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Milkweeds a Conservation Practitioner’S Guide

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Milkweeds a Conservation Practitioner’S Guide Milkweeds A Conservation Practitioner’s Guide Plant Ecology, Seed Production Methods, and Habitat Restoration Opportunities Brianna Borders and Eric Lee-Mäder The Xerces Society FOR INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation 1 MILKWEEDS A Conservation Practitioner's Guide Brianna Borders Eric Lee-Mäder The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation Oregon • California • Minnesota • Nebraska North Carolina • New Jersey • Texas www.xerces.org Protecting the Life that Sustains Us The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation is a nonprofit organization that protects wildlife through the conservation of invertebrates and their habitat. Established in 1971, the Society is at the forefront of invertebrate protection, harnessing the knowledge of scientists and the enthusiasm of citizens to implement conservation programs worldwide. The Society uses advocacy, education, and applied research to promote invertebrate conservation. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation 628 NE Broadway, Suite 200, Portland, OR 97232 Tel (855) 232-6639 Fax (503) 233-6794 www.xerces.org Regional offices in California, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Texas. The Xerces Society is an equal opportunity employer and provider. © 2014 by The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation Acknowledgements Funding for this report was provided by a national USDA-NRCS Conservation Innovation Grant, The Monarch Joint Venture, The Hind Foundation, SeaWorld & Busch Gardens Conservation Fund, Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund, The Elizabeth Ordway Dunn Foundation, The William H. and Mattie Wat- tis Harris Foundation, The CERES Foundation, Turner Foundation Inc., The McCune Charitable Founda- tion, and Xerces Society members. Thank you. For a full list of acknowledgements, including project partners and document reviewers, please see the Acknowledgements section on page 113. Editing and layout: Margo Conner. Printing: Print Results, Portland, OR. Recommended Citation Borders, B. and E. Lee-Mäder. 2014. Milkweeds: A Conservation Practitioner's Guide. 146 pp. Portland, OR: The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. Front Cover Photograph Seed harvest underway in a milkweed seed production field at the Native American Seed farm in Junc- tion, Texas. Photo: Native American Seed. Contents Introduction page 1 Milkweed Biology & Ecology page 3 Species Diversity and Distribution (3) Life Cycle (3) Habitats (3) Plant Morphology (4) Pollination (6) Chemical Ecology (8) Potential Toxicity to Livestock (9) Preventing Livestock Poisoning Ethnobotanical, Industrial, and Commercial Uses (10) The Value of Milkweeds to Wildlife page 13 Monarch Butterflies (14) Other Butterflies and Moths (16) Native Bees (16) Honey Bees (17) Beneficial Insects (17) Vertebrate Wildlife (18) Milkweed Propagation and Seed Production page 21 Wild Seed Collection (25) Seed Germination (28) Stratification; Additional Seed Treatments; Other Factors Influencing Germination Field Establishment (31) Table 1 - Approaches to Establishing Seed Production Fields; Drill Seeding; Transplanting, Row Spacing and Plant Spacing Managing Production Fields (42) Identification and Management of Milkweed Herbivores (44) Protecting Beneficial Insects from Pesticides; Monarch Butterflies and Other Lepidopteran Larvae; Aphids (Aphididae); Milkweed Bugs (Lygaeidae); Leaf Beetles (Chrysomelidae); Milkweed Longhorn Beetles (Cerambycidae: Tetraopes spp.); Snout and Bark Beetles (Cur- culionidae); Generalist Herbivores Plant Disease Diagnosis and Management (63) Known Milkweed Diseases; Fungi; Bacteria; Viruses; Other Organisms; Abiotic Diseases; Disease Management Strategies; Seed Harvesting (70) Hand-Harvesting; Hand Harvesting with Seed Capture Bags; Combine Harvesting; Notes on Additional Harvesting Equipment; Post-Harvest Instructions Seed Processing (78) Hand-Cleaning Without Tools or Equipment; Small-Scale Cleaning with Easy-to-Acquire Tools and Equipment; Build-Your-Own Small-Scale Cleaning Equipment; Mechanized Seed Cleaning; Mechanized Seed Cleaning with Custom Equipment; Manual Threshing Seed Viability, Testing, and Storage (94) Milkweed Marketing Opportunities (95) Using Milkweeds in Habitat Restoration Plantings page 96 Sourcing Milkweed Plant Materials (98) Case Study: Monarch-Friendly Landscaping (98) Case Study: Pollinator Hedgerows in Agricultural Landscapes (100) Case Study: Monarch-Friendly Roadside Management (102) Establishing Milkweeds from Seed (106) Conclusion page 111 Acknowledgements page 113 Appendices page 115 Appendix I: Milkweed Species Native to the United States and Canada (115) Appendix II: Known Milkweed Pathogens (123) Appendix III: Seed Availability, Seed Count Data, and Growth Characteristics of Several Milkweed Species (127) Appendix IV: Region-by-region Summary of Milkweed Seed Availability, Prior- ity Species for Use in Habitat Restoration, and an Overview of Mon- arch Population Dynamics (131) Literature Cited page 138 (This page intentionally left blank) (This page intentionally left blank) Introduction Native milkweeds (Asclepias spp.) are perhaps best known for their role as the larval food plants of the monarch butterfly, their distinctive pods, and their wind-borne seeds. There are also many other fascinating aspects of milkweed biology, ecology, and history, with volumes of research conducted on the plants’ unique pollination process, novel chemical composition, and relationships with insect her- bivores. Over 70 milkweed species are native to the United States and Canada. The diverse Asclepias genus en- compasses the almost leafless desert-adapted rush milkweed with photosynthetic stems (A. subulata), the aquatic milkweed with seeds uniquely adapted for water dispersal (A. perennis), the serpentine milk- weed (A. solanoana) that only grows in magnesium and iron rich soils in a few locations in California and Oregon, and the colony-forming common milkweed (A. syriaca) that plays an indispensable role in the monarch butterfly migration, among others. Ecologists, native plant enthusiasts, and butterfly watchers have long championed milkweeds, but recent monarch butterfly declines are now focusing greater attention on these plants. Specifically, milkweed loss across much of North America is believed to be a major factor contributing to monarch population declines. With agricultural intensification as a significant cause, milkweeds are disappearing on an un- precedented scale (Brower et al. 2012; Pleasants & Oberhauser 2012). Though milkweed loss is difficult to quantify based upon limited historical data, the losses resulting from the expansion of glyphosate- resistant corn and soybean crops in the Midwest have been well documented. Hartzler (2010) showed a 90% decline of common milkweed in Iowa corn and soybean fields between 1999 and 2009. Pleasants and Oberhauser (2012) estimated a 58% decline of milkweed density in the Midwest landscape between 1999 and 2010, with a corresponding 81% decline in potential monarch reproduction in the region. Urban development and aggressive management (e.g., mowing and herbicide applications) of roadside vegetation have also contributed to landscape-level decline of milkweed (Commission for Environmen- tal Cooperation 2008). The future of North America’s monarch migration is now at risk. Both the protection of existing milk- weed stands and the restoration of milkweed populations are key components of monarch conservation. Beyond their role in supporting monarchs and a broad diversity of other invertebrate wildlife, milk- weeds are part of North America’s legacy of biological diversity and are deserving of conservation efforts in their own right. A key recommendation of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation’s North American Monarch Conservation Plan is to plant regionally appropriate milkweed species in areas where milkweed is a limited resource. However, commercial sources of milkweed seed are scarce in many areas of the U.S. This limited seed availability is a major barrier to monarch breeding habitat restoration. At a population scale, this lack of host plants results in fewer butterflies returning to overwintering sites in California and Mexico each year. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation 1 To address this seed shortage and the scarcity of monarch host plants, the Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation launched Project Milkweed in 2010. The broad objectives of this project are to promote milkweed conservation and increase native milkweed seed availability. In collaboration with the native seed industry, the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), and community partners, we initiated milkweed seed production in key areas of the monarch’s breeding range where seed sources had been scarce: California, the Great Basin, the Southwest, Texas, and Florida. Concurrently, we have worked to increase awareness of the role that milkweeds play in supporting native bees, honey bees, and beneficial insects (including predators and parasitoids of crop pests). The Xerces Society’s milkweed conservation work has been funded by a national Conservation Innovation Grant from the NRCS, sup- port from the U.S. Forest Service International Programs’ Monarch Joint Venture, Xerces Society mem- bers, and private foundations. Please refer to the Acknowledgements for a full list of funders. To date, there has been very little written on propagating milkweed for large-scale seed production. We have produced this guide to: 1) provide the native seed industry with more
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