The Art and Science of Thought Suppression

Daniel M. Wegner Harvard University Try to pose for yourself this task: not to think of a polar bear, and you will see that the cursed thing will come to mind every minute.

Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1863) Winter Notes on Summer Impressions Dostoyevsky’s Challenge As you say your thoughts aloud, please try not to think of a white bear —but mention it or ring the bell if you do

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1 Mentions in 5 Minutes

0 Suppression

Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White (1987) Paradoxical effects of thought suppression Bell Rings Per Minute During Intentional Thinking

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 12345 Minute Post-suppression Pre-suppression

Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White (1987) Paradoxical effects of thought suppression The Science of Thought Suppression In the analysis of the examples a counter-will can regularly be recognized which opposes the intention without putting an end to it.

Sigmund Freud (1914): The Psychopathology of Everyday Life The strongest tendencies to automatic activity in the nerves often run most counter to the selective pressure of consciousness.

William James (1879): Are We Automata? Ironic Process Theory

An intentional operating process • Effortful searches for mental contents to • Conscious create the desired mental state • Interruptible

An ironic monitoring process • Automatic searches for mental contents that • Unconscious signal the failure of mental control • Uninterruptible

Wegner (1994): Ironic processes of mental control Attention

What color is the word?

HouseSex+

Red Blue

Wegner, Erber, & Zanakos (1993): Ironic processes in the mental control of mood and mood-related thought control of mood and mood-related thought Wegner, Erber, & Zanakos (1993): operating process interrupted, operating process continues

Ironic processes in the mental

During color naming… uninterrupted) ironic monitoring process continues) Participants suppress or think about target word Low load trials (Intentional High load trials (Intentional Color-naming Reaction Times (msec)

NONTARGET WORD TARGET WORD 540 530 520 510 500 490 480 470 460 450 Suppress Think Suppress Think Low Load High Load

Wegner, Erber, & Zanakos (1993): Ironic processes in the mental control of mood and mood-related thought We stand upon the brink of a precipice. We peer into the abyss--we grow sick and dizzy. . . . And because our reason violently deters us from the brink, therefore do we the most impetuously approach it.

Edgar Allan Poe (1845): The Imp of the Perverse Motion

Wegner, Ansfield, & Pilloff (1998): The putt and the pendulum: Ironic effects of the mental control of action

Perception

Seconds holding down key to report seeing target

“Try not to see the duck” vs. Try to see the rabbit” Try to see

Try not to see

No instruction

0 60 120

“Try not to see the cat” vs. Try to see the swan” Slesar & Mack (2005): Perversible figures: An ironic process in Arousal

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Suppress 0 Think -0.2 Sex Dancing (microSiemens) -0.4

SCL deviation from baseline -0.6

Thought Topic

Wegner, Shortt, Blake, & Page (1990) The suppression of exciting thoughts

Relaxation-induced panic

Trying to relax… attacks during relaxation therapy Progressive relaxation for Adler, Kraske, & Barlow (1987): Panic-prone participants are likely to experience panic Anxiety SCL (in uSiemens)

INSTRUCTION/LOAD 7.0 6.0 RELAX/HIGH 5.0 4.0 RELAX/LOW 3.0 NONE/HIGH 2.0 1.0 NONE/LOW 0.0 -1.0 -2.0 12345678910111213

PRE ST TE POST MIN

Wegner, Broome, & Blumberg (1997) Ironic effects of trying to relax under stress

Sexual Arousal

Instruction Groups • Relax (watch erotic films) • Inhibit (watch films, paid for lack of erection) • Fantasy (no films, paid for erection)

Results “With two drinks, the ability of many subjects to inhibit their sexual response voluntarily was impaired”

“Three drinks of alcohol typically impaired the ability of subjects to voluntarily produce fantasy arousal”

Rubin and Henson (1976): Effects of alcohol on male sexual responding

Attraction

Wegner, Lane, & Dimitri (1994) The allure of secret relationships

Attraction

1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 Secret 0.6 Nonsecret 0.4 0.2

Relative Attraction to Partner to Attraction Relative 0.0 Footsie Nonfootsie

Wegner, Lane, & Dimitri (1994) The allure of secret relationships

Sleep [is like] a dove which has landed near one’s hand and stays there as long as one does not pay attention to it; if one attempts to grab it, it quickly flies away. Victor Frankl (1965): The doctor and the soul MEAN MINUTES TO FALL ASLEEP

45 40 35 LOW LOAD 30 (NEW AGE) 25 20 HIGH LOAD 15 (MARCHES) 10 5 0

DON'T TRY TRY TO SLEEP

INSTRUCTION

Ansfield, Wegner, & Bowser (1996) Ironic effects of sleep urgency

Dreams Why do we about…

Falling?

