; (2) to encourage to the project. Retaining all of this drainage-wide effort to collect and education in traditional ecological information is important because it understand these changes and their knowledge; (3) to stimulate may be helpful for another project, impacts. Traditional Ecological research which incorporates although it may be more appropriate Knowledge is particularly well the traditional knowledge and for a tribal college or other tribal suited for identifying environmental participation of indigenous people institution to retain the interview changes attributable to climate and; (4) to increase participation transcripts. The researcher change at the local and regional by indigenous people in the could retain those data needed level. Understanding the potential Ecological Society of America for the project. Ethnographers impacts of climate change on (see http://www.esa.org/tek/). are experts in this process. landscapes, wildlife, and subsistence users is important for Federal In addition, The Wildlife Society Better Partnerships with Native managers in order for them to carry has a Native Peoples’ Wildlife American Communities out the mandates for which the Management Working Group which Although the collection of TEK is various conservation units were promotes improved relationships not government-to-government established and to build flexibility between state/provincial/federal consultation, TEK is one way federal employees can honor the federal trust responsibility to tribes with regard to resources of mutual interest. Using TEK allows a mutually beneficial relationship to be created between conservation biologists and local people. Indigenous scholars and the scientific community can benefit by mutual exchange of information and interpreting the information collaboratively. A critical aspect of conservation biology and associated environmental management is acquiring information that is not only accurate, but trusted by those

Yukon River, Alaska / USFWS

wildlife managers and tribal wild- ent concepts of communities and Brettell, Caroline B. 1993. When life managers through improved connections among living entities, They Read What We Write, The communications. The Working the importance of understanding Politics of Ethnography. Bergin Group provides a forum for tribal the meaning of relatedness in both and Garvey, Westport, CT. and agency wildlife professionals spiritual and biological creation, and Cajete, Gregory and Leroy Little Bear. 1999. Native Science: to discuss wildlife management on a careful comparison with evolution- Natural Laws of Interdependence. reservations and aboriginal lands ary ecology. They may examine the Clear Light Publishers. and to share viewpoints on proposed themes and principles informing this policies affecting wildlife manage- knowledge, and offer a look at the Dove, Michael R. and Carol Carpenter. ment on those lands. The Working complexities of conducting research 2008. Environmental Anthropology: Group also works to enhance wildlife from an indigenous perspective. A Historical Reader. Malden, MA: management on and off reservations Blackwell Publishing, Ltd. through joint activities (see http:// Once TEK is collected, combined joomla.wildlife.org/Native). The with western knowledge, and Drew, J.A. 2005. Use of traditional Wildlife Society has a Native Peo- decisions are being considered for ecological knowledge in marine conservation. Conservation ples’ Wildlife Management Work- managing the resources, take time Biology 19(4):1286-1293. ing Group recently held a half day to think about what the long-term symposium titled; “Implementation impacts of these decisions could be Fienup-Riordan, A. 1988. A of Traditional Ecological Knowledge beyond addressing the most press- problem of translation: animals in Natural Resource Management” ing issue. New methodologies or as infinitely renewable or finite at their annual conference in 2010. technologies can have unintended resource? The writing of culture Another whole day symposium on consequences. Case studies are a and the culture of writing. Alaska TEK will be hosted again during way of learning to think beyond the Anthropological Association 15th The Wildlife Society’s 2011 annual hoped for result to the sometimes Annual Meeting. Fairbanks, Alaska. conference. unintended consequences. The Sug- Gadgil, M., F. Berkes, and gested Reading List below provides C. Folke. 1993. Indigenous How can I learn more? information on the topics expressed knowledge for biodiversity Collecting TEK is not for a novice in this Fact Sheet from several conservation. Ambio 22:151-156. without research and guidance. authors. Reading literature about TEK and Handwerker, W.P. 2001. Quick speaking with professionals or those Reference and Reading List ethnography. Alta Mira experienced in the field can help Agar, Michael H. 1980. The Press. Lanham. 299pp. one determine if one would like to Professional Stranger, An Informal directly pursue collection of TEK. It Introduction to Ethnography. Heizer, R.F. 1979. Contributions to is a good idea to have a professional Academic Press, Inc. San Diego, CA. Native California ethnology form the C. Hart Merriam collection. mentor for several projects before Anderson, M. K. 2005. Tending the University of California, Berkeley. attempting such work independent- Wild - Native American Knowledge ly. In addition, even though one’s and the Management of California’s Holling, C.S. 1978. Adaptive intent in the collection of TEK may Natural Resources. Berkely: environmental assessment and be altruistic, how the information University of California Press. management. Wiley, London, UK. is used can have unintended consequences. It is important to contact Berkes, Fikret. 2008. Sacred Hunn, E. 1993. What is traditional the Regional Tribal Liaison if TEK Ecology, 2nd Edition. New ecological knowledge. Pages 13-15 is pursued. The liaison may have York, NY: Taylor & Francis. in N.M. Williams, and G. Bains, eds. experience with TEK and/or will be Traditional ecological knowledge. Centre for Resource and Environmental able to provide insight when work- Berkes, F., J. Colding, and C. Folke. 2000. Rediscovery of Studied, Australian National University. ing with Tribes. Indigenous ways of traditional ecological knowledge as understanding and interacting with adaptive management. Ecological Huntington, H. P. 1997. the natural world are characterized Applications 10:1251-1262. Observations on the utility of the as TEK, which derives from empha- semi-directive interview for sizing relationships and connections Berkes, F. 1993. Traditional Ecological documenting traditional ecological among species. There are a number Knowledge in perspective. Pages 1-10 in knowledge. Arctic, 51(3), 237-242. of books and publications that exam- Inglis, J. T., (ed.). Traditional ecological ine TEK and its strengths in relation knowledge: concepts and cases. Huntington, O. H., & Watson, A. May to Western ecological knowledge International Program on Traditional 2008. They’re here - I can feel them: the epistemic spaces of Indigenous and and evolutionary philosophy. Some Ecological Knowledge and International Development Research Centre, Ottawa. Western Knowledges. Social & Cultural of these books address the scientific Geography, Vol. 9, No. 3, 257-281. basis of TEK, focusing on differ-

