CADASTRALSURVEY

LAND AND ITS DEFINITION

Land is a word whose meaning has remained elusive to this day and varies according to each individual, according to his way of life. While it is lifeblood and sacred for some, it is an economic opportunity for development for others, but the emotional attachment one has to the land is the one which remains in life and even after that. Lands, territories and resources have particular cultural and spiritual significance and value for indigenous people who live there, they are the very basis for the continued existence of their societies in every part of the world.

The United Nations Ad Hoc group of Experts on Cadastral and Land Information states that “Land is defined as an area of the surface of the earth together with the water, soil, rocks, minerals and hydrocarbons beneath or upon it and the air above it. It embraces all things which are related to a fixed area or point of the surface of the each, including the areas covered by water, including the sea”.

• At the dawn of civilization in the history of mankind, people started to realize the value of agriculture and livestock rearing, people needed land and water for irrigation land as a resource therefore a boundary to establish ownership and safeguard land against occupation from others was inevitable and an absolute necessity.

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• This gave birth to early surveys for establishing boundaries, classification of land for farming, grazing, habitat, recreation, economic pursuit, and social activity. This was a reason for advance of societies which later grew into kingdoms and monarchies which had always had land as the crux to expand their boundaries across the world. • The large tracts of land utilized by the societies needed efficient administration and departments to specially oversee distribution of land and upkeep of records to guarantee ownership and enjoyment of land parcels to the rightful owners, thereby a system to generate revenue from the land in the way of taxes originated and this in a way was an early cadastral system of which underwent innumerable changes which has stood the test of time.

The sense of ownership of even a small piece of land is so immense that people would go any to protect it with all their might. A china resident refusing to vacate his house which is located middle of the highways.

CADASTRAL SURVEY (MEANING)

The word ‘cadastral’ is the adjective of the word ‘Cadastral’ which means a public records of the extent, value and ownership of land for purposes of taxation. This type of survey involves the preparation of Village maps showing the boundaries of groups of holdings, large scale plans of survey filed showing the boundaries of each

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holding, topographical details and all measurement and reputed ownership of each holding. This survey is repeated from time to time when changes occur in occupation and in the boundaries of fields particularly when such changes area too numerous to be dealt with the ordinary revenue staff.

SURVEY–DIVISION OF POWERS

BETWEEN STATE AND CENTRE

Survey of India, the geological, potential, zoological and Anthropological survey of India now fall within entry 68 of the union list in the seventh schedule the to the constitution. These surveys have nothing to be with the State Government. The maintenance of land record, survey for revenue purposes and records – of – rights fall within the Scope of entry 45 of the State list in the seventh schedule to the constitution.

The State government is therefore not concerned with any survey other than the survey for revenue purposes, and to maintain land recordsin which the ownership of the land and the extent thereof are mentioned.

CADASTRAL SURVEY - HISTORY

• It is believed that the river Nile in Ancient Egypt was the cradle of modern civilization. It is where agriculture and farming thrived and a system for measuring, classification and taxing the land evolved.

• The need for surveying was a consequence of the civilized society in Ancient Egypt of particular interest are the cardinally orientated buildings, namely the temples and the (tombs), that required a great deal of careful measurement to obtain the orientation required.

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• The river Nile of used to flood the lands nearby every year which resulted in large scale changes to the coastal lines and contours of the land. So after every season of flooding a land survey was carried out to re-establish boundaries and to determine.

Surveyors also provided information for construction work. The main aspects of surveying that were carried out were strikingly similar to that is carried out today. The duties of the surveyor in Ancient Egypt covered a number of aspects, including boundary definition and in building construction.

Early map of land holding in Mesopotamia

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HISTORY OF CADASTRAL SURVEY IN INDIA Land and the Vedas: In early literature, there are descriptions of land in Stala Puranas. These puranas describe natural sacred places consisting of geographical features that are revered and are almost always associated with oral narratives about the location. The shared meanings and communicated oral histories of these natural-scapes draw attention to the deep connection of nature with the concept of earth or land (also called bhumi). • In the Vedic literature of over 5000 years ago, the knowledge of land was presented in a graphical form which described the extent and shape of territories. • The Brahmand Purana of 500 B.C. to 700 A.D. gives evidence of the art of modern map-making. • Individual holdings were called Shetras with clear boundaries. The revenue collected was one sixth of total produce. Documents related to ownership and tax were Farming and cattle rearing were the main occupation of people in the vedic times. Rules on land and scales to be used are detailed in the vedas. A manual on classification of land and taxation is highlighted.

