Beyond Afropolitanism: Representations of African Identities in Select 21St Century African Novels
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Beyond Afropolitanism: Representations of African Identities in Select 21st Century African Novels by Hicham Gourgem A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Cultural Mediations-Literary Studies Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2020 Hicham Gourgem Abstract This dissertation explores the theoretical and ideological stakes in contemporary representations of African cultural identities through ―Afropolitanism‖ and ―Afropeanism.‖ The two concepts informed by anglophone and francophone African experience respectively—―Afropolitan‖ and ―Afropean‖—construct cultural dialogue through an over-reliance on a dualized Western-African relation. The study presents a comparative analysis of novels in French and English published at the turn of the twenty- first century by Calixthe Beyala, Sami Tchak, Chris Abani, Teju Cole, NoViolet Bulawayo, and Taiye Selasi. I examine these literary works as instantiations of a paradigm of cultural dialogue that privileges Western culture in contemporary redefinitions of African identities. The study also underlines the efforts by ―Afropolitan‖ and ―Afropean‖ writers to depart from atavistic African self-representation of the 1950s and 1960s generation of African writers to challenge myths of national identity, universality of Western culture, and stereotyping and marginalizing Africans in Western societies. Put differently, this work aims to show how a select group of African writers deploy ―Afropolitan‖ and ―Afropean‖ literary texts to reimagining alternative African identities and ways of belonging that challenge monolithic Western discourse on national identity. Yet, it interrogates the writers‘ model of decolonizing African representations as one that perpetuates the notion of the West as the center. Theoretically, I build on Edouard Glissant‘s concept of Relation and Achille Mbembe‘s rendering of ―Afropolitanism‖ as alternative accounts that diversify cultural dialogue(s) and complicate identities. The ―Afropolitan‖ and ―Afropean‖ texts studied here inadequately engage with the cultural histories of African people. Through a close reading of these literary texts, I delineate how the writers negotiate social identities and belonging of African subjects across race, gender, and social status, and particularly, how they attempt to resist imperial domination through hybridity. i Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor, Nduka Otiono, for his wonderful guidance throughout this dissertation. I am thankful to him for continually encouraging and supporting me through his excellent coaching and through his timely and insightful feedback. I would like to thank my committee members, Christine Duff and Sarah Casteel, for reading the drafts of my chapters and providing thought-provoking comments, suggestions and questions. My biggest thanks to my lovely wife, Imane, who encouraged me to do a Ph.D. and has been so supportive during my project. To my son, my joy and life, Yacoub, for sometimes spending time with me in my office as I write. And to my dear parents, Malika and M‘hamed, who have waited so long for this moment. ii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... ii Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 1: Negritude, Postcolonialism, and National(ist) Identities ......................... 33 Chapter 2: “Afropeanism” in Calixthe Beyala’s Le petit prince de Belleville and Sami Tchak’s Place des fêtes. .................................................................................................. 60 Chapter 3: The Global: Home for a Stranger in Taiye Selasi’s Ghana Must Go and Teju Cole’s Open City ..................................................................................................... 87 Chapter 4: Writing Self and Other As “Unhomely” in Chris Abani’s GraceLand and NoViolet Bulawayo’s We Need New Names ................................................................ 114 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 146 Works Cited ................................................................................................................... 155 iii Introduction The representation of African identities has been at the center of African literary production, and approximately since the mid-twentieth century, the modern African novel has addressed cultural identity in light of the colonial realities which many African nations experienced. The older generation of African writers associated with Négritude and anti-colonialism—writers in French such as Ferdinand Oyono, Bernard Dadié, Cheikh Hamidou Kane, Camara Laye, Mongo Beti and their English counterparts Chinua Achebe, Cyprian Ekwensi, Ngugi wa Thiong‘o, Ayi Kwei Armah, to name only a few— privilege native/national identities and racial difference, and use binarism as a mode of representing Africa and the West1. The historical, political circumstances of the first half of the twentieth century—including the development of a cultural and militant Pan- Africanism by some black and African writers and activists in the diaspora such as Edward Wilmot Blyden, W. E. B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, Aimé Césaire, and Léopold Sédar Senghor—significantly shaped the literary aesthetics, themes and representations of African identities by the writers of the 1950s and 1960s2. ―The rhetoric of cultural and racial affirmation,‖ states Irele in ―Dimensions of African Discourse‖, ―involved in (…) [national decolonization] ideologies thus served as the mental levers in the struggle against the objective structures of imperial domination and colonial dependency‖ (50). Although the older generation of African writers of the 1950s and 1960s may differ in 1 In Reading Chinua Achebe (1991), Simon Gikandi shows how Chinua Achebe deploys cultural and moral binary oppositions of Self-Other in Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God. 2 For more on this, see Chielozona Eze‘s Postcolonial Imaginations and Moral Representations in African literature and Culture (2011). Eze emphasizes the role played by nineteenth century black thinkers and early twentieth century Négritude writers in the constitution of an African identity in literature and culture based on racial, cultural and moral dichotomies with Europe. 4 their choices of literary aesthetic, or political and theoretical approaches, they construct cultural homogeneity and binaries of Self-Other. By comparison, since the 1990s, the assigned role of the African writer in national politics and in adhering to the notion of a national identity and literature has considerably waned. A younger generation of African writers emerged who are interested in the themes of transnationalism, immigration to the North, diaspora, and cultural hybridity. Odile Cazenave and Patricia Célérier portray this new ―generation‖ among African writers in French who ―lifted the burden of engagement‖ (138) by developing alternative literary themes, forms, and techniques that reflect their openness to transnationalism and awareness of the global aesthetics in which culture and literature operate. This turn to transnational or global frameworks shows ―the desire on the part of the authors to be identified as writers rather than as people from a specific national, cultural, or geographical origin‖ 3 (5). The efforts by the new ―generation‖ of African writers to free African identities and literature of a national framework corresponds to the notion of world literature as analyzed by Pascale Casanova in The World Republic of Letters (1999). For Casanova, world literature is mainly a space for ―competition among its members (...) to attain the same goal: literary legitimacy,‖ (40) beyond national or political claims to literary value. This understanding of world literature is embraced by some African writers in French who criticize the ideological distinctions of Us-Them embedded in the idea of ―francophone‖ literature. The notion of ―francophone‖ literature as the Other of French 3 Similar arguments have been made by Waberi in ―Les enfants de la postcolonie: esquisse d‘une nouvelle génération d‘écrivains francophone d‘Afrique noir‖ (1998) and Taiye Selasi‘s ―African Literature Does Not Exist‖ (2013). 5 literature involves a binarism that is dismissed by many of these writers who ―resist(...) their marginalization in some exotic literary periphery by living and working out of what continues to be considered the center of the French/Francophone literary and publishing world: Paris‖ (Migraine-George xix). Many writers in French rejected the literary, ideological and creative limitations placed by the ―francophone‖ label and advocated for a world literature in French as a literary space that accommodates their literary and ideological interests. Alain Mabanckou is a case in point, arguing in ―Immigration, Literature-Monde, and Universality: the Strange Fate of the African Writer‖ that African cultures and literature are transnational. He is of the idea that Africa and its cultures can be found on the African continent as well as beyond its boundaries, among its diasporas in the West. Mabanckou believes that world