Johnson, M., ed. 1992. Lore: Capturing Traditional Environmental Knowledge. Dene Cultural Institute, International Development Research Centre, Ottawa.

Kroeber, A.L. 1955. C. Hart Merriam as Anthropologist. Pp. vii-xiv In C. Hart Meriaum and the staff of the Department of Anthropology of the University of California (eds.). Studies of California Indians. University of California Press. Berkeley.

Longley-Cochran, P. 2002. Ethical guidelines for the use of Traditional Knowledge in research and science. Mexican gray wolf / USFWS AFN Youth and Elders Conference 2002. Pierotti, Raymond. 2011. Indigenous Wohlforth, C. 2004. The Whale Menzies, Charles. 2006. Traditional Knowledge, Ecology, and Evolutionary and the Supercomputer - On the Ecological Knowledge and Natural Biology. Routledge, Taylor and Northern Front of Climate Change. Resources Management. Board of Francis Group. New York. New York: North Point Press. Regents, University of Nebraska. Punch, Maurice. 1986. The Politics Mihesuah, D. A. 1993. Suggested and Ethics of Fieldwork. Sage guidelines for institutions with scholars Publications, Inc. Newbury Park, CA. Sarah Rinkevich who conduct research on American Endangered Species Biologist, Indians. American Indian Culture Sahota, Puneet Chawla. Research Region 2 and Research Journal, 17(3), 131-139. Review Checklist for American Indian U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Alaska Native Communities. 520-670-6150 x 237 Miraglia, R. A. 1998. Traditional http://www.fws.gov/nativeamerican/ [email protected] Ecological Knowledge Handbook: graphics/Research_Review_Checklist_ A training manual and reference for_AIAN_Communities.pdf Kim Greenwood guide for designing, conducting, and Tribal Liaison, Region 6 participating in research projects Spicer, Edward H. 1952. Human using traditional ecological knowledge. Problems in Technological U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Alaska Department of Fish and Change, A Casebook. Russell 303-236-4575 Game, Division of Subsistence. Sage Foundation, New York. [email protected]

McCracken, Grant. 1988. The Spradley, James. 1979. The Crystal Leonetti Long Interview. Sage Publications, Ethnographic Interview. Harcourt Alaska Native Affairs Specialist Inc. Newbury Park, CA. Brace Jovanovich College U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Publishers, United States. 907-786-3868 Nadasdy, Paul. 2003. Hunters and [email protected] Bureaucrats: Power, Knowledge, Taylor, J. 2008. The voyage of the and Aboriginal-State Relations Beagle: Darwin’s extraordinary in the Southwest Yukon. adventure aboard FitzRoy’s U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. famous survey ship. Naval Native American Program Institute Press, Annapolis. 4401 N. Fairfax Dr. MS-330 Nakashima, D.J. 1993. Pages 99-110 in Arlington, VA 22203 Inglis, J. T., ed. Traditional ecological U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2008. knowledge: concepts and cases. Endangered and threatened wildlife For State relay service International Program on Traditional and plants: determination of threatened TTY / Voice: 711 Ecological Knowledge and International status for the polar bear (Ursus Development Research Centre, Ottawa. maritimus) throughout its range; final U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service rule. Federal Register 28212-28303. http://www.fws.gov Nielsen, M.O., & Gould, L. A. 2007. Non-Native scholars doing research U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010. February 2011 in Native American communities: 2010 Fisheries Resource Management a matter of respect. The Social Plan. Anchorage, Alaska. Science Journal 44, 420-433. Oleksa, F. M. 2005. Another Culture/ Wildcat, Daniel R. 2010. Red Another World. Juneau: Association Alert, Saving the Planet with of Alaska School Boards. Indigenous Knowledge. Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, CO.