Contributions to Zoology 89 (2020) 247-269 CTOZ brill.com/ctoz
Shell and appendages variability in two allopatric ostracod species seen through the light of molecular data
Ivana Karanovic Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 49, 7001, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia [email protected] Pham Thi Minh Huyen Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea Hyunsu Yoo Marine Environmental Research and Information Laboratory (MERIL), 17, Gosan-ro, 148 beon-gil, Gunpo-si, Gyoenggi-do, 15180, Republic of Korea Yuriko Nakao Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, College of Humanities and Sciences, Nihon University, Sakurajousui 3-25-40, Setagayaku, Tokyo, 156-8550, Japan Akira Tsukagoshi Department of Geoscience, Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University, Ohya 836, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka City, 422-8529 Japan
Abstract
Ostracod crustaceans are among the most abundant microfossil animals. Understanding intra- and in- terspecific variability of their shell is of pivotal importance for the interpretation of paleontological data. In comparison to appendages, ostracod shell displays more intraspecific variability (in shape, size, and ornamentation), often as a response to environmental conditions. Shell variability has been studied with sophisticated methods, such as geometric morphometrics (GM), but the conspecificity of examined spec- imens and populations was never tested. In addition, there are no GM studies of appendages. We build on previously published high cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) divergence rates among populations of a brackish water species, Ishizakiella miurensis (Hanai, 1957). With landmark-based GM analyses of its shell and appendages, and additional genetic markers (ITS, 28S, 18S), we test if the genetic variability is structured in morphospace. This approach is the core of integrative taxonomy paradigm which has been proposed to bring the gap between traditional taxonomy and other disciplines such as evolutionary
© KARANOVIC ET AL., 2019 | doi:10.1163/18759866-20191423 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the cc-by 4.0 License. Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 06:36:45AM via free access
Keywords 2007b; Wrozyna et al., 2016). One of the most notable examples is of Cyprideis torosa (Jones, East Asia – integrative taxonomy – geometric mor- 1850), where a strong variability in noding and phometrics – phylogeography – speciation morphology of pores is observed in correlation to salinity (Frenzel et al., 2012, 2016). Since pa- leontological studies provide no direct esti- mate of gene flow, only sequential changes Introduction in morphology coupled with temporal and geographic scales provide a proxy for evolu- Ostracods are ecologically versatile crusta- tionary lineages. For example, Cronin (1985, ceans with a (mostly) well-calcified shell and 1987) studied a marine ostracod genus with an abundant and diverse fossil record. Their extensive temporal and spatial scales, and signature on the geological time scale can be found enough morphological characteristics traced back to the Ordovician (Siveter et al., to delineate several species, which evolved in 2014). Of the estimated 45,000 described spe- a very short period of time after the rise of the cies (Brandão et al., 2019) almost 80% are Isthmus of Panama. This is, however, followed fossil. Long evolutionary history, abundance, by a pronounced shell variability across popu- and ecological versatility gave these micro- lations of those species, which the author re- fossils an important role in a wide range of garded as ecotypes, persisting during the last paleontology related studies (Boomer et al., three million years. His methods involved 2003). Since a negligible number of fossilized multivariate analysis, but only of the linear ostracods have appendages preserved (Siveter morphometric data. Recently, there have been et al., 2013, 2014), understanding the shell mor- several studies that used 2D GM to quantify os- phology, ontogeny, chemical composition, tracod shell variability in correlation with en- variability, etc. is of pivotal importance for an vironment conditions (see Wrozyna et al., 2018 accurate interpretation of their assemblages. and references therein). Although based on In comparison to numerous characters pro- living species (species with appendages), none vided by up to eight appendages, the shell is of these studies used genetics to test if there poor in details. Nevertheless, various features, was congruence between GM and molecular from the shape to fine structures on the sur- data. Without genetic data it is hard to distin- face (internal and external), successfully con- guish within and between-lineage morpho- tributed not only to description of so many logical variation (Van Bocxlaer & Hunt, 2013). species, but also to phylogenetic analyses of Some studies combine GM of the shell with some groups (Hunt, 2007a) and comprehen- the linear morphometrics of the appendages sion of their modes of evolution (Hunt, 2013). (Iepure et al., 2008), or use only linear mor- Ostracod shell often displays a high instra- phometrics of the appendages (Wrozyna et al., specific variability (Aiello et al., 2016; Hunt 2019) to discern morphological variability Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 06:36:45AM via free access