The art of surveying and techniques of mensuration of areas are described in Sulva Sutra (science of mensuration)

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THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

• The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization located in what is Pakistan and northwest India today, on the fertile flood plain of the Indus River and its vicinity.

Cities and town were well planned after carrying out very detailed survey of land. Land administration and taxing system prevalent was as good as modern days.Farming settlements began around 4000 BCE and around 3000 BCE there appeared the first signs of urbanization. By 2600 BCE, dozens of towns and cities had been established, and between 2500 and 2000 BCE the Indus Valley Civilization was at its peak.

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• Indus valley boasted of well-planned township underground drainage system and a robust land administration lead by survey techniques to demarcate boundaries and ownership of land holdings.

• The Indian subcontinent has since had many kingdoms which rose, merged and disintegrated from time to time. The chief of these were the Mauryan dynasty which was established by Chandragupta in 320 B.C

• ArthShastra of Chanakya written in the 3rd century B.C clearly explains the rules of Land administration. A clear procedure to measure land, determine taxes and ownership of land parcels laid down in the literature sheds light on survey practices prevalent then. • Only surveying could have ensured a better design infrastructure the Taxishila University of Mauryan Empire where surveying was one of the subjects that were taught.

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CADASTRAL SURVEY IN SOUTHERN INDIA

• Tamil nadu has witnessed accurate and systematic surveys of land holdings of the kingdoms from very ancient times.

• There is authentic epi-graphical evidence which reveals that “land as small in extent as 1/ 52428800000 of a veli was measured and assessed to revenue “ in ancient Tamil Nadu .

• There is also evidence about a very systematic survey of the vast chola country in 1002A.D., Under the imperial orders of RajaRaja the great ,the founder of the chola Empire was carried out .

• The earliest available record of a cadastral survey in the whole of India ,is that of this celebrated survey .As in many other fields ,Tamil Nadu appears to have led the way in the field of surveys ,too .It may also be mentioned here that it must not be taken that the celebrated survey in 1002 A.D., was the earliest survey in the Tamil country .

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Systematic survey of a vast area was undertaken by King Rajaraja ,that a very great accuracy was achieved in the survey operations and that there were in popular use standardized technical terms relating to the survey operations ,lead to the obvious inference that land surveys should have been conducted in the Tamil country from times much earlier to his period (985-1014 A.D).

• King Karikalacholan overseeing the construction of kalannai architectural and engineering marvel shedding light that a very sophisticated survey team should have worked on location, soil test and planning irrigation resources,

• Many temples in Tamil Nadu are also repositories of information on an interesting subject — the measuring rods that were used for calculating the area of agricultural land, the length of roads or irrigation canals; the measures used in trade and the weights that were in vogue at that time.

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• Two short, little noticed inscriptions, one with a short straight line and another with a long line incised next to them, at Sri Varadaraja Perumal temple at Kanchipuram, provide information on the measuring system that prevailed several centuries ago in the Tamil country

• Since the temple’s economy depended on its land holdings, an accurate land survey was periodically made for taxation and the length of the standard measuring pole was inscribed on the temple wall.

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This measuring , about 18 or 20 ft in length, was used throughout the kingdom. It was used for measuring cultivable lands, tanks, canals, house-sites and laying streets.Standard measurements at that time could be seen inscribed at Ulagalanda Perumal temple in Kanchipuram.

Thatchamuzham’ was used for measuring temple towers, walls and pillars. ‘ThatchuMuzham’ represented an architect’s measuring rod. Thatchamuzham was also used for measuring the height of deities whether they were made of stone, metal, wood, stucco or even ivory.

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• Besides, measuring poles with the titles ‘Padakakkol,’ ‘Malaikudikkol,’ ‘Manaikkol’ and ‘ThatchuMuzham’ and their are inscribed on this temple’s walls.

