WATER SMART SOLUTION REPORTS BY COHORT 2.0

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#Water Smart Solution Final Reports by Cohort 2.0 of C4Y-IWP Water Champions Youth Fellowship Programme 2020 I

The water smart solution reports presented in this publication are developed as part of the Cohort 2.0 Fellow’s deliverables under C4Y-IWP Water Champions Youth Fellowship Programme 2020.

Copyright: Ideas, Innovations and Work presented in this publication belongs to the respective partner organisations - © CSE 2020; © CEEW 2020; © DA 2020; © Taru Leading Edge; © J S Water Life Co. and © WaterAid 2020

This publication also represents the opinions of the fellows of Cohort 2.0. This report does not represent the position or opinions of Centre for Youth (C4Y), India Water Partnership (IWP), WAPCOS and Department of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India, nor of the official position of any staff members in this publication.

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#Water Smart Solution Final Reports by Cohort 2.0 of C4Y-IWP Water Champions Youth Fellowship Programme 2020 II

CONTENTS

1.0 PROJECT: SHIT FLOW DIAGRAM (SFD) TO UNDERSTAND THE SANITATION STATUS OF THE LAKHIMPUR CITY BY ABHISHEK BHARTI 2

2.0 PROJECT: DECENTRALISED WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT AND LOCAL REUSE by PREETHI VASUDEVAN ...... 16

3.0 PROJECT: DEVELOPING SHIT FLOW DIAGRAM (SFD) TO UNDERSTAND THE SANITATION STATUS OF THE DHARAMSHALA CITY BY SAIYAMI BHARDWAJ ...... 35

4.0 PROJECT: PREPARATION OF SHIT FLOW DIAGRAM (SFDS) FOR FARIDABAD, HARYANA BY NIHARIKA KAUSHIK ...... 49

5.0 PROJECT: WEB-BASED COMPENDIUM- GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE AND WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN AND PLANNING BY UPMA GARG ...... 68

6.0 PROJECT: CLIMATE PROOFING OF WATER INFRASTRUCTURE BY LIPI GANDHI ...... 84

7.0 PROJECT: WATER SECURITY PLANNING FOR RURAL WATER ACCESS BY NIHARIKA NITIN LABHSETWAR ...... 100

8.0 PROJECT: SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY PROCESS FOR GROUNDWATER STUDIES IN INDIA BY EKANSHA KHANDUJA ...... 114

9.0 PROJECT: PHYCO-REMEDIATION OF WTP POND, DELHI GOLF CLUB (DGC), DELHI, INDIA BY AMRITA SINGH ...... 136

10.0 PROJECT: ENHANCING PARTICIPATORY PLANNING AND COMMUNICATION IN WASH TO ADDRESS PERIOD POVERTY AMID COVID- 19 BY ANANYA MUKHERJEE ...... 152

11.0 PROJECT: INCLUDING THE EXCLUDED: PROVIDING WATER ACCESS TO PERSON WITH DISABILITIES BY AJAY KUMAR ...... 168

12.0 PROJECT: DUG-WELL BASED MINI PIPE WATER SUPPLY IN NUAPADA, ODISHA BY SHWETA CHOUBEY ...... 178

13.0 PROJECT: WATER SECURITY IN SLUMS AMID COVID-19 BY ANUBHAV ...... 189

14.0 ABOUT PARTNER ORGANISATION ...... 200

#Water Smart Solution Final Reports by Cohort 2.0 of C4Y-IWP Water Champions Youth Fellowship Programme 2020 III

WATER SMART SOLUTION REPORTS

by Fellows Placed with Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)

#Water Smart Solution Final Reports by Cohort 2.0 of C4Y -IWP Water Champions Youth Fellowship Programme 2020 1

1.0 PROJECT: SHIT FLOW DIAGRAM (SFD) TO UNDERSTAND THE SANITATION STATUS OF THE LAKHIMPUR CITY BY ABHISHEK BHARTI Fellowship Theme: Water Policy and Governance

ABHISHEK BHARTI MA Environmental Studies Department of Environmental Studies University of Delhi

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BGL : Below Ground Level BIS : Bureau of Indian Standard CDP : City Development Plan CGWB : Central Ground Water Board CPCB : Central Pollution Control Board CSE : Centre for Science and Environment CSP : City Sanitation Plan EA : Extended Aeration FS : Faecal Sludge MoEFCC : Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change MoUD : Ministry of Urban Development NGO : Non-governmental Organisation OP : Oxidation Pond OSS : On-site Sanitation System STP : Sewage Treatment Plant SWM : Solid Waste Management WTP : Water Treatment Plant

LIST OF DEFINITIONS

Blackwater: A mixture of urine, faeces and flush water along with anus-cleansing water (if water is used for cleansing), and dry cleansing materials used to clean anus after defecation. Black water contains pathogens (of faeces) and nutrients (of urine) that are diluted in the flush water. Desludging: The operation, performed by a licenced operator or trained sanitary workers, of removing FSS from onsite sanitation system (OSS). Disposal: Transportation and discharge or transfer of FSS to notified locations. Effluent: The supernatant (liquid) discharged from an OSS. The liquid separated out from the septage is also referred to as effluent. Faecal sludge: The settled contents of onsite sanitation systems. The characteristics of faecal sludge can differ widely from household to household, city to city, and country to country. The physical, chemical and biological qualities of faecal sludge are influenced by the duration of storage, temperature, soil conditions, intrusion of groundwater or surface water into onsite sanitation systems, desludging technology and pattern.