Being chased?

Strange and embarrassing events? Why do students dream about…

Waking up late for school?

Forgetting everything at the exam? Dreams Why do professors dream about…

Going totally blank during a lecture?

Losing the toilet paper while we have a box on our head? Dreams

Wishes suppressed during the day assert themselves in dreams

Sigmund Freud (1900): The Interpretation of Dreams Dream Rebound

Mean mentions of person in dream reports

Target Nontarget 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 Mention Expression Suppression Pre-Sleep Thought Instruction

Wegner, Wenzlaff, & Kozak (2004) Psychopathology

Instructed thought suppression:

ƒ Increases thoughts of smoking during quitting (Toll, Sobell, Wagner, & Sobell, 2001) ƒ Increases fear of dentists (Muris, Jongh, Merckelbach, Postema, & Vet, 1998) ƒ Reduces immune response (Petrie, Booth, & Pennebaker, 1998) ƒ Increases distress in rape survivors suffering from PTSD (Shipherd & Beck, 1999) ƒ Increases thoughts about pain and decreases pain tolerance (Cioffi & Holloway, 1993; Masedo & Esteve, in press) Psychopathology

Dispositional thought suppression predicts:

ƒ , anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Wegner & Zanakos, 1994) ƒ Poor coping in accident victims (Aaron, Zaglul, & Emery, 1999) ƒ Dissociative memory experiences following trauma (van den Hout, Merckelbach, & Pool, 1996) ƒ Intentional self-injury in adolescents (Najmi, Wegner, & Nock, 2007) ƒ Intrusive suicidal thoughts (Pettit et al., 2008) The Science of Thought Suppression

ƒ Attention ƒ Perception ƒ Motion ƒ Arousal ƒ Anxiety ƒ Sexual Arousal ƒ Attraction ƒ Insomnia ƒ Dreams ƒ Psychopathology The Art of Thought Suppression Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

ƒ Withdraw from load (e.g., cut back multitasking) Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

ƒ Withdraw from load (e.g., cut back multitasking) ƒ Relax Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

ƒ Withdraw from load (e.g., cut back multitasking) ƒ Relax ƒ Revise timelines or priorities Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

ƒ Withdraw from load (e.g., cut back multitasking) ƒ Relax ƒ Revise timelines or priorities ƒ Ask for assistance Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

Indirect Suppression Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

Indirect Suppression

ƒ Find an absorbing distracter

Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White (1987) Paradoxical effects of thought suppression Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

Indirect Suppression

ƒ Find an absorbing distracter ƒ Hypnosis Hypnotic Enhancement

Sentence Completions Relevant to Suppressed Thought

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2.5

Suppression 2.0 Nonsuppression

1.5

1.0 High Low Hypnotic Susceptibility

Bryant & Wimalaweera (2007) Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

Indirect Suppression

ƒ Find an absorbing distracter ƒ Hypnosis ƒ Mindfulness/Meditation Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

Indirect Suppression

ƒ Find an absorbing distracter ƒ Hypnosis ƒ Mindfulness/Meditation ƒ Talking about it Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects

Indirect Suppression

ƒ Find an absorbing distracter ƒ Hypnosis ƒ Mindfulness/Meditation ƒ Talking about it ƒ Paradoxical approach: Acceptance Now every kind of fear grows worse by not being looked at. The proper course is to think about it with great concentration until it has become completely familiar. In the end familiarity will blunt its terrors; the whole subject will become boring, and our thoughts will turn away from it, not, as formerly, by an effort of will, but through mere lack of interest in the topic. When you find yourself inclined to brood on anything, the best plan is always to think about it even more than you naturally would until at last its morbid fascination is worn off. Bertrand Russell (1930): The Conquest of Happiness www.wjh.harvard.edu/~wegner National Institute of Mental Health National Science Foundation Matthew Ansfield Robin Bowser Alexis Broome David Blumberg Sam Carte Sara Dimitri Ralph Erber Meg Kozak Julie Lane Sadia Najmi Dave Schneider Joann Short Rich Wenzlaff Teri White Sophia Zanakos With thanks to… ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