Colposcopy, Treatment of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia, and Endometrial Assessment BARBARA S
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Gynecologic Procedures: Colposcopy, Treatment of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia, and Endometrial Assessment BARBARA S. APGAR, MD; AMANDA J. KAUFMAN, MD; CATHERINE BETTCHER, MD; and EBONY PARKER-FEATHERSTONE, MD, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan Women who have abnormal Papanicolaou test results may undergo colposcopy to determine the biopsy site for his- tologic evaluation. Traditional grading systems do not accurately assess lesion severity because colposcopic impres- sion alone is unreliable for diagnosis. The likelihood of finding cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 or higher increases when two or more cervical biopsies are performed. Excisional and ablative methods have similar treatment outcomes for the eradication of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. However, diagnostic excisional methods, including loop electrosurgical excision procedure and cold knife conization, are associated with an increased risk of adverse obstetric outcomes, such as preterm labor and low birth weight. Methods of endometrial assessment have a high sen- sitivity for detecting endometrial carcinoma and benign causes of uterine bleeding without unnecessary procedures. Endometrial biopsy can reliably detect carcinoma involving a large portion of the endometrium, but is suboptimal for diagnosing focal lesions. A 3- to 4-mm cutoff for endometrial thickness on transvaginal ultrasonography yields the highest sensitivity to exclude endometrial carcinoma in postmenopausal women. Saline infusion sonohysteros- copy can differentiate globally thickened endometrium amenable to endometrial biopsy from focal abnormalities best assessed by hysteroscopy. Hysteroscopy with directed biopsy is the most sensitive and specific method of diagnos- ing endometrial carcinoma, other than hysterectomy. (Am Fam Physician. 2013;87(12):836-843. Copyright © 2013 American Academy of Family Physicians.) CME This clinical content ervical cancer was diagnosed genital tract using magnification and illu- conforms to AAFP criteria in 12,200 American women in mination after applying dilute acetic acid.2,3 for continuing medical 1 education (CME). See CME 2010, resulting in 4,210 deaths. The standard method of evaluating color, Quiz on page 833. The incidence of cervical cancer vessels, and margins of a colposcopic lesion C has decreased considerably with the use of (i.e., grading) to determine the most serious Author disclosure: Dr. 4 Apgar is an associate Papanicolaou (Pap) testing. Treatment of lesion for biopsy has been questioned. Col- medical editor for Ameri- high-grade cervical intraepithelial neopla- poscopic findings have not been shown to can Family Physician, sia (CIN) may be necessary to prevent pro- correlate strongly with the severity of cervi- a board member of the 5 6 American Society for gression to invasive cervical cancer, despite cal dysplasia (Figure 1 ). In one study, col- Colposcopy and Cervical concern about adverse obstetric outcomes. poscopic impression of a high-grade lesion Pathology, has published a Endometrial cancer, the most common identified only 56% of histologic CIN grade colposcopy book and atlas female genital cancer, was diagnosed in 2 or higher (CIN 2+).7 The sensitivity of the with Elsevier, and receives royalties from SABK, Inc., more than 43,000 women and resulted in first colposcopic-directed biopsy for detec- for a colposcopy image 7,950 deaths in 2010.1 This article summa- tion of CIN 2+ is 52%, which confirms that library CD. The other rizes recent updates for colposcopy, treat- many lesions may be difficult to detect and authors have no relevant ments for CIN, and methods of endometrial highlights the risk of a false-negative biopsy financial affiliations. assessment. result.8 Human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16 is associated with the most prominent Colposcopy colposcopic abnormalities, whereas lesions COLPOSCOPIC IMPRESSION with other oncogenic HPV types may be Women who have abnormal Pap test results missed by colposcopy because they do not may undergo colposcopy to determine the appear as distinctly acetowhite.9 High-grade biopsy site for histologic evaluation. Col- lesions in thin (atrophic) epithelium may be poscopy allows for visualization of the lower underdiagnosed.10 Therefore, colposcopic 836 DownloadedAmerican from Family the American Physician Family Physician website at www.aafp.org/afp.www.aafp.org/afp Copyright © 2013 American AcademyVolume of Family 87, Number Physicians. 