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Greywater: The total volume of water generated from washing food, clothes and dishware, as well as from bathing, but not from toilets. It may contain traces of excreta and, therefore, also pathogens. Insanitary latrines: A latrine which requires human excreta to be cleaned or otherwise handled manually, either in situ, or in an open drain or pit into which the excreta is discharged or flushed out, before the excreta fully decomposes in such manner as may be prescribed. Provided that a water flush latrine, when cleaned by an emptier with the help of such devices and using such protective gear as notified in relevant guidelines is not to be deemed an insanitary latrine. Leach pit or soak pit: An underground pit that is used where there is no sewer and household wastewater is drained into them to permit leaching of the liquid into the surrounding soil. Night soil: Human excreta, with or without anal cleansing material, deposited into a bucket or other receptacle for manual removal. Pit latrine: A form of on-site sanitation with one or two pits for accumulation and decomposition of excreta from which liquid infiltrates into the surrounding soil. Sanitary latrine: A latrine which is not an insanitary latrine. Scum: Extraneous or impure matter like oil, hair, grease and other light material that floats on the surface of a liquid in septic tanks. Septage: The faecal sludge desludged from a well-designed septic tank. Septic tank: A water-tight, onsite treatment system of domestic sewage, single-storied tank in which sanitary flow is retained long enough to permit sedimentation and digestion. Sewage: Wastewater transported through sewers. Sewers: Underground pipelines provided for the purposes of carrying liquid waste (wastewater) of a community. Transportation: Safe transfer of FSS through CNPP-registered vacuum tanker from the place of desludging to the notified location. Treatment: Any scientific method or process designed to alter the physical, chemical or biological and radiological character or composition of FSS, sewage and wastewater to reduce or prevent pollution. Vacuum tanker: It is a vehicle that has a pump and a tank, designed to pneumatically suck FSS from the OSS. These vehicles are also used to transport desludged FSS. Wastewater: Liquid effluent from domestic or commercial human activity including effluent from toilets, kitchen and cleaning activity, which does not include effluent from manufacturing and industrial activity. Usually such effluent flows through stormwater drains, thus it includes stormwater as well.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Although sanitation legislation and regulations are available, enforcement is lacking. Wastewater is most often discharged into the environment directly, or through the open drainage system with practically no treatment processes in place. Until now no proper and satisfactory solution for wastewater management has been developed in Lakhimpur city of Uttar Pradesh. While most individual or shared toilets are connected to septic tanks, their disposal or outlets are hardly or badly maintained. This is mostly due to the lack of know-how. Therefore, a Sanitation (or Shit) Flow Diagram is required to present a clear picture of how excreta flows are managed within the city. Thus, mapping excreta of a city is increasingly used to analyse the sanitation in urban areas. It shows how excreta is or is not contained as it moves from defecation to disposal or end-use, and the fate of all excreta generated.

In my city, Lakhimpur the Sanitation Value Chain is basically based upon the OSS as the proposal for sewer is still pending for approval. Sanitation related work comes under the purview of both Nagar Palika Parishad and Jal Nigam.

99% of the Containment system is rely upon OSS (ST as well as FLT) where PT are having well developed ST and Unlined pits also contribute around 2%. Emptying stage is carried out by both Government and Private players with the help of vacuum based motorised tankers and the collected material is transported to a designated site 10 kms outside the city. Although during the field survey the tankers are spotted dumping of collected waste inside the city. As of now, city do not have any STP or FSTP but the construction of a FSTP is currently going on near Ull River at Majra farm.

SFD graphic generated after all data sampling and analysis shows that only about 5% of the total waste generated is safely managed and remaining 95% is still need to be managed.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT Although sanitation legislation and regulations are available, enforcement is lacking. Wastewater is most often discharged into the environment directly, or through the open drainage system with practically no treatment processes in place. Until now no proper and satisfactory solution for wastewater management has been developed. Although most individual or shared toilets are connected to septic tanks, these are hardly or badly maintained. This is mostly due to the lack of know- how. Therefore, a Sanitation (or Shit) Flow Diagram is required to present a clear picture of how excreta flows are managed within the city. Thus, mapping excreta of a city is increasingly used to analyse the sanitation in urban areas. It shows how excreta is or is not contained as it moves from defecation to disposal or end-use, and the fate of all excreta generated.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT Non-standard sanitation system in the Sanitation Service Chain can be the source of Ground Water Pollution , and any leakage or lack of proper management can allow the flow of toxic elements from the human excreta(Mara and Evans, 2018). SFD Report provides information on the institutional frameworks, roles and responsibilities, regulatory aspects, and other issues that directly or indirectly impact the provision of sustainable sanitation services (Peal et al. , 2014). Under the Swachh Bharat Mission a lot of toilets were constructed including Individual House Hold Latrine and Community / Public Toilets. As India has declared Open Defecation status for various cities of India but the challenges remain as to how the excreta generated from the toilets is managed. Significant data gap exists in the country in this regard. This study aims to the study the excreta management of one of these cities i.e. Lakhimpur using an SFD tool.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW As per census data year 2011, the population of Lakhimpur City is 151999 and total area is 10.10 Sq km within the Terai lowlands at the base of the Himalayas, with several rivers and lush green vegetation and situated between 27.6° and 28.6° north latitude and 80.34° and 81.30° east longitudes. • Water supply to household is generally from the underground water through motorised pumps. • The city is famous for its Kheri plantation and hence named as Lakhimpur Kheri . • The annual average rainfall in Lakhimpur Kheri is 1,085.3 millimeters (42.73 in) , mostly in the monsoon months (July to September). Census 2011 2019 Projected Population 151993 167572 HH 30770 34198* Area 10.10 sq.km 10.10 sq.km No. of ward 30 30

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4. PROJECT LOCATION LAKHIMPUR, UTTAR PRADESH

The overall objective of the baseline study project is to provide information which facilitates participatory decision-making in planning for investments, in further project development, and in correction of the day-to-day operational challenges for service delivery to the public in the field of water supply and sanitation. The main objectives are given below:

5. OBJECTIVES AND GOAL The objectives include: • To collect relevant secondary data of the cities • To identify relevant stakeholders and conduct Key Informant Interviews ( KII ) and Focused Group Discussion ( FGD ) with them • To conduct random household survey to collect relevant information on ground • To document field observation through clicking good quality pictures • To develop SFD graphic and develop a draft factsheet

Goal of the project is to include develop SFD Graphic and SFD Lite Report.

6. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY The main task of a baseline study is collecting various data and information. The variation of data types includes details of technical systems from household systems up to centralised systems, information about household situations, as well as understanding of the institutional set-up and socio-economic dynamics. The preparation phase of the study includes setting up a draft checklist of required data, identifying all stakeholders and working out how the data may be obtained. Much data will be collected

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through interviews with households, key persons from institutions, municipal, district, or state authorities. Another source of information and data was obtained by direct observation and mapping techniques. The following tasks will be undertaken during the course of this project:

• To collect relevant secondary data and identify relevant stakeholders of the cities before the site visit. • To extensively travel within the designated city to collect relevant data using methodology recommended by SFD promotion initiative and discussed with CSE team. • To conduct random household survey to collect relevant, on-ground information. • To document field observations. • To analyse the collected data in the excel sheets. • To develop SFD graphic and develop a draft factsheet. • Write and publish SFD lite report for the designated city in close coordination with CSE personnel.

7. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT

S. Activities Timeline No. 1 Training of Trainees on the preparation of SFD by CSE July 27 - 29, 2020

2 Desk research & collection of secondary data Aug 7 – 9, 2020 3 Primary data collection - Site visit including data collection from Aug 10 – 16,2020 relevant stakeholders in municipality, HH/commercial/institutional surveys, KII, FGDs etc. 4 Data Analysis, Site Visit Report and Submission of Bills Aug 16 – 17,2020 5 Generation of SFD Graphic and SFD Lite Report Aug 17 – 23, 2020 6 Presentation of draft SFD and findings of the city to CSE team Aug 25, 2020 7 Finalisation and submission of SFD graphic and factsheet Aug 27 – Aug 29, 2020 8 Draft SFD lite report Aug 31 – Sept 4, 2020 9 Final SFD lite report to be uploaded on SusSanA By Sept 18, 2020

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8. KEY FINDINGS

Table: SFD Matrix for Lakhimpur

The overview of technologies and methods used for different sanitation systems through the sanitation service chain is as follows: Overview on technologies and methods used for different sanitation systems through the sanitation service chain is as follows:

Offsite Systems As of now the Lakhimpur city has no sewer system for offsite containment (Field Observation; KII-1 and 4, 2020). City is planning to go for sewer system in upcoming years, as according to the officials Nagar Palika

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with the active support of Jal Nigam, is in direct communication with higher authorities. Land for Sewage Treatment Plant has been identified by the Nagar Palika but the procedure for further commands is still under process (KII-1).

On-site Sanitation Systems The Lakhimpur city is totally dependent upon the onsite sanitation system which includes the individual toilet system along with Community and Public toilet provided by the Nagar Palika under Swatch Bharat Mission.

Containment Based on sample household survey, KIIs and FGDs with relevant stakeholders it is estimated that entire population is dependent on the On-site Sanitation Systems (OSS) (Field Observation; KII-1, 2020; FGD-1). The containment systems prevalent in the city are Fully Lined Tank (FLT) connected to open drain or storm sewer (T1A3C6, 65%), Septic Tank (ST) connected to open drain or storm sewer (T1A2C6, 30%), Lined pit with semi-permeable walls and open bottom (T1A5C10, 3%) and Unlined pits (T1A6C10, 2%) (Field Observation and Previous SFD).The general size of STs and FLTs varies from 6 ft * 2 ft * 6 ft to 12 ft * 6 ft * 10 ft, depending upon the household size, income level, community, institution etc. (Field Observation). Based on the size, the construction cost varies from INR 10 K to INR 50 K (USD 136.10 to USD 680.441) (Field Observation). The septic tanks are two or three chambered with proper partition walls including plastered bottom whereas the FLTs are single or multi chambered with impermeable walls with design not meeting the BIS code standards. On field it was observed that significant number of populations along with masons are not well equipped with the knowledge of standard definition and dimension of septic tank (Field Observation).

ST with 2 chambers found in Shiv Colony, half of which Square shape FLT found in Barkhedwa ward with 2 is inside the house and half is outside for emptying chambers (Abhishek/CSE, 2020) (Abhishek/CSE, 2020)

Community Toilets/Public Toilets There are 6 PTs and 3 CTs spread in entire city of Lakhimpur which have ST connected to open drain (Field Observation; KII-2,2020). One out three CT’s tank was found connected directly to a water body (Field

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observation). The average size of septic tanks in community toilet is 12 x 6 x 10 ft which are desludged every 3-4 month (Field Observation; KII-1, 2020). The average size of septic tanks in public toilet is 12 x 6 x 10 ft which are desludged in 3 -4 month (Field Observation; KII-10, 2020). The commercial buildings including Schools, Government Offices, Market Buildings, etc. have ST in their premises as containment system (Field Observation; KII-7, 2020). One school was found with fully lined tanks whose outlet was directly connected to the open drain (Nullah), the strength of that was school was 1280 and has not performed emptying from last 12-15 years (Field Observation; KII-12, 2020).

CT’s tank connected to open water body (Abhishek/CSE, 2020)

As per 2011 census, 10 % of the population was defecating in open. However, under the Swachh Bharat Mission, Public Toilets (PT) / Community Toilets (CT) and Individual Household Latrines have been constructed which has resulted in the city achieving ODF status. However, during the field visits instances of Open Defecation was observed near settlements belonging to citizens of low income. In the survey it was found that many CTs/PTs during the visit the entrance door for women toilets were closed (Field Observation). As well as one PT under SBM which was inside the District Magistrate Office was charging fee of INR 5 for using the toilet facility (Field Observation).

Emptying The city has both Government and Private operated mechanised desludging service for emptying faecal sludge from onsite sanitation systems (Field Observation; FGD-2, 2020; KII-8, 9 and 11, 2020). The emptying frequency varies from 6 months to even 10 years (demand based) across the city depending upon the nature and the size of containment system (FGD-2, 2020). During field visits, it has been observed that a significant proportion of population has never emptied their containment systems from a decade and a half, indicating a need for better IEC intervention and city level scheduled desludging plan. For the purpose of SFD preparation, Septic Tanks with duration of desludging more than 5 years are being considered as not emptied, and Fully Lined Tank with emptying frequency more than 8 years are being considered as not emptied. There are total 2 government tractor based vacuum tankers and 2 private tractor based vacuum tankers plying in the city (FGD-2, 2020). Each of these vacuum tankers are equipped with motorised pumps

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and have a storage capacity of 5000 L and 1400 L respectively. In order to carry out the work in narrow and congested areas, these vehicles are equipped with ~120 ft long hose (KII-11, 2020).