• Malaikudikkol’ was used to measure the area of land on top of hills and the valleys below. A of hills called Nagamalai lies to the south of Thenkarai

• Manaikkol’, used to measure the area of houses, is also inscribed in the Thenkarai temple. It was about three long. Paleographically, this inscription belonged to the 11th-12th century.

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THE CADASTRAL SURVEY AND THE MUGHALS EMPEROR AKBAR (1556-1605) IMPLEMENTED

• A proper land revenue system was founded by Akbar. However, the system of Akbar was itself based on what ShershahSuri implemented during his short tenure. • He followed the policy of Shershah with greater precision and correctness and then extended it to various subah or provinces of his empire. But this correction or precision did not come overnight. • Fasli Calendar is a chronological system introduced by the Mughal emperor Akbar basically for land revenue and records.

Once the land was measured and state’s share in produce was fixed per Bigha of land, Akbar next proceeded to fix the rate of assessment.

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For land measurement (Paimaish), a rope called Tenab was used in those days.

• The revenue of the state was fixed at one- third of the actual produce, which the ryots were permitted to pay either in cash or in kind. The cash rate fluctuated according to crops. This system came to be known as Rayotwari System, and was applied to Northern India, Gujarat and, to some extent, to the Deccan. THE CORRECTIONS DONE BY AKBAR IN LAND REVENUE SYSTEM CAN BE MAINLY DIVIDED INTO THREE HEADS AS FOLLOWS:

• Standardization of measurement of land. • Ascertaining the produce per Bigha of Land. • Fixation of state’s share in that produce. THE CADASTRAL SURVEY AFTER THE ADVENT OF BRITISH(1767- 1800)THE ROOTS:

The Survey of India traces its birth to the appointment of Major James Rennell as Surveyor General.

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By 1773, Rennell completed surveys of the possessions before relinquishing the post of Surveyor General in 1777.

One of the maps prepared by Major James Rennell the next Surveyor General, Thomas Call, like many others who followed him, undertook the task of compiling an atlas embracing the whole of India.

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• It was in 1787 that Michael Topping, a marine officer, broke away from the eternal method of Perambulator Traverse and ran a 300- line of triangles along the coast from Madras to Palk Strait. • It was he who built a permanent astronomical observatory in Madras in 1793 and founded the first surveying school in 1794. India was one of the earliest countries to establish a regular government survey organization and to commence systematic surveys - a few years before even the Ordnance Survey of UK.

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH - SOLID FOUNDATIONS - SIR WILLIAM LAMBTON It was very fortunate that a man of the genius and resolution of Lambton was in the subcontinent to lay the foundation of the 'Great Trignometrical Survey of India' a few years before similar projects were undertaken by France and England.

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The History of India is incomplete without the Great Trignometric survey carried out by Sir William Lambton. This was an exhaustive exercise of surveying and giving shape to the sub-continent.

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Great Trignometrical Survey of India

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The Great Trigonometric Survey was an exercise which involved tremendous labor and work. Here in the absence of higher places a pole is being erected for triangulation.

The Initial map of Madras Presidency is the beginning of The Great Trignometric survey which led to the mapping of whole of India. Baselines were drawn and triangulation and angles noted down. 19

George Everest Lambton s mantle fell on the worthy shoulders of George Everest. Everest felt the need for basing the surveys on a rigid reference framework, he made astronomical observations and treated the astronomical latitude, longitude and the plumb line at that place as error-free.

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• His redesigned 36-inch great is famous today. He replaced the chain with Colby's base-line apparatus and 10- compensation bars, with which he measured various bases. He completed the great meridional arc from Cape Comorin to Banog in the first Himalaya, near Mussoorie, a length of 2400 km. • With Kalianpur as the centre, he conceived covering the length and breadth of India by a gridiron of triangular chains, as opposed to the network of triangles conceived by Lambton. • He brought to surveying greater accuracy and rigorous observational procedures besides devising and refining the instruments. He introduced the observation of astronomical azimuths from pairs of circumpolar stars, ray traces for long lines, etc. • Everest made the government agree to the revision of Lambton's work, based on more accurate instruments and the procedures as laid down by him. Later, in 1830, he was appointed as the Surveyor General of India.

Cartography involved great teamwork by surveyors, Draftsmen and other artists, special emphasis were laid on accuracy and neatness of Map. The material used was meticulously selected as it had to be maintained for future even for centuries.

