The Art and Science of Thought Suppression
Daniel M. Wegner Harvard University Try to pose for yourself this task: not to think of a polar bear, and you will see that the cursed thing will come to mind every minute.
Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1863) Winter Notes on Summer Impressions Dostoyevsky’s Challenge As you say your thoughts aloud, please try not to think of a white bear —but mention it or ring the bell if you do
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1 Mentions in 5 Minutes
0 Suppression
Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White (1987) Paradoxical effects of thought suppression Bell Rings Per Minute During Intentional Thinking
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 12345 Minute Post-suppression Pre-suppression
Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White (1987) Paradoxical effects of thought suppression The Science of Thought Suppression In the analysis of the examples a counter-will can regularly be recognized which opposes the intention without putting an end to it.
Sigmund Freud (1914): The Psychopathology of Everyday Life The strongest tendencies to automatic activity in the nerves often run most counter to the selective pressure of consciousness.
William James (1879): Are We Automata? Ironic Process Theory
An intentional operating process • Effortful searches for mental contents to • Conscious create the desired mental state • Interruptible
An ironic monitoring process • Automatic searches for mental contents that • Unconscious signal the failure of mental control • Uninterruptible
Wegner (1994): Ironic processes of mental control Attention
What color is the word?
HouseSex+
Red Blue
Wegner, Erber, & Zanakos (1993): Ironic processes in the mental control of mood and mood-related thought control of mood and mood-related thought Wegner, Erber, & Zanakos (1993): operating process interrupted, operating process continues
Ironic processes in the mental
During color naming… uninterrupted) ironic monitoring process continues) Participants suppress or think about target word Low load trials (Intentional High load trials (Intentional Color-naming Reaction Times (msec)
NONTARGET WORD TARGET WORD 540 530 520 510 500 490 480 470 460 450 Suppress Think Suppress Think Low Load High Load
Wegner, Erber, & Zanakos (1993): Ironic processes in the mental control of mood and mood-related thought We stand upon the brink of a precipice. We peer into the abyss--we grow sick and dizzy. . . . And because our reason violently deters us from the brink, therefore do we the most impetuously approach it.
Edgar Allan Poe (1845): The Imp of the Perverse Motion
Wegner, Ansfield, & Pilloff (1998): The putt and the pendulum: Ironic effects of the mental control of action
Perception
Seconds holding down key to report seeing target
“Try not to see the duck” vs. Try to see the rabbit” Try to see
Try not to see
No instruction
0 60 120
“Try not to see the cat” vs. Try to see the swan” Slesar & Mack (2005): Perversible figures: An ironic process in perception Arousal
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Suppress 0 Think -0.2 Sex Dancing (microSiemens) -0.4
SCL deviation from baseline -0.6
Thought Topic
Wegner, Shortt, Blake, & Page (1990) The suppression of exciting thoughts
Relaxation-induced panic
Trying to relax… attacks during relaxation therapy Progressive relaxation for anxiety Adler, Kraske, & Barlow (1987): Panic-prone participants are likely to experience panic Anxiety SCL (in uSiemens)
INSTRUCTION/LOAD 7.0 6.0 RELAX/HIGH 5.0 4.0 RELAX/LOW 3.0 NONE/HIGH 2.0 1.0 NONE/LOW 0.0 -1.0 -2.0 12345678910111213
PRE ST TE POST MIN
Wegner, Broome, & Blumberg (1997) Ironic effects of trying to relax under stress
Sexual Arousal
Instruction Groups • Relax (watch erotic films) • Inhibit (watch films, paid for lack of erection) • Fantasy (no films, paid for erection)
Results “With two drinks, the ability of many subjects to inhibit their sexual response voluntarily was impaired”
“Three drinks of alcohol typically impaired the ability of subjects to voluntarily produce fantasy arousal”
Rubin and Henson (1976): Effects of alcohol on male sexual responding
Attraction
Wegner, Lane, & Dimitri (1994) The allure of secret relationships
Attraction
1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 Secret 0.6 Nonsecret 0.4 0.2
Relative Attraction to Partner to Attraction Relative 0.0 Footsie Nonfootsie
Wegner, Lane, & Dimitri (1994) The allure of secret relationships
Sleep [is like] a dove which has landed near one’s hand and stays there as long as one does not pay attention to it; if one attempts to grab it, it quickly flies away. Victor Frankl (1965): The doctor and the soul MEAN MINUTES TO FALL ASLEEP
45 40 35 LOW LOAD 30 (NEW AGE) 25 20 HIGH LOAD 15 (MARCHES) 10 5 0
DON'T TRY TRY TO SLEEP
INSTRUCTION
Ansfield, Wegner, & Bowser (1996) Ironic effects of sleep urgency
Dreams Why do we dream about…
Falling?