Form are filled by the households at the time of emptying service for record keeping by Urban Local Body (ULB) (FGD-2, 2020). Emptying service is carried out by 3 workers and charges are different for both the operators; ULB is charging INR 800/ trip (USD 10.89) and Private operators are charging INR 1100/ trip (USD 14.97) (FGD-2, 2020). The desludging services for the public and community toilets is carried out periodically by the ULB’s service providers and hence free of cost (KII-10, 2020). The desludging vehicles are maintained properly by ULB at the designated depot for all the municipal vehicles (Field Observation). The municipal workers are provided with Personal Protective Equipments (PPEs) which they partially use it while emptying (Field Observation, FGD-2, 2020). Manual emptying was not found anywhere in the city, the entire emptying is fully mechanised with zero contact of human with the desludged material.

Transportation The emptied septage is transported through the tractor mounted vacuum tankers. The average time taken to dispose emptied septage is around ~20 minutes (Field Observation; FGD-2, 2020). Around 2 to 3 trips per week are made by each vehicle (FGD-2, 2020). The faecal sludge (FS) emptied by vacuum tankers is discharged in the open field designated outside the city at Majra farm (Field Observation, FGD-2, 2020). While, during a visit of a desludging site it was found that emptied material was dumped inside the city unofficially near Rajapur crossing (Field Observation, FGD-3, 2020).

Treatment/Disposal The Lakhimpur has no operational Sewage Treatment Plant or Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant (FSTP) as of now (Field Observation). Currently, an FSTP is under construction which is located near Majra farm 15 km outside the city and near the Ull River (DPR, KII- 4 and 5, 2020). Construction of this FSTP started in the beginning of 2020 and has completed 25% of its construction (KII-5, 2020). Estimated date of its completion and operation is January, 2021 which might get affected due to ongoing pandemic (KII-6, 2020).

9. INNOVATIVE WATER SMART SOLUTIONS OR STRATEGIES PROPOSED The SFD report that will be generated at the end of this exercise will present the service delivery context of the city and the data sources used for the assessment. Fate of excreta produced by populations across the globe is often poorly understood. SFD of the Lakhimpur city will show how it is or is not managed as it moves from defecation to disposal or end-use. In view of this, the following solutions are proposed: • An open drainage system discharging grey- and blackwater can be a serious health hazard. As a first step of improvement the water flowing in the drains should be carefully controlled. • Sewerage Network from Offsite Sanitation as well as ST and FLT from Onsite Sanitation should be looked at more in detail. • It might be necessary to check the design capacity of certain drains in the areas with low gradients, e. g. in the main market, to ensure appropriate drainage of heavy rains.

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• Damaged drains should be repaired as quickly as possible to hinder further damage and health risk and the above-mentioned hot spots need to be tended so that the city moves from defecation to disposal or end-use. • There is no FSTP in the city. Construction of a FSTP should be done as earliest as possible to limit the ongoing ground water contamination.

10. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure: Contexted adapted SFD Graphic for Lakhimpur

11. ACHIEVEMENTS, LEARNINGS AND OUTCOMES Census 2011 was considered as the baseline and the data for all the stages of the sanitation chain were updated based on the data collected from the field through KII, FGDs, observations, secondary data collected from relevant stakeholders. The following are the outcomes for developing the SFD: • The volume of wastewater generated is 80% of water supplied • 50% of the contents of Septic tanks and the Fully lined tank is Faecal sludge • The proportion of OSS emptied is considered as 70% with an average desludging frequency of 3-4 years • Floating population is taken as 5% of total population

12. CONCLUSION Following assumptions were made for developing the SFD for Lakhimpur. For preparation of SFD it is assumed that 50% of the contents of Septic tanks and Fully lined tank is faecal sludge. The SFD report generated at the end of this exercise presents the service delivery context of the city and the data sources used for the assessment. SFD of the Lakhimpur city shows how excreta is or is not managed as it moves from defecation to disposal or end-use. It shows that 50% of the proportion of the content of the septic tank which is solid FS, generated and collected inside the septic tanks. 48% of the content is supernatant

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which attributes to the population flows through open drains hence, not contained. The solid FS collected in the septic tank is considered to be contained and hence 5% of FS is contained (represented green in colour at containment stage). The supernatant generated from the septic tank connected to open drain is not contained and hence considered to be unsafely managed (represented red in color).

13. CONSTRAINTS OR CHALLENGES There were three major challenges to develop the SFD. Census and published/unpublished reports were not able to provide (i) Up-to-date data on containment (ii) Detailed typology of containment and (iii) Actual information about FSM services provided to households.

Thus, Primary data collection from relevant stakeholders in Municipality, Households/ commercial/ institutional surveys, Key informant interviews, Focal group discussions etc. was the most difficult part of this 3 months journey.

14. WAY FORWARD As a way forward, Contexted adapted SFD Graphic is suggested for correctly designed septic tanks, though connected to open drains at containment stage. With an earlier assumption of 50% of the proportion of the content of the septic tank which is solid FS, generated and collected inside the septic tanks. 48% of the content is supernatant which attributes to the population flows through open drains hence, not contained. The solid FS collected in the septic tank is considered to be contained and hence 5% of FS is contained (represented green in colour at containment stage). The supernatant generated from the septic tank connected to open drain is not contained and hence considered to be unsafely managed (represented red in colour). Overall, excreta of 95% population is not managed according to the context adapted SFD.

15. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Reports and literature • District Census Handbook 2011 for Lakhimpur (Houses and household amenities and assets table HH-08: percentage of households by availability of the type of Latrine Facility http://censusindia.gov.in/DigitalLibrary/MFTableSeries.aspx • District Census Handbook 2011 (Population Census Abstract Data Table (India & State/UTs- Town/Village/Ward Level) http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/population_enumeration.html • IHHL, SBM data, Lakhimpur, Uttar Pradesh (2019-2020) • ULB Data (2019) • Service Level Improvement Plan, AMRUT Mission, Lakhimpur Nagar Palika • MoSJE. 2014. The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 [18th September, 2013]. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment