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System of Survey and their time line followed in Tamil Nadu

S.No System of Survey Years

1 Phoimash In quarter of 19th Century

2 Khasra 1858-1865

3 Simple Triangulation 1866-1877

4 Triangle with offsets 1878-1886

5 Plane Table 1887-1891

6 Block map 1892-1896

7 Punganur 1914-1916 8 Diagnal and Offset system From 1920

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METHODS OF SURVEY

1. and chain

From colonial times, through the 1800s, most boundary surveys were performed with a compass and Gunters Chain, usually 66 feet long and divided into 100 links. The compass was either mounted on a tripod or a single pole, called a Jacobs Staff. These early surveying tools were not very precise, but were sufficient in the days when land values were 50 cents per acre, or less.

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2.Transit and tape

• Eventually, the use of the compass gave way to the transit, and the chain to the steel tape. While the compass was generally only able to measure the magnetic bearing of a line to the nearest one-quarter degree, a transit is able to measure the angles between lines to less than one minute of arc. • The steel tape, usually 100 or 200 feet long and graduated in hundredths of foot, provided accuracy significantly greater than the Gunters Chain. The transit and tape permitted the more precise measurements necessary in land subdivision planning, construction surveying, and nearly all boundary or land title surveys. Until recently, this method was used for most surveying work. Surveying Instruments

The measurement taken was so precise and accurate matching the modern equipments using GPS. 30

3.Transit And Stadia

• Angles were measured with a transit and distances measured by optical methods. A rod or Stadia Board was graduated in hundredths of a foot, and horizontal crosshairs in the telescope of a transit, called Stadia Hairs, were positioned so that, based on trigonometry, at a distance of 100 feet the stadia hairs subtended exactly one foot on the rod. Thus, within about 500 feet, a distance could be read directly from the rod. Due to its speed and efficiency, this method was most common for topographic mapping. For the most part, stadia have also given way to electronic instruments. MODERN METHODS

Theodolite and electronic distance measurement

By the 1970s, relatively small, lightweight and easy-to-use electronic distance measuring devices, called EDMs were in use. They were mounted on the theodolite, and operated on the principle of transmitting a narrow beam of infrared light to a 31 reflector and measuring the time it takes to return. Before long, the advance of technology and miniaturization of electronic components enabled the building of that measure angles electronically, measure distances with their own internal EDM, and display a variety of data on an LCD screen. These super-theodolites are referred to as Electronic Total Stations. In addition to enhanced speed and accuracy, the digital data can be automatically downloaded to an electronic data collector for transfer directly to computers for calculations or CAD drafting. In addition to the speed and accuracy that they provide, the decreasing cost of the electronic total stations has allowed them to virtually totally replace all previous methods and instruments for most survey work.

Photogrammetric mapping

Topographic mapping may be done from aerial photographs and is particularly useful for large areas. Usually, the photography is made specifically for the project involved. Accurate ground survey work must be used to establish measurements, both horizontally and vertically, to photo-identifiable points to insure scale accuracy and proper orientation of the photo model. Supplemental field surveys are usually required for locating features that are not identifiable on aerial photographs, such as underground utilities, wetlands, culverts, and any feature too small to be seen.

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GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

The GPS, or Global Positioning System, is the newest method available to surveyors. The system is based on a constellation of 24 satellites in precise orbits around the Earth. Today’s GPS receivers can directly calculate the position of any place on the Earth’s surface from signals broadcast from the satellites. While inexpensive, handheld receivers can provide a position to within a hundred feet, or less, more sophisticated receivers can provide a position to within a few inches. If two or more of these receivers are used, and one is placed on a known position, the directions and distances between the receivers over very large areas can be determined with a precision never before obtainable. However, due to technical limitations, GPS technology is not suitable for precise determination of elevations. At present, the high cost of these receivers is prohibitive for use in all but the larger control surveys or aerial mapping projects.

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THE CADASTRAL VISION

• Develop modern cadastral infrastructures that facilitate efficient land administration, protect the land rights of all, and support long term sustainable development and land management.