between geographically isolated populations in ostracods, despite the fact that they could of one species. However, there are only four be extrapolated to paleontological studies, published studies that attempted to couple where phenotypic variability can be more shell variability and genetics, two using linear confidently translated into discrete species morphometrics (Karanovic, 2015; Macario- or regarded as an instraspecific variability González et al., 2018) and two using GM (Kara- (Butlin & Menozzi, 2000). We approach this novic et al., 2019; Koenders et al., 2017). Linear problem by studying a living East Asian spe- morphometrics has limitations in comparison cies with known high genetic diversity (Yama- to the GM. It consists of length, depth, and guchi, 2000). width measurements and thus provides little Ishizakiella miurensis (Hanai, 1957) is a information about the shape of the studied brackish water species, living on muddy sand structures, and perceived variability is strongly of river mouths in Japan (Hanai, 1957; Tsu- correlated with the size (Zelditch et al., 2004). kagoshi, 1994; Yamaguchi, 2000) and Korea Empirical research corroborates the advanc- (Smith et al., 2014; Karanovic et al., 2017). The es of geometric over linear morphometrics genus Ishizakiella McKenzie & Sudijono, 1981 (Mutanen & Pretorius, 2007; Fabre et al., 2014; accounts for six species, two of them known Schmieder et al., 2015; Gabelaia et al., 2018 and from the fossil (Yoo et al., 2012). Of the four references in there). living species, I. novaezealandica (Hartmann, Human eye observations of appendages 1982) is known from New Zealand, while the morphology indicate their conservative na- other three (I. miurensis, I. ryukyuensis Tsu- ture, even on the genus level (Karanovic, 2012; kagoshi, 1994, and I. supralitoralis (Schorn- Meisch, 2000). However, there are no land- ikov, 1974)) have been reported from East Asia mark-based GM analyses of shape variation only. Yoo et al. (2012) provided a taxonomic to confirm this. Since the advent of molecular key to species, and while there are sufficient tools, the number of cryptic species has risen morphological differences in their shell to in all animal groups (Pfenninger & Schwenk, distinguish fossil and recent species, major 2007) and ostracods are no exception (Bode differences between living species are in the et al., 2010; Brandão et al., 2010; Koenders appendages, especially in the male copula- et al., 2012; Martens et al., 2012; Schön et al., tory organ. All living species have similar 2013). Although they conform with species ecology to I. miurensis (see Tsukagoshi, 1994), concepts based on monophyly and absence of with ovoviviparous mode of brood care, and genetic intermediates, and the International no planktonic stages (see Yamaguchi, 2000, Commission of Zoological Nomenclature al- 2003). Therefore, their distribution should be lows for a new species to be described based limited and species are highly susceptible to on DNA sequences alone (providing that the geographic isolation. tissue sample from the type specimen is des- In an attempt to reconstruct phylogenetic ignated, ICZN, 1999, Article 72.5.6), the newly relationships of living Ishizakiella species, Ya- discovered cryptic species mostly remain un- maguchi (2000) used a partial COI sequence described. The lack of easily perceived mor- from 29 Japanese and two New Zealand phological differences between genetically populations. The results shed some light on distant species has been successfully tackled the evolutionary pattern of the genus, and with integrative taxonomy, combining molec- revealed exceptional molecular diversity (in- ular results with landmark-based GM (Ches- traspecific distances being close to 20%) and ters et al., 2012; Davis et al., 2016; Karanovic haplotypes endemicity in I. miurensis and I. et al., 2016, 2018). Such analyses are missing ryukyuensis. TheDownloaded reconstructed from Brill.com10/07/2021 tree suggested 06:36:45AM via free access