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• MoUD. 2017. National Policy on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management. Ministry of Urban Development • MoUD. 2014. Guidelines for Swachh Bharat Mission.: Ministry of Urban Development. Government of India • MoUD. 2013. Septage Management in Urban India. Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India • Detailed Project Report of FSTP, Jal Nigam, Lakhimpur, Uttar Pradesh • ODF and ODF+ Certificate (2019) • Assessment of Excreta Management: SFD factsheets for 66 cities in Uttar Pradesh (2018) • Katrina, B. (2016) (PDF) Shit Flow Diagram Report for Hanoi, Vietnam . Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304495147_Shit_Flow_Diagram_Report_for_Hanoi_Vie tnam (Accessed: 22 September 2020). • Lawrence, A. R. et al. (2001) Guidelines for Assessing the Risk to Groundwater from On-Site Sanitation . • Mara and Evans (2018) ‘This is a repository copy of The sanitation and hygiene targets of the sustainable development goals: scope and challenges’. doi: 10.2166/washdev.2017.048. • Peal, A. et al. (2014) ‘Fecal sludge management (FSM): Analytical tools for assessing FSM in cities’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development . IWA Publishing, pp. 371–383. doi: 10.2166/washdev.2014.139. • Centre for Science Environment (2018). Centre for Science and Environment . Available online at: https://www.cseindia.org (accessed November 20, 2018). • SFD-PI (2018a). SFD Manual, Volumes 1 and 2, Version 2.0 . Available online at: https://sfd.susana.org/knowledge/the-sfd-manual (accessed November 20, 2018). • SFD-PI (2018c). SFDs Worldwide . Available online at: https://sfd.susana.org/about/worldwide- projects (accessed November 20, 2018). • https://www.cseindia.org/page/directors-cse • https://sfd.susana.org/component/sfd/cities?Itemid=231

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2.0 PROJECT: DECENTRALISED WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT AND LOCAL REUSE by PREETHI VASUDEVAN Fellowship Theme: Water Policy and Governance

PREETHI VASUDEVAN M Tech Water Resource Engineering and Management Department of Regional Water Studies TERI School of Advanced Studies

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BCR : Benefit to Cost Ratio CAMUS-NBT : Continuous Advanced Multi-stage using Nature-Based Technology DEWATS : Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System KLD : Kilo Litre per Day MoEFCC : Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change NGT : National Green Tribunal NPV : Net Present Value SBT : Soil Bio Technology STP : Sewage Treatment Plant SWAB : Scientific Wetland with Activated Biodigester

LIST OF DEFINITION

Centralized/ conventional wastewater treatment: Centralized wastewater treatment systems are the traditional large-scale sewage treatment plants where the wastewater is transported for long distances. This is usually done at a city level.

Decentralized wastewater treatment: Decentralized wastewater treatment involves treating the wastewater near the source. This is usually done at an individual or a community level.

On-site wastewater treatment: On-site wastewater treatment is treating the wastewater at the source of generations by the use of septic tanks, pit latrines, etc. This is usually done at an individual level where there is no connection to a centralized system.

Net Present Value: The difference between the present value of the cash inflows and the present value of the cash outflows over a time period. This method is used to analyse the profitability of an investment.

Benefit to Cost Ratio: It is the ratio of the benefits of a project relative to its costs. It is used in a cost- benefit analysis to summarise the relationship between relative costs and the benefits of an investment.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Sustainable Development Goal number 6 “Clean water and sanitation” ensures the availability and sustainable management of clean water and sanitation for everyone. Sanitation is an important aspect of water management that is still developing. Water security in the traditional sense in an urban landscape cannot be achieved without proper wastewater management.

Centralized systems over the years have proved ineffective in combating the sanitation issue in Indian cities. Since the start of the century, decentralized systems have been entering the Indian scenario and have made much headway in connecting unsewered areas to a sanitation system. One way to ensure proper sanitation throughout the country is through the combination of centralized and decentralized systems.

Nature-based decentralized systems utilise lesser energy, have low footprint and mimics natural processes for the treatment of wastewater. It is preferred for the ‘natural’ treatment it provides which has a minimal impact on the environment.

The most financially viable treatment system might not be the best for a particular scenario. The treatment is chosen based on multiple factors like the wastewater characteristics, reuse requirement, regional and weather conditions, capital available, area available, scale of service, etc. Though a SWAB system is the most financially viable, it does not make sense to install it in a site with no open space. Similarly, a CAMUS-NBT system though has high returns is not suitable for a small- scale individual setup as the minimum capacity available is 10 KLD.

The users of the reviewed systems are generally content with the performance of the installed nature-based systems. The treated water is reused for non-potable purposes. Though there is a need for knowledge and awareness among the users on water quality testing.

This project looks into the various nature-based de-centralized systems, the financial investment required to set up these systems and the user’s acceptance towards these systems. Another important aspect of treating wastewater is reusing the treated water so as to minimise the consumption of freshwater. The study also looks into how the treated wastewater is reused in the urban context.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT Water is essential for survival. But usage of water produces wastewater; thereby making them two sides of the same coin. Since water is in-disposable to life, to maintain water security and a hygienic healthy environment, it becomes instrumental to treat the generated wastewater. (Amador and Loomis, 2019) 70% of the freshwater sources around the world is in some way polluted due to human activities. The pollution is even more widespread in developing countries where untreated wastewater is disposed into water bodies even though some of the sources are used for potable purposes. (Afzal et al. , 2019).

India has traditionally focussed on the implementation of centralized systems for wastewater treatments. Conventional treatments are resource, capital and energy intensive. (Matto et al. , 2014) Centralized systems have not achieved 100% coverage in the cities, also leaving out peri-urban and rural areas. Decentralized systems treat the water close to the source and places the emphasis on reuse of the treated water. On-site sanitation systems like septic tanks are also a kind of basic decentralized systems. Septic tanks remove up to 50% of organic load in a temperate climate like India but is not very effective in terms of pathogen reduction post treatment. (Capodaglio et al. , 2017).