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DIGITAL INDIA LAND RECORDS MODERNIZATION PROGRAMME

• The Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) is launched by Government of India in August 2008, aimed to modernize management of land records, minimize scope of land/property disputes, enhance transparency in the land records maintenance system, and facilitate moving eventually towards guaranteed conclusive titles to immovable properties in the country.

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• The main objective of the DILRMP is to develop a modern, comprehensive and transparent land records management system in the country with the aim to implement the conclusive land-titling system with title guarantee • These will need to support land use planning, accommodate the greatly increased demand for facilities and resources while ensuring that there is minimum damage to the environment, and be the foundation for the orderly and efficient provision of property markets and the supply of land-related services. • The cadastral infrastructures envisaged for the 21st century will need to adapt to the different patterns and rates of population change. They will therefore vary according to the circumstances and population profiles of different countries. • Cadastral infrastructure should facilitate access to land, support security of tenure and allow land rights to be traded, where appropriate, in an efficient and effective way and at affordable cost. • The spatial cadastral framework (usually a cadastral map) will be a fundamental layer within a nation's spatial data infrastructure thereby allowing the integration of different forms of spatial data. • A sustainable development objective for a country requires all land to be included or recorded in the land administration system. This means the cadastre must be complete. In other words the land administration infrastructure should include all rights, restrictions and responsibilities with regard to all lands in a country. • For the development of any Nation, land registration and cadastre play, together with other tools, an essential role. Land registration and cadastre are like a three-legged stool. One leg represents legal data, one physical or thematic data, and one surveying data. • This implies cooperation between notary, registrar, and surveyor in order to obtain authoritativeness, completeness, and (legal) validity of the system. • The information technology manager covering all modern advanced technologies necessary for recording and supplying information. If this cooperation works, the land recording system will function satisfactorily, even if there is a weak legal base. Because citizens are involved with land registration or the cadastre, their confidence in the system must be assured. • The public must be informed of the purpose of the system and must understand how and why it works. Failure to do so will lead to subsequent dealings in land going unrecorded and this will sooner or later lead to legal and other difficulties. To be successful, a land registration and cadastre must enjoy popular support. 38

CONCLUSION

Successful planning and development must be based on knowledge. Orderly administration and use of the land as the necessary foundation of human life must equally be based on knowledge. Large-scale maps and the registration of rights in land, and the description of natural resources through these maps are the best basis for all such knowledge. As a record of rights the map has no substitute: it is not for nothing that ecclesiastical threats have been directed against those who move their neighbor’s land marks.There should be constant improvement in cartography to ensure updation to new technologies. It is not beyond the capacity even of a relatively poor government to map its territories or to register the rights recognized in its land. The money so spent will bring a rich return.

All countries have individual needs and requirements, but that countries at similar stages of development have some similarities in their requirements recognized that the key to a successful cadastral system is one where the three main cadastral processes of adjudication of land rights, land transfer and mutation (subdivision and consolidation), are undertaken efficiently, securely and at reasonable cost and speed, in support of an efficient and effective land market. As such the meeting concentrated on these three cadastral processes to help identify desirable or appropriate options for cadastral systems. In considering the range of options, differences were highlighted for the three major groups of countries identified.

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A successful cadastral system is based on a strong and cooperative working relationship between the government and private sectors. This involves the roles of professionals in private practice, and the roles of professional societies and associations. In rural areas secure tenure and the formal recording of rights in land are important: in promoting increased investment in agriculture; for more effective husbandry of the land; for improved sustainable development; to support an increase in Gross National Product through an increase in agricultural productivity; and to provide significant social and political benefits leading to a more stable society, especially where land is scarce or under disputed ownership.

In densely populated rural areas or areas of high land value a cadastral system also facilitates the operation of an effective land market at affordable cost and allows an equitable land taxation system to be operated. This is also true in urban areas where a cadastral system is essential to support an active land and real estate market by permitting land to be bought, sold, mortgaged and leased efficiently, effectively, quickly and at low cost. In addition a parcel based land information system (not necessarily computerized), based on the cadastre, and is essential for the efficient management of cities.

Cadastral systems permit land and property taxes to be raised thereby supporting a wide range of urban services, and allowing the efficient management and delivery of local government services. The meeting agreed that the issue is not whether cadastral systems are important and essential, but what is the most appropriate form of cadastral system for each country. In summary the major reasons for justifying.

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