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Figure 1 Biogeography and molecular phylogeny of Ishizakiella miurensis (Hanai, 1957) and I. occidentalis sp. nov. The map shows newly sampled localities (numbers in squares) and localities from Yamaguchi (2000), while the line across Kyushu and Honshu represents proposed distribution limits of the two species. Locality numbers correspond to the numbers on the haplotype network (insert between Ko- rea and Japan) and on the Bayesian inference tree constructed from the COI dataset (at the bottom). Numbers above branches on the tree represent posterior probabilities; only values above 0.95 are pre- sented. Numbers between brackets are 95% confidence intervals of the divergence times (in millions of years) of the main clades, based on the strict molecular clock. The scale bar shows the estimated number of substitutions per site. Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 06:36:45AM via free access 252 Karanovic et al. and the redescription of I. miurensis by Tsu- 1994) with default parameters. COI sequences kagoshi (1994). Valves of all individuals used were checked for potential stop codons with for the GM analysis have also been measured ORF finder on the NCBI website (https:// using Photoshop ruler tool. All examined ma- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/orffinder/), using terial is deposited at the National Institute of the invertebrate mitochondrial code. Beside Biological Resources (NIBR) in Seoul. newly obtained sequences, we also used 16 published sequences belonging to Ishizakiella Molecular methods miurensis available on GenBank (Yamaguchi, DNA was extracted from all studied specimens 2000, 2003) (populations from the localities 3, with lysis buffer that was prepared accord- 8, 10–16, and 18–20 in the fig. 1). To compare ing to Williams et al. (1992). All PCR reactions the variability of the COI segment we studied were carried out in 25 μl volume (5 μl of DNA with the variability of the entire COI region template, 2.5 μl of 10× ExTaq Buffer, 0.25 μl of in ostracods, we aligned our fragment with TaKaRa Ex Taq (5 units/ μl), 2 μl of dNTP Mix- three almost complete COI sequences from ture (2.5 mM each), 1 μl each primer, and 13.25 three ostracod species (accession numbers: μl of distilled water). PCR protocols and prim- AB114300 – Vargula hilgendorfii (G. M. Mül- er pairs used for amplification and sequencing ler, 1890); KP063117 – Cypridopsis vidua (O. F. are listed in the supplementary table S1. Pres- Müller, 1776); and AP014656 – Fabaeformis- ence of the DNA amplicons was verified with candona kushiroensis Hiruta & Hiruta, 2015). 1% agarose gel electrophoresis. After purifica- The K2P model (Kimura, 1980) was used to tion (LaboPass PCR Purification Kit, Cosmo calculate pair-wise distances between indi- Genetech) the PCR products were sequenced vidual sequences and within and between with ABI automated capillary sequencer group distances for all markers. Groups were (Macrogen, Seoul, South Korea). All obtained defined based on the results of the phyloge- sequences were visualized using Finch TV ver- netic analyses: sequences from the localities sion 1.4.0 (http://www.geospiza.com/Prod- 1, 2, 4–7 formed one monophyletic clade and ucts/finchtv.shtml) to check for the quality of from 3, 8–20 another monophyletic clade. signal and sites with possible low resolution, For the best fit evolutionary model, program and corrected by comparing forward and re- jModelTest 2.1.6 (Darriba et al., 2010; Guindon verse strands. BLAST algorithm (Altschul et al., & Gascuel, 2003) was used with the Akaike 1990) was used to check the identity of obtained information criterion (Hurvich & Tsai, 1989), sequences. All sequences were deposited in which proposed HKY+G model of molecu- GenBank with the following accession num- lar evolution for the COI dataset (Hasegawa bers: COI MH835193-MH835291, Internal tran- et al., 1985) and F81 for the ITS (Felsenstein, scribed spacer (ITS) MK243379-MK243396, 1981). Likelihood ratio test for deviation from 28S rRNA (em region) MK240519-MK240530; molecular clock implemented in DAMBE5 28S rRNA (vx region) MK240507-MK240518, (Xia, 2013) accepted the molecular clock for and 18S rRNA MK240531-MK240534. Infor- the COI dataset. Bayesian Inference, imple- mation on the number of sequences per lo- mented in BEAST v2.5 (Bouckaert et al., 2014), cality and DNA marker is included in the was used to estimate phylogenetic relation- supplementary table S2. ships based on COI and ITS datasets, and di- vergence time between populations based on Phylogenetic methods COI dataset. Settings included the best fit evo- Sequences were aligned in MEGA 7 (Kumar lutionary model with four gamma categories, et al., 2016) with ClustalW (Thompson et al., and a strict clock model.Downloaded The from Brill.com10/07/2021clock rate was 06:36:45AM via free access
