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New Approaches to Disease Vector Control in the Context Of ANÁLISE / ANALYSIS New Approaches to Disease Vector Control in the Context of Sustainable Development' Novas Abordagens ao Controle de Vetores de Doenças no Contexto do Desenvolvimento Sustentável 2 Robert Bos BOS, R. New Approaches to Disease Vector Control in the Context of Sustainable Development. Cad. Saúde Públ., Rio de Janeiro, 8 (3): 240-248, jul/set, 1992. Faced with problems that are specific to the health sector and ones associated with issues of sustainability, programmes for the control of vector-borne diseases are increasingly resorting to environmental management measures to reduce populations of disease vectors as pan of an integrated control approach. The broader problems on the interface between environment and development that need to be addressed in the context of vector control include accelerated development of natural resources, demographic changes in rural populations and rapid urbanization. Disease vectors need to be recognized as biological risk factors to human health in the environment, and for a sustainable implementation of vector control measures, these should be made an integral pan of the development process. This requires modifications in the policy framework, expansion of our knowledge base, development of operational methods and techniques and a shift in emphasis in training and education. Keywords: Vector-Borne Diseases; Environment; Development Policies; Sustainable Development INTRODUCTION control with the advent of affordable residual insecticides in the 1940s and 1950s. By the Since the beginning of this century the middle of the 1970s, however, the problems control of disease vectors has been an that inevitably arose from the almost important component of strategies in the fight exclusive reliance on house spraying against vector-borne diseases. There has been campaigns and urban larviciding led to a re- an evolution in the nature of the control consideration of the existing options, and to methods over time as epidemiological fresh thinking about the development of new situations changed, new control technologies methods and tools. The 1980s witnessed a developed and new constraints arose. The move away from the universal application of focus on source reduction and species insecticides towards more balanced, integrated sanitation in the first half of the century control efforts with increased emphasis on shifted dramatically to chemical methods of methods of environmental modification and manipulation and personal protection adapted 1 to site-specific epidemiological and ecological The opinions expressed in this paper are the author's conditions. only and do not necessarily reflect the policies of the Vector-borne diseases not only continue to World Health Organization or of the other three UN be an important public health problem in agencies2 participating in PEEM. Community Water Supply and Sanitation Unit, and many countries in the tropical and sub- Secretary, joint WHO/FAO/UNEP/UNCHS Panel of tropical zones, but several of them are Experts on Environmental Management for Vector spreading and in many endemic areas their Control PEEM Secretariat, World Health Organization, transmission is intensifying. Global figures 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland. show at least a stagnation in the success of efforts to control them, but in many parts of 1970s in South East Asia and East Africa, has the world there is gross under-reporting of subsequently spread to other parts of the disease incidence and the estimates are not world and has been followed by the reliable. The malaria situation illustrates this development of resistance to other anti- point. An estimated two billion people are malaria drugs. On the long term this estimated to be at risk; some 270 million are development undermines the potential estimated to actually carry the parasite at any contribution of chemotherapy to the control of one time; annually, an estimated 110 million the disease. clinical cases result from infection; and estimates of annual mortality rates fluctuate • Resource Constraints on Intervention between 1 and 2 million (WHO, 1991). Programmes — Apart from the above Considering that some 80% of the malaria mentioned problems in malaria control, cases occur in sub-Saharan Africa, where resource constraints in the prevention and health authorities lack the resources to mount control activities aimed at other diseases effective control programmes, let alone carry underscore the continued need for vector out reliable epidemiological monitoring, such control efforts. In the case of schistosomiasis estimates have to be taken with a lot of an effective, single dose drug is available, but reservations. its cost has, until now, hampered its The problems faced by vector-borne disease widespread use in mass chemotherapy. Where control programmes today can for the purpose it has been used, such as in the long-term of this Conference be divided into health trials in selected villages on the island of sector specific constraints and problems Leyte in the Philippines, it has been shown arising from global trends on the interface that prevalence rates drop to a level that is between socio-economic development and the apparently determined by local environmental environment. and behavioural determinants of transmission (Olveda, in prep.). Sooner or later, managers of control programmes will be faced with the PROBLEMS CONFINED TO THE dilemma whether to proceed with expensive HEALTH SECTOR mass chemotherapy to treat a relatively small group of infected people or to instate a The health sector specific problems are of a probably equally expensive case detection technical, economic and managerial nature. system to target drug treatment on infected They include: people only. It is now increasingly recognized that other control methods, including snail • The Development of Insecticide Resistance control and improved sanitation, will continue — While resistance to DDT was detected in to be needed. Another example is Japanese anopheline vectors in Greece as early as the encephalitis, an arboviral disease associated 1950s, there was a strong belief at the time with irrigated rice ecosystems in South and that malaria eradication using residual house South-East Asia. While a vaccine for this spraying could be achieved before this infection is available, its price (US$10/dose) phenomenon would develop into a problem of and the cost of an effective delivery system serious proportions. However, things took a impede its use in many endemic countries. different turn and control programmes had to Again, vector monitoring and control need to seek resort in the application of increasingly be relied on to prevent major outbreaks. expensive alternative compounds, which reduced their economic viability before the • De-emphasis on Vector Control as a Result final goals could be met. of Integration — In many countries the health sector has been re-organized based on the • The Development and Spread of Drug recommendations adopted unanimously by the Resistance — Resistance of the malaria WHO Member States at the International parasite to chloroquine, first discovered in the Conference on Primary Health Care in Alma Ata in 1977. These changes include a shift Resources — The continuously rising demand from vertical, single disease oriented for food, fibre and energy forces national programmes to horizontal programmes. As a authorities to rapidly develop land and water result, in many countries the activities of resources for agricultural production and malaria control campaigns and other vector- energy generation. Irrigation schemes and borne disease control programmes have been man-made reservoirs may provide new integrated into the general health services. habitats for disease vectors. The adverse This change was dictated by the economic environmental consequences of this type of realities since the 1970s and supported by development include deforestation, soil considerations of social justice and equity. In erosion and degradation, desertification and many countries, however, the vector control waterlogging. Each of these may also affect component of control activities has been the ecology of local vectors and lead to a reduced disproportionately, to the extent that deterioration of the vector-borne disease the question has been raised whether vector situation. As far as the human health control should remain the responsibility of the dimension of these problems is concerned, it ministry of health. In some countries can be attributed, in general terms, to (Singapore is a success story in this respect, insufficient intersectoral consultation at the see Chan Kai Lok and Bos, 1987) vector early planning stages, inadequate health risk control has moved to become a responsibility assessment at the time of feasibility studies of the ministry of the environment. The loss and the failure to incorporate environmental of profile of vector control has contributed in health safeguards as part of the project during an important way to current human resource the construction phase. In the end, the health constraints, as professional career perspectives sector is faced with intensified health in this area of speciality have lost a great deal problems but in its already stretched budget of attraction. there is usually no room to meet the needs in The above problems are, by and large, a terms of strengthening of health services, matter for the health sector to solve; policy modifications linked to programmatic • Demographic Changes in the Rural Areas — changes,
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