12 For ◆ theJune private, 15, 2013 non- commercial use of one individual user of the website. All other rights reserved. Contact [email protected] for copyright questions and/or permission requests. Gynecologic Procedures Figure 1. Colpophotograph of a woman with low-grade Figure 2. Colpophotograph of a woman with atypical squa- squamous intraepithelial lesion cytology. Colposcopic mous cells, cannot exclude high-grade squamous intraepi- impression is low-grade disease with unsatisfactory col- thelial lesion (ASC-H). There is a significant amount of poscopy. Histology revealed cervical intraepithelial lesion acetowhite epithelium. Multiple biopsies showed cervical grade 3. intraepithelial lesion grade 1 and grade 3. Reprinted with permission from Apgar BS, Brotzman GL, Spitzer M. Col- Reprinted with permission from Apgar BS, Brotzman GL, Spitzer M. Col- poscopy Principles and Practice: An Integrated Textbook and Atlas. 2nd ed. poscopy Principles and Practice: An Integrated Textbook and Atlas. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders Elsevier; 2008:156. Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders Elsevier; 2008:224. impression cannot be a reliable indicator of where to per- smaller, involved fewer quadrants, and were lower grade form cervical biopsies.11 than those detected by colposcopic-directed biopsy.15 Because histology determines disease severity and These lesions may have a higher rate of regression than dictates management,12 methods have been sought to those diagnosed by colposcopic-directed biopsy.14 Because improve the sensitivity of colposcopy. Recent evidence of this, current guidelines do not recommend random demonstrates that colposcopists should perform multiple cervical biopsies of normal-appearing epithelium. cervical biopsies and consistently sample acetowhite epi- Given that the accuracy of colposcopy is lower than thelium.8,13 Biopsies performed in areas with a colposcopic anticipated, criteria for determining where to biopsy are impression of high-grade findings increase the yield of needed. Identification of an acetowhite lesion on colpos- histologic CIN 3+ lesions 10-fold (38%) compared with copy has a sensitivity of 93% for predicting subsequent biopsies taken from areas that appear to be normal or low identification of CIN 2+ over two years.16 However, the grade (3.8%).14 However, because colposcopic-directed specificity is 67% to 74% because most women with biopsies of abnormal-appearing areas miss many CIN acetowhite lesions do not have high-grade disease.16 2+ lesions, two or more cervical biopsies should be con- Sensitivity is higher when a biopsy is taken from an ace- sidered.15 This approach increases the sensitivity of col- towhite area rather than from a lesion based on tradi- poscopy for identifying CIN 2+ lesions, regardless of the tional grading characteristics. Using a grading system expertise of the colposcopist5,11,13(Figure 2 6). may encourage colposcopists to perform a biopsy only The role of random biopsies in increasing the sensitiv- if the lesion appears high grade, and high-grade lesions ity of colposcopy is being investigated.13,15 In one study, that are small and subtle may be missed. Data from one random four-quadrant biopsies at the squamocolumnar study 16 demonstrate that colposcopic-directed biopsies junction in areas without visible lesions, plus an endocer- of acetowhite lesions should be performed even when vical curettage, diagnosed 37% of CIN 2+ lesions.15 The the colposcopic impression is squamous metaplasia or CIN lesions detected by random biopsy were significantly low-grade disease7,16 (Figure 16). June 15, 2013 ◆ Volume 87, Number 12 www.aafp.org/afp American Family Physician 837 Gynecologic Procedures ENDOCERVICAL CURETTAGE risk of preterm delivery increases if the depth of LEEP According to the American Society for Colposcopy and or laser conization is more than 10 mm.28 The value Cervical Pathology (ASCCP), endocervical curettage of cervical length measurements during pregnancy should be performed in specific situations, such as unsat- for predicting preterm labor in women with a history isfactory colposcopy following low-grade intraepithelial of CIN treatments is unknown.30 Laser vaporization lesion, colposcopic evaluation of high-grade squamous and cryotherapy did not affect outcomes, supporting intraepithelial lesion (Figure 36), or initial evaluation of the theory that ablation removes less tissue than exci- all subcategories of atypical glandular cell cytology.12 sion.28-30 According to absolute risks, previous treatment However, there is concern that endocervical curettage with LEEP would result in two perinatal deaths per may encourage unnecessary excisional procedures.17,18 1,000 pregnancies.29 The small absolute risk of preterm There is an argument that endocervical curettage is of labor following cervical excisional procedures must be limited benefit if excisional treatment is recommended. balanced with the risk of untreated CIN 3.30 None of the One study demonstrated that 11% of CIN 3+ was diag- treatments affected fertility.28 nosed only by a positive endocervical