occurring cell-like formations. Close observa- tion confirmed that the number and position 8 9 15 12 44 Individual M of these cells was almost invariable among in- dividuals, sexes, and sides, and each cell was 7 6 12 10 35 R given a label (from A1 to Q12) according to its 7 8 13 10 38 CA L position. LMs on the antenna were either seg- ment margins (LM 1, 3, 6 and 8), articulation 9 15 12 10 M 46 between segments (LM 5), or origin of setae (LM 2, 4, and 7) (fig. 4). All antenna’s LMs 7 9 16 20 52 Individual F were only on the second endopodal segment, preventing deformation that may be caused 8 9 12 10 39 RM by variability in segments relation to one an- other as a result of slide preparation. LMs on 8 9 12 12 41 LM the CA included only non-movable parts: tip 7 9 of the distal process (LM1); end of a calcified 14 14 44 RF part on the distal process (LM2); beginning of 7 9 17 12 the distal process from the dorsal side (LM 3); 45 Antenna LF end of the largest CA lobe from the dorsal side 2 9 10 16 M 37 (LM 4); centre of the loop on the ejaculatory process (LM 5); anterior tip of the ejaculatory 5 4 12 21 42 Individual F process (LM 6); and postero-ventral end of the distal process (LM 7) (fig. 4). 2 8 15 10 35 RM Landmarks were digitized in TpsDig 2 (v.2.18) software (Rohlf, 2015) as the Cartesian 1 9 6 19 35 LM (raw) coordinates. In order to estimate mea- 3 5 4 surement error, SEMs of valves were digitized 17 29 RF twice, while antenna and CA were photo- 5 2 12 19 38 Valves LF graphed twice and then each image was digi- tized twice. Final datasets consisted of 274
18S 1 1 1 1 4 digitisations for valves, 676 for antennas, and 292 for CA. Algorithms implemented in MorphoJ (v.1. 1 5 2 4 28S/vx 12 06d) (Klingenberg, 2011) were used for all statistical analyses. None of the datasets had object symmetry. In the first step, measured 2 2 4 4 12 28S/em individuals were subjected to a generalized 3 5 4 6 Procrustes superimposition (GPA) (Rohlf 18 ITS & Slice, 1990; Dryden & Mardia, 1998), to re- move effects of non-shape variation (posi- 12 41 16 30 99 Genetic markers CO1 tion, orientation, and scale). This method
Sampling localities with numbers of individuals tested for genetic markers and morphological variations Sampling localities with numbers of markers for genetic individuals tested estimates size (represented as centroid size, CS) and shape (represented as Procrustes
shape coordinates). Datasets were analysed Tokyo Bay Tokyo Aomori Tanegashima Samcheok with one-way parametric Procrustes ANOVA Table 1 Locality 1. 2. 9. 17. Total RM – right male. F – female; L left; LF left LM male; M R right; RF right Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 06:36:45AM via free access
to quantify the relative amount of variations as a result of measurement errors (imaging and digitisation), fluctuating asymmetry, and directional asymmetry (Klingenberg & Mc- Intyre, 1998; Klingenberg et al., 2002). In the case of directional asymmetry only those in- dividuals with digitisation of both left and right sides were considered (default func- tion of the software). We also used ANOVA to test for the effects of sex, species, and local- ity on the size and shape variations. Species groups were defined based on the molecular phylogeny analysis of the COI alignment. Re- gression was used to test for the effects of size on shape, i.e., allometry (Klingenberg, 2016). However, further analyses were performed only on the size uncorrected datasets. We also used regression to visualize differences in CS between sexes and localities. After comput- ing the variance covariance matrix of the Pro- crustes shape coordinates we used principal component analysis (PCA) for the multivari- ate analysis of shape variation in all datasets averaged by individual. For the shell dataset the PCA was performed on the entire dataset, and then on datasets of females and males separately. PCA served to visualize distribu- tion of delimitating factors such as species and sexes in morphospace associated with principal components carrying the highest eigenvalues. Mean shape for each valve, sex, and species was created by subdividing the full valve dataset according to sexes and then averaging each by side and species. Shape ‹Figure 2 S-DIVA analysis on the BI tree reconstructed from the COI alignment from populations 1, 2, 9, and 17. Pie charts at the internal nodes represent the calculated probabilities (relative frequencies) of alternative ancestral areas (reconstructions), and only those that are associated with over 0.9 posterior probabilities are colored. The top left insert represents the probability of suggested events on each of the four nodes (A, B, C, D), and the bottom left insert is the color code for the ancestral areas.
Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 06:36:45AM via free access 256 Karanovic et al.
Figure 3 Landmark-based GM shape analyses of the valves. Target symbols with numbers on the LV SEM photo- graph of Ishizakiella occidentalis sp. nov., female, holotype (top) represent landmarks. The left scatter plot shows delimitation of species and sexes, and the right scatter plot shows delimitation of females only, based on the landmarks for specimens collected from localities 1, 2, 9, and 17. Ellipses represent 95% confidence intervals, and numbers between brackets represent percentages of total variance for the first two eigenvectors (PCs). changes were visualized with lollipop graphs ing ambiguous sites (such as indels) from the (fig. 5, and supplementary fig. S1). ITS dataset, the final alignment was 565 bp long, with only 4 variable sites, and all four parsimony informative. The length of the Results 28S dataset df fragment was 592 bp, and vx fragment was 607 bp long. The former con- Molecular phylogeny tained only 2 variable sites, none parsimony All alignments were cut to the same length informative, and the latter had only one vari- prior to the analysis. The COI alignment was able, parsimony informative site. The 18S da- 270 bp long, with 81 variable sites, of which taset was 785 bp long with only one variable, 64 were parsimony informative. After remov- but not parsimonyDownloaded informative from Brill.com10/07/2021 site. Within 06:36:45AM via free access Ostracod shape and DNA variability in two species 257
Figure 4 Landmark-based GM shape analyses of the antenna (upper left, Ishizakiella occidentalis sp. nov., female, holotype) and CA (upper right, I. occidentalia sp. nov., male, allotype). Target symbols with numbers on the light photographs of the appendages represent landmarks. Scatter plots below the appendages are respective graphical visualizations of the principal component analysis based on the landmarks for specimens collected from localities 1, 2, 9, and 17; ellipses represent 95% confidence intervals, and numbers between brackets represent percentages of total variance for the first two eigenvectors (PCs). group distances varied from 4% for COI da- vx fragment and 18S datasets (supplementary taset, 0.03% for ITS, to 0.001% for 28S and table S2). Pairwise distances between indi- 18S. Between group distances ranged from al- vidual COI sequences (supplementary table most 17% for the COI dataset, 0.06% for ITS, S3) varied from 1% to 19%. Since only the COI 0.03% for 28S em fragment, to 0.01% for 28S dataset containedDownloaded sufficient from Brill.com10/07/2021 variability 06:36:45AMand via free access 258 Karanovic et al.
Figure 5 Female shape changes (scaled 5×) associated with species and valves relative to the mean shape of the sample consisting of females only. Landmark numbers as in the fig. 3. included sequences from all localities, only to 352) was more conservative; distances were this dataset was used in further analyses. Be- 23% between C. vidua and F. kushiroensis and sides having very few variable sites, the ITS 48% and 45% between those two respectively dataset produced phylogenetic trees with and V. hilgendorfi. very low support (posterior probability 0.35; Tracer analysis of the BEAST results showed tree not presented) for basal nodes, rendering that the effective sample size for all mea- unresolved relationship between sequences sured parameters (posterior, likelihood, pri- from newly sampled localities. Due to a very ors, tree likelihood, tree height, Yule model, limited numbers of molecular differences in birth rate, etc.) was far above the recom- 28S and 18S fragments, the phylogenetic tree mended 200, suggesting a sound estimation for those two markers were not reconstructed. of the posterior distribution. The BEAST The alignment built to compare the variabil- analyses produced a phylogram that divided ity of the COI fragment used in our study with studied localities in two clades with very high the overall variability of the almost entire COI posterior probabilities (fig. 1): one consisting region was 1444 bp long. The K2P distances of populations from the localities 1, 2, 4–7, ranged from 27% between Cypridopsis vidua and the other of the rest of populations. The and Fabaeformiscandona kushiroensis to 63% latter clade also had a high support for the and 66% between Vargula hilgendorfi and sequences from the localities 3 and 8. While C. vidua and F. kushiroensis respectively. In all sequences collected from the locality 17 comparison to the almost entire COI region, belonged to one clade, those from the local- the fragment used in the analysis of the Ishiza- ity 9 clustered in two clades. Strict molecu- kiella miurensis complex (from the position 98 lar clock placed the time of the most recent Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 06:36:45AM via free access Ostracod shape and DNA variability in two species 259