Being chased?
Strange and embarrassing events? Dreams Why do students dream about…
Waking up late for school?
Forgetting everything at the exam? Dreams Why do professors dream about…
Going totally blank during a lecture?
Losing the toilet paper while we have a box on our head? Dreams
Wishes suppressed during the day assert themselves in dreams
Sigmund Freud (1900): The Interpretation of Dreams Dream Rebound
Mean mentions of person in dream reports
Target Nontarget 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 Mention Expression Suppression Pre-Sleep Thought Instruction
Wegner, Wenzlaff, & Kozak (2004) Psychopathology
Instructed thought suppression:
Increases thoughts of smoking during quitting (Toll, Sobell, Wagner, & Sobell, 2001) Increases fear of dentists (Muris, Jongh, Merckelbach, Postema, & Vet, 1998) Reduces immune response (Petrie, Booth, & Pennebaker, 1998) Increases distress in rape survivors suffering from PTSD (Shipherd & Beck, 1999) Increases thoughts about pain and decreases pain tolerance (Cioffi & Holloway, 1993; Masedo & Esteve, in press) Psychopathology
Dispositional thought suppression predicts:
Depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Wegner & Zanakos, 1994) Poor coping in accident victims (Aaron, Zaglul, & Emery, 1999) Dissociative memory experiences following trauma (van den Hout, Merckelbach, & Pool, 1996) Intentional self-injury in adolescents (Najmi, Wegner, & Nock, 2007) Intrusive suicidal thoughts (Pettit et al., 2008) The Science of Thought Suppression
Attention Perception Motion Arousal Anxiety Sexual Arousal Attraction Insomnia Dreams Psychopathology The Art of Thought Suppression Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Withdraw from load (e.g., cut back multitasking) Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Withdraw from load (e.g., cut back multitasking) Relax Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Withdraw from load (e.g., cut back multitasking) Relax Revise timelines or priorities Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Withdraw from load (e.g., cut back multitasking) Relax Revise timelines or priorities Ask for assistance Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Indirect Suppression Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Indirect Suppression
Find an absorbing distracter
Wegner, Schneider, Carter, & White (1987) Paradoxical effects of thought suppression Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Indirect Suppression
Find an absorbing distracter Hypnosis Hypnotic Enhancement
Sentence Completions Relevant to Suppressed Thought
3.0
2.5
Suppression 2.0 Nonsuppression
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1.0 High Low Hypnotic Susceptibility
Bryant & Wimalaweera (2007) Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Indirect Suppression
Find an absorbing distracter Hypnosis Mindfulness/Meditation Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Indirect Suppression
Find an absorbing distracter Hypnosis Mindfulness/Meditation Talking about it Direct Suppression + Mental Load = Ironic Effects
Indirect Suppression
Find an absorbing distracter Hypnosis Mindfulness/Meditation Talking about it Paradoxical approach: Acceptance Now every kind of fear grows worse by not being looked at. The proper course is to think about it with great concentration until it has become completely familiar. In the end familiarity will blunt its terrors; the whole subject will become boring, and our thoughts will turn away from it, not, as formerly, by an effort of will, but through mere lack of interest in the topic. When you find yourself inclined to brood on anything, the best plan is always to think about it even more than you naturally would until at last its morbid fascination is worn off. Bertrand Russell (1930): The Conquest of Happiness www.wjh.harvard.edu/~wegner National Institute of Mental Health National Science Foundation Matthew Ansfield Robin Bowser Alexis Broome David Blumberg Sam Carte Sara Dimitri Ralph Erber Meg Kozak Julie Lane Sadia Najmi Dave Schneider Joann Short Rich Wenzlaff Teri White Sophia Zanakos With thanks to…