Nature based decentralized systems act as an alternate to centralized or conventional wastewater treatment systems and can reach small rural or peri-urban communities apart from having a lower footprint than conventional mechanized systems. They transport the wastewater to a lesser distance and allows for a more natural water-use cycle. They often use lesser energy, have simple operation with lower capital and maintenance cost when compared than centralized conventional systems. (Garfí, Flores and Ferrer, 2017)

Decentralized systems are more appropriate in urban cities of India where there is a heterogenous distribution of communities of different sizes and demographics. But they ultimately need to be designed and maintained properly for optimal results. They are less suitable in highly dense localities. Hence, decentralized systems are not meant to overtake centralized systems but rather work in combination with them in order to ensure maximum wastewater is treated and reused. They can be especially useful in case of new developments like complexes, hospitals where the treated wastewater could be used effectively. (Capodaglio et al. , 2017)

The space required for a decentralized system is much more than a centralized system, but the required space is distributed rather than a single large space. Decentralization may increase the resilience of the system as it splits the risk of system failure among multiple small systems. (Jung, Narayanan and Cheng, 2018)

To reduce the load on the environment from untreated wastewater, wastewater as a resource needs to be explored. The resource potential of wastewater should be utilized instead of disposing it as a waste. This requires a paradigm shift in how we look at waste, to go from a use and dispose approach to a circular

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approach. (Kumar, Jain and Neog, 2016) A stronger emphasis on the reuse of wastewater needs to be brought. The resources that can be derived out of a wastewater are biogas, fertilizer from nutrients and the reclaimed water.

Irrigation has been the most common reuse option worldwide for treated wastewater. Apart from irrigation, reclaimed water is also used for other non-potable activities. To achieve a greater level of wastewater reuse, the social issues surrounding it needs to be addressed.

Centralized systems have already been accepted by people as the default system to treat wastewater. The fact that a continuous treatment process is ongoing does not affect them. In case of a decentralized system, the local people are in charge of maintenance. Which they often prefer not to be. Hence, for the success of a decentralized system, more awareness, public acceptance, local stakeholder involvement and participation is required. (Capodaglio et al. , 2017) Public perception is an important factor which decides the success of a wastewater reuse project. The trust of the public must be gained by the implementers of the project by delivering consistent results. (Tchobanogious et al. , 2004)

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT Centralized sanitation systems do not reach the entire city/ town. Areas without a sewer connection end up polluting river systems, lakes or ground water. Decentralized wastewater treatments are a more approachable way of ensuring safe sanitation in areas where there is no connection to the sewerage system. Decentralized wastewater treatment systems treat the wastewater close to the source and emphasis is on wastewater reuse. There is an apprehension among common people that having a wastewater treatment plant in their vicinity will cause them health or nuisance issues. This apprehension is challenged by the fact that there are multiple decentralized wastewater treatment systems successfully operational in many parts of the country without any issues. Bringing together the best of these practices will be beneficial in capacity and awareness building among individuals and communities. Analysing the perception of the general public on these technologies will assist in developing solutions to overcome any limiting factors.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW Sanitation in India is largely under-developed with only major cities having established sewerage systems. Rest of the areas are largely dependent on on-site sanitation systems. (Kazmi and Furumai, 2005). Rural – Mostly dependent on on-site sanitation systems. Like pit latrines, septic tanks. Lack of capacity building in masons. They do not follow the standards required for proper onsite treatment and are at a risk of contaminating the soil and water. Faecal sludge let into water bodies or land without treatment. Lack of awareness on cleaning of systems. Rules on prohibition of manual scavenging. (Govt of Maharashtra, no date)

Urban – Largely not connected to sewerage systems. Sewage Treatment Plant (STPs) remain underutilized. Cites with a sewerage system are also not covered fully; the uncovered areas are dependent on on-site

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systems. Large part of the collected sewerage is untreated and let into rivers/ water bodies. Most of the STPs in the cities are running under-utilized. (Parkinson and Tayler, 2003; Kazmi and Furumai, 2005) Only 40% of the urban population are connected to centralized sewage systems. The remaining 60% depend on on-site sanitation systems. (CPHEEO, 2020). Sanitation is a State subject and on-ground implementation and sustenance of public health and environmental outcomes requires strong city level institutions and stakeholders.

The focus has mostly been on to improve centralized systems for treatment. But decentralized systems for treatment of wastewater has more benefits than a centralized system. In decentralized approach, the treatment of sewage takes place near the generation. Decentralized systems transport the wastewater to a lesser distance and allows for a more natural water-use cycle apart from offering an increased opportunity of wastewater re-use. Centralized systems have been often poor at reaching peri-urban, newly expanding parts of a city and slum areas. (World Bank, 2013; Capodaglio, 2017; Capodaglio et al. , 2017) Both the centralized and decentralized systems need to work in parallel in a city to ensure safe and maximum sanitation coverage.

The environmental impact of a centralized or a conventional treatment plant is much higher than that of a nature-based decentralized treatment plant. Decentralized plants are more environment friendly apart from being less expensive. (Garfí, Flores and Ferrer, 2017) When efficiently designed, a decentralized system be operational even in very cold conditions like that prevalent in the Baltic Sea area. (Capodaglio et al. , 2017)

Centralized systems involve huge capital and operational expenditure, heavy and long infrastructure and huge skilled manpower to operate. Installation of infrastructure in itself has an environmental impact. Decentralized systems also require infrastructure but since are located near the source itself, they are not as extensive as centralized systems. These systems also have a lower investment, and are often easily operatable.

Conventional systems rely heavily on non-renewable sources of energy for their continued operation. Whereas nature-based system relies on using the gravity-flow and try to minimize the use of pumps. Additionally, few technologies have the capacity to produce energy through the formation of biogas. (Ko et al., 2004; Capodaglio et al., 2017)

The resource potential of wastewater should be explored and utilized instead of looking at it as a waste. A paradigm shift is much needed, to go from a use and dispose approach to a circular approach where instead of disposing the wastewater, it is treated and reused. (Kumar, Jain and Neog, 2016) A stronger emphasis on the reuse of wastewater needs to be brought. Resource recovery from wastewater has a huge potential. Resources that can be derived from wastewater include biogas, fertilizers or manure, and the reclaimed water.

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Irrigation has been the most common reuse option worldwide for treated wastewater. Apart from irrigation, reclaimed water is also used for other non-potable activities. To achieve a greater level of wastewater reuse, the social issues surrounding it needs to be addressed. Public perception is an important factor which decides the success of a wastewater reuse project. The trust of the public must be gained by the implementers of the project by delivering consistent results. (Tchobanogious et al. , 2004)

4. PROJECT LOCATION The project focuses on the implementations of the wastewater treatment technologies across India. Sanitation is still a developing sector in India. Only 40% of the urban population in India are connected to centralized sewage systems. The remaining 60% depend on on-site sanitation systems. (CPHEEO, 2020)

The case studies that are part of the study are from different regions of the country thus incorporating the weather and regional differences. The following installations were considered for the study – • Bawana Gogha Drain, Bawana, Delhi • Rajokri pond, Rajokri, Delhi • Oasis Valleys, Chanod, Vadodara, Gujarat • Jewel Consumer Care, Luna, Vadodara, Gujarat • Madhya Pradesh Police Houseing Complex, Rewa, Madhya Pradesh • Community toilet complex, Musiri, Trichy, Tamil Nadu

Source - Prepared in ArcGIS 5. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS • To study the applicability of various decentralized wastewater treatment technologies and local reuse in an urban context • To analyse the cost - area requirement for various decentralized technologies • To study the acceptance of the treatment technologies implemented across India

6. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY The data for the decentralied wastewater treatment technology and local reuse study will be collected from secondary data – data from secondary literature, websites of the technology implementers, case studies, etc. The data collected will then be reviewed. The technologies considered for the study are as follows: • Scientific Wetland with Active Biodigester (SWAB) – Constructed wetlands • Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System (DEWATS)

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• Continuous Advanced MultiStage using Nature Based-Technology (CAMUS-NBT) – Soil Bio technology • Tiger bio-filter • Trans bio-filter These technologies were chosen as they have a low footprint, partly or completely nature-based and has the capacity to be scaled up.

The data for the cost and area analysis study was collected directly from the implementers of the above- mentioned technologies. A questionnaire was designed which contained questions on the capital cost, operation and maintenance cost, area required, reuse limitations, etc. The questionnaire was designed to obtain the cost structure for a 1 KLD system. Thirteen technology providers were contacted in total for data collection, out of which five responses were obtained, one for each technology.

The obtained data was analysed using quantitative methods. Cost Benefit analysis and Net Present Value analysis were carried out on the costing figures to estimate the financially better option.

Technology providers Technology Implementer SWAB Department of Irrigation & Flood Control, Govt. of NCT of Delhi DEWATS Hunnarshala Foundation CAMUS -NBT Vision Earth Care Tiger bio -filter TBF Environmental Solutions Pvt Ltd Trans bio -filter Transchem Agritech Pvt Ltd

Data collection and analysis for acceptance study The data for the acceptance study was collected from the users/ caretakers/ operators of the decentralized wastewater treatment system installations. An acceptance study questionnaire was designed containing questions on the functioning, and general people’s perception of the system. Ten case studies were considered for the study, out of which six responses have been recorded. The obtained data was analysed quantitatively and qualitatively.

Case studies Technology Case Study Location SWAB Bawana Gogha Drain, Bawana, Delhi SWAB Rajokri pond, Rajokri, Delhi Trans Bio filter Oasis Valleys, Chanod, Vadodara, Gujarat Trans Bio filter Jewel Consumer Care, Luna, Vadodara, Gujarat DEWATS Madhya Pradesh Police Houseing Complex, Rewa, Madhya Pradesh DEWATS Community toilet complex, Musiri, Trichy, Tamil Nadu

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7. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT August 27, 2020 to October 20, 2020

Innovative Water Smart solutions and strategies A cost-analysis study on the available nature-based technologies will be a useful tool for decision makers and common public alike. It is important to know what different technologies offer before a decision is made. Different technologies are suitable for different scenarios, and a study on the financial aspects will aid in making the best possible investment for a community level treatment system or an individual level system. The information gathered will also add to the already existing repository of case studies across India. The success of any technology is ultimately decided by the users of the system. Hence, analysing the acceptance of various treatment technology is important in order to further build on the shortcomings.

8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Scientific Wetland with Activated Bio-digester (SWAB) – Constructed Wetlands An extension of constructed wetlands, SWAB technology is offered by the Department of Irrigation and Flood Control, New Delhi. They have installed model treatment plants at Rajokri and Bawana.

Source - (Tilley et al. , 2008)

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It is a nature-based technology that relies on a filter bed with plants for the treatment. A constructed wetland aims to treat wastewater by mimicking the natural wetlands. The system consists of a filter bed covered with gravel with soil, naturally occurring microbes and wetland plants. Various wetland plants like canna indica, phragmites australis, etc are used.

The roots of the plants, microbes and the filter material act as a filter. When the water enters the filter bed, it slows down and the sedimentation of any settleable solids take place. The water then has a sub-surface flow in the filter bed. The microbes present in the bed and the roots of the plants naturally degrade the nutrients present in the wastewater. The UV radiation from the sun helps with the removal of pathogen. A combination of aerobic and anaerobic degradation take place in the filter bed.

The constructed wetland system can by accompanied by a bio-digester or a baffled chamber as the first step in the treatment process. In case of a bio-digester, anaerobic degradation takes place resulting in the formation of biogas. The constructed wetland system is used as a secondary or a tertiary treatment system. It can be connected to other processes in order to treat the water to a greater extent.

Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System (DEWATS) DEWATS technology is offered by Hunnarshala foundation. It combines several decentralized treatment modules. DEWATS are based on the principle of decentralization. It is a cluster type system having combined technologies in order to provide all three levels of treatment. The modules in each treatment step can be customised according to the requirements.

Primary treatment Primary treatment is mainly sedimentation to remove suspended solids and floating organic matter. • Settler/ Septic tank • Bio-digester

Secondary treatment Secondary treatment is biological treatment to further degrade the organic matter. Both anaerobic and aerobic processes can occur. • Anaerobic Baffled Reactor • Anaerobic Filter • Constructed wetlands

Tertiary treatments Tertiary treatment is done to remove pathogens and disinfect the water before use. • Polishing ponds Source - (BORDA, 2017) • Floating wetlands • Vortex

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The system makes maximum utilization of the gravity flow and has less pumps. Most of the infrastructure can be built underground, hence reducing the space requirements.

Continuous Advanced Multi-stage using Nature Based-Technology (CAMUS-NBT) - Soil Bio Technology CAMUS-NBT is a patented technology offered by Vision Earthcare that is based on the soil bio technology. SBT is based on the principle of trickling filter. The main bioreactor/bio-mound of the system contains a culture containing native micro-flora, bio-indicator plants and a suitable mineral constitution comprising of media, bio-culture and additives. The wastewater is sprinkled on top of the bio-reactor, the wastewater travels vertically down the reactor like in the case of a trickling filter. The media that comes into contact with the water droplets aids in the removal of pollutants through adsorption, absorption, sedimentation and other biochemical processes.