Table 2 Pairwise Fst values and population statistics based on the COI alignment of four populations (1, 2, 9, and 17) 1 2 9 S H Hd π D FS
1 0 3 4 0.4545 0.0038 0.07 –0.59 2 0.909* 0 10 9 0.9 0.0077 –1.17 –4.04 9 0.909* 0.905* 0 11 5 0.6919 0.0174 2.24 5.11 17 0.971* 0.963* 0.445* 5 6 0.7012 0.0046 0.33 –0.6
D – Tajima’s D test statistics; FS – Fu’s tests; H – number of haplotypes; Hd – haplotype diversity; S – number of segregating (polymorphic) sites; π – nucleotide diversity. * – Statistical significance of p < 0.05. common ancestor of all populations between consisting of populations 1,2, 4–7. Since from 3 and 1.7 million years ago. The divergence all other localities we had only one sequence time between the Korean population (local- each, population dynamic indices in those lo- ity 1) and populations from Japan belonging calities could not be estimated. to the same clade was estimated to be be- The S-DIVA analysis found 43 dispersals, 16 tween 1.5 and 0.7 million years ago. Similar extinctions, and 13 vicariance events. Dispersal divergence time was proposed between se- and extinction events were mostly restricted quence from the locality 3 and those from to terminal nodes, while vicariance events localities 9–20, while older time (1.3 and 2 were restricted to basal nodes. However, pos- million years ago) was estimated for the di- terior probabilities of terminal nodes were vergence between the sequence from the lo- very low and therefore the probability of vi- cality 8 and the rest of the populations from cariance/dispersal/extinction events was very the same clade. small. Only nodes with posterior probabilities A total of 38 unique haplotypes (fig. 1) were over 0.9 were highlighted in fig. 2. It seems detected. Only localities 15 and 16, as well as 13 that vicariance was the major cause of the and 18, shared a haplotype. The highest hap- disjunct distribution and the primary mecha- lotype diversity was detected at the locality 2 nism for speciation in I. miurensis popula- (0.9), moderate at the localities 9 and 17, and tions. Vicariance has a high probability at the low at the locality 1 (0.45) (table 2). All popula- root (A), the ancestral node of populations 1 tions had low nucleotide diversity. Tajima’s D and 2 (D), and at the ancestral node of popu- test and Fu’s FS test were not consistent across lations 9 and 17. Node C supports a combina- populations, but their values were not statis- tion of dispersal and variance events between tically significant and cannot be used for fur- localities 9 and 17. ther population dynamics discussions. On the other hand, between populations Fst values Geometric morphometrics analysis were very high and all statistically significant. ANOVA analyses indicated that the mea- Mantel test for the clade consisting of the surement error was negligible in all datasets populations 3, 8–20 returned a relatively high for both shape and size (table 3). Fluctuat- correlation between K2P and geographical ing asymmetry was significantly larger than distances (0.61), with statistically significant the individual variability in all datasets, for p-value (two-tailed p = 0.001). This correla- both shape and size components. Direction- tion was much higher (0.91) and statistically al asymmetry was significantly (6. 27 times) significant on the same level for the clade higher than individual variability only in the Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 06:36:45AM via free access
Table 3 Shape and size variation inferred by a one-way parametric ANOVA. Only Goodall’s F critical values (F) and probability of finding a random value larger than the observed (P) are shown. Imaging error was only measured for antenna and CA
Shell Antenna CA
F P F P F P
ANOVA Sex 44.08 <.0001 1.6 0.09 n/a n/a Shape Clade 5.37 <.0001 7.51 <.0001 1.36 0.099 Locality 2.79 <.0001 7.18 <.0001 1.38 0.197 Individual 3.42 <.0001 2.94 <.0001 4.38 <.0001 Directional asymmetry 6.27 <.0001 0.88 0.57 1.88 0.048 Fluctuating asymmetry 14.41 <.0001 14.96 <.0001 31.86 <.0001 Imaging n/a n/a 1.99 <.0001 1.8 <.0001 ANOVA Sex 62.05 <.0001 3.22 0.08 n/a n/a Size Clade 19.74 <.0001 8.3 0.005 1.62 0.214 Locality 8.77 <.0001 46.1 <.0001 22.21 <.0001 Individual 41.16 <.0001 22.55 <.0001 23.56 <.0001 Directional asymmetry 4.79 0.0328 1.93 0.169 25.94 0.067 Fluctuating asymmetry 940.77 <.0001 32.1 <.0001 2.15 <.0001 Imaging n/a n/a 1.94 <.0001 0.0002 shell dataset and only in the shape compo- datasets, the predicted value for the valve da- nent of variation. taset was 1.5%, while it was 7% for both an- Of the additional effects in the valves da- tenna and CA. taset, sex was by far the greatest contributor PCA results were strikingly different be- to both shape and size variations, being re- tween the valve dataset on one side (fig. 3) spectively 44 and 62 times larger than the in- and antenna and CA on the other (fig. 4). The dividual variability. It was followed by species shape analysis of the valve dataset containing (5 (shape) and 19 (size) times larger than the both sexes (fig. 3) showed clear clustering in individual variability), and locality (almost the morphospace described by the first two 3 (shape) and 8 (size) times). In the antenna eigenvectors. The first eigenvector (carrying dataset sex contributed insignificantly to the 43% of the total variability) separated sexes, overall variation of the shape and size. On the with males being in the positive and females other hand, variation as a result of species and in the negative part. The second eigenvector locality allocation significantly contributed to (amounting to 8% of the total variability) sep- the overall variability but the F value was small arated the two monophyletic clades from our for both (1.3) in the shape component, and con- phylogenetic analysis. The center of gravity siderably higher in the size component (8 for for the clade from the localities 9 and 17 was in the species and 46 for the locality). In the CA the positive part, and for the clade from the lo- dataset only locality significantly contributed calities 1 and 2 in the negative part of the PC2 to the overall variability in the size component. axis. The shape analysis carried out on the da- Allometry did not have a significant influ- tasets separated by sexes highlighted the dif- ence on the shape variations; although the ferences between clades, with the first two
p-value was statistically significant in all three eigenvectors describingDownloaded 34% from of Brill.com10/07/2021 the variability 06:36:45AM via free access
SEM stub, appendages dissected on one slide. table S4). Downloaded from Brill.com10/07/2021 06:36:45AM via free access
Males of the new species display shape ranges (see Cronin, 1985, 1987). Our results changes in the same regions (LM groups) as imply that the application of landmark-based females, but they are much smaller. In addi- GM can reveal consistent morphological dif- tion, while the magnitude of the shape differ- ferences between species despite intrapopu- ences in females is almost the same on both lation variability. Hopkins & Lidgard (2012) valves, in males the LV has more prominent analysed extensive datasets and showed that shifts than the RV, especially in the antero- stasis should be taken with caution, because ventral and postero-ventral regions. Interest- traits have variable modes of evolution. Our ingly, the same discrepancy can be observed data exemplify this, because, unlike shell, ex- in I. miurensis males but here the RV is more amined traits of CA and antenna have highly variable than the LV in these regions. unstructured variability and only localities Average L of males was 101.29 μm for the LV to some extent contribute to the shape vari- and 99.57 μm for the RV (supplementary table ability of the antenna. In addition, we assume S4). that antennas are important sensory organs in Revised diagnosis for I. miurensis is given in both males and females and as such exhibit the supplementary note. developmental constrains for optimal sensory functioning. Small morphological differences between the two species can be explained Discussion by their allopatric distribution, a phenom- enon that has been observed in other animal Yamaguchi (2000, 2003) recognized two clades groups as well (Kiyoshi & Hikida, 2012; le Port within Japanese populations of I. miurensis: et al., 2013; Amor et al., 2014, etc). Therefore, the Sea of Japan clade (corresponding to the we can expect that species in sympatry may localities 4–8) and the Pacific clade (corre- develop morphologically different copula- sponding to the localities, 3, 10–16, and 18–20) tory appendages as they usually provide aid to based on molecular phylogeny inferred from prezygotic isolation. For example, Tsukagoshi the same fragment as in our study. We de- (1988) showed that in several closely related scribed I. occidentalis to accommodate popu- ostracod species morphological differences in lations from South Korea and Japan (localities CA are enlarged when their distribution rang- 2, 4–7). This decision was based on the type es overlap, a phenomenon known as charac- locality of I. miurensis, situated in the Kanaga- ter displacement. Previous studies on recent wa Prefecture (Hanai, 1957) within the dis- ostracod shell shape variation evidenced the tribution range of the Pacific clade. Human presence of distinct morphotypes in allopat- eye observations of the shell line drawings ric populations (Wrozyna et al., 2016, 2018), and SEM-s (Hanai, 1957; Tsukagoshi, 1994; Ya- but since they did not study genetic markers maguchi, 2000, 2003, and present study) can or soft parts, our results are at the moment detect a certain amount of variability in the unmatched. We show that the valve shape postero-ventral region of the female valves, distinguishes better closely related species however, there is no regularity. This was tra- than appendages. In addition, previous stud- ditionally regarded as morphological stasis in ies suggested that using structures on the shell ostracod evolution, with many species having surface alone, or in combination with several exceptional spatial (with remarkable geo- marginal points as LMs, can yield more reli- graphic barriers between populations) and able results in a GM analysis of the shape temporal (persisting for over 5 million years) variation than outline alone (Karanovic et al.,
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2017, 2018). One of the downsides of the LMs diversities. A clear signature of a rapid growth on the shell surface (such as cuticular pores) from a small population (expansion), could be is that they may be difficult to homologize detected in the population 2 of I. occidentalis across variety of taxa. This is not the case in which had a high haplotype (Hd) and a low closely related species, because such struc- nucleotide diversities (π). On the other hand, tures tend to remain conservative and easy the Korean population of I. occidentalis, with to locate. Another potential problem is with much smaller Hd and a small π, supposedly species with poor or no ornamentation at all, went through a bottleneck (Avise et al., 1987; where outline based GM would be easier to Avise, 2000). For the two I. miurensis popula- apply (see Karanovic et al., 2017b). tions we included in the population statistic Although the COI sequence we analysed analysis (9 and 17), the Hd and π are suggest- was relatively short, it appears that this seg- ing expansion as well, but not as strongly as in ment is less variable than the entire COI re- the case of I. occidentalis from the population gion in ostracods, which further amplifies the 2. divergence value between Ishizakiella miuren- We agree with Yamaguchi (2000) that the sis and I. occidentalis. In both species there is present day distribution is a result of the post- a significant correlation between genetic and glacial faunal shift, but disagree on the im- geographic distances of populations, indicat- portance of the land bridges as migration ing that the distribution is more likely a result routes. Beside the fact that general trend of of an active migration, not a passive trans- faunal movement during interglacial periods port. Yamaguchi (2000) suggested that I. miu- has a south-north trend in the northern hemi- rensis distribution is a result of repeated colo- sphere (Pielou, 1991), recent studies indicate nizations of the Japanese archipelago from that during the last glacial maximum Korea the Korean peninsula via land bridges during and Japan remained separated with a nar- the Late Pleistocene, and the one occurring row (20 km) and shallow (10 m deep) channel during the last glacial maximum was a dis- (Park et al., 2000). The biogeography of the tribution pathway for the Sea of Japan clade. Sea of Japan clade, as defined by Yamaguchi Our S-DIVA analysis support that I. miurensis (2000), can be explained either by spreading and I. occidentalis evolved by vicariance, with of the populations from some glacial refugia some dispersal events between populations of in the southern part of the Sea of Japan, or by the former species. According to the very high, subsequent northward colonization following statistically significant fixation index (Fst sea transgression and reduction of the coast- value), all genetic variations between studied line. South-north trend also follows opening populations (1, 2, 9, 17) can be explained by of the warm Tsushima current. Polyphyletic populations structure, with all populations nature of the Sea of Japan clade refutes the being highly differentiated. However, repro- first scenario. We speculate that the ancestors ductive isolation could not be confirmed and of I. miurensis inhabited southern tips of the therefore we base our decision to describe a Japanese archipelago and spread northward new species on the phylogenetic and mor- along the Pacific coast, following the warm phological species concepts. With statistically Kuroshio Current. The phylogenetic tree re- non-significant Tajima’s and Fu’s test, indica- constructed from the COI alignment, as well tors of each populations demographic chang- as high K2P distances, also suggest that popu- es (bottleneck and/or expansion) could only lations 8 and 3 of I. miurensis may represent be drawn from the haplotype and nucleotide separate species, but no morphological data
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