Source - (Soil BioTechnology - sugam.in , 2020)

Tiger Bio Filter Tiger Bio filter is a patented technology offered by TBF Environmental Solutions. The bio-filter is a bed comprising of bio media and earthworms that treat the wastewater. The treatment plant comprises of other modules before the bio-filter like the grit chamber and the sewage sump. The sewage sump acts as a primary treatment where sedimentation occurs.

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Source - (The Tiger Biofilter , 2020)

The bio-filter is the secondary treatment. The wastewater is sprinkled on top of the bio-filter which creates a tricking down effect of the water droplets. The earthworms consume the trapped organic matter which it uses for metabolism and reproduction. An option tertiary treatment can be installed, an activated carbon filter and chlorination. The system can be made highly modular so as to occupy less space. Vermi-compost can be obtained as a by-product of this process.

Trans Bio Filter The Trans Bio filter is a technology offered by Transchem Agritech. The trans bio filter is based on vermi-filteration. The bio-filter is a bed of organic material that supports hybrid earthworms and microbes. The organic matter is broken down by the earthworms and microbes which is then consumed by them. The bio-filter bed also contains a media that aids in the removal of toxic matter by adsorption and filtration. The treated water is further treated up to the required quality standards. The system also produces a rich bio-fertilizer. Source - (Transchem , 2020)

9. REUSE The National Green Tribunal (NGT) 2019 guidelines and Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate change (MoEFCC) 2017 guidelines for treated wastewater disposal are given below. The standards are for disposal into water or land. (Bhaskar Tatwawadi Tuspl, 2017; NGT STP discharge Standards , 2019)

Table: Wastewater quality standards Parameter NGT MoEFCC SWAB DEWATS CAMUS -NBT Tiger Bio filter Trans Bio filter BOD 10 20 -30 <=10 As per <=10 5 - 40 <=30 (mg/L) norms COD 50 <=50 <=50 <=100 (mg/L) TSS (mg/L) 20 50 <=20 <=10 <30

The reuse of the treated water is dependent on the outlet quality of water. Rather, the treatment is designed in such a way that the water fits the reuse criteria required. It is recommended that the BOD be less than 10 mg/L, nil TSS, turbidity less than 2NTU, no colour and no foul odor for any non-potable reuse of water like toilet flushing, vehicle washing, horticulture and for fire protection. (Bhaskar Tatwawadi Tuspl, 2017) To achieve the required quality, additional filtration systems might be used.

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Limitations Region and weather conditions play a role in how a treatment process works. For some technologies, more area and bigger infrastructure might be required to handle the same load in colder regions. The trans bio filter has been proven to work in extreme weather conditions whereas, the treatment process that occurs underground in the case of SWAB remains unaffected in all weather conditions. The tiger bio filter and DEWATS system require a tropical climate. The design of a DEWATS will be much larger in a colder region. The same is in the case of CAMUS-NBT which requires the water temperature to be >16C. The plant size increases in case of colder regions.

Cost – Area analysis The cost required to set up a 1 KLD system obtained from the implementers does not include Capital cost 1KLD the cost of the land and excavation costs as it is

dependent on the land. The cost is for a basic 200000 system setup, excluding taxes. 150000 CAMUS-NBT (SBT technology offered by Vision 100000 Earth Care) can only accommodate capacities Rs. higher than 10 KLD, hence is not part of some of 50000

the cost comparisons. The cost of setting up a 10 0 KLD CAMUS-NBT system is around Rs. 4.8 lakhs. Trans bio filter SWAB Tiger bio filter DEWAT The SWAB system has the lowest cost of setup of a 1 KLD system at Rs. 13,000 and the trans bio-filter has the highest cost of setup at Rs. 2 lakhs.

The cost per KLD decreases as the capacity increases for all the technologies considered. The bigger the project size, the lesser the cost per KLD. This would imply that it is more beneficial to set up a system for a community or a neighbourhood rather than a system in each household. But there needs to be an initiative at the neighbourhood level or by the government to set up a system. The operation and maintenance costs used here do not include the salary of any caretakers, it is O&M cost 1 KLD/yr the cost incurred in maintenance activities carried 7000 out through the year. Maintenance activities in 6000 most systems are undertaken bi-annually, every 5000 six months. 4000

Rs. 3000 The system with the lowest operation and 2000 maintenance cost is the DEWATS system while 1000 the highest operation and maintenance cost 0

system in the tiger bio filter. The trans bio filter Trans bio filter SWAB Tiger bio filter DEWAT with the highest capital cost has a lesser operation and maintenance cost at Rs. 4000.

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The CAMUS-NBT system requires Rs. 30,000 per year for the maintenance of a 10 KLD system. The DEWATS system requires more space than other technologies due to the expensive number of modules that are requires. The tiger bio filter in which a modular system is also possible occupies the least space for a 1 KLD system. The SWAB system though requires less space needs an open space to be set up. The CAMUS-NBT system also requires very less space, around 1 sq m for set up of a 10 KLD system.

Area required 1KLD Avg system lifetime 40 DEWAT 30 Tiger bio filter 20 SWAB Years Trans bio filter 10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 Trans bio filter SWAB Tiger bio filter Sq m SBT DEWAT

Most of the systems have some amount of civil work and concrete structures as part of the system which have a long lifetime. SWAB system has the longest average lifetime with 35 years. The trans bio filter needs to be replaced every ten years whereas the tiger bio filter needs replacement every 15 years. The SWAB, DEWATS and CAMUS-NBT system have good lifetime due to the concrete structures in their design. The systems might need any replacements/ repairs of certain modules or components even within the lifetime.

Cost analysis Net Present Value (NPV) is the difference between the present value of cash inflow and present value of cash outflows over a period of time. The Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) is a ratio used in a cost-benefit analysis relating the costs and benefits of a project. The NPV and BCR incremental analysis methods were used to estimate the better financial investment among the technologies.

A time period of 30 years was considered with the discount rate value at 6%. In NPV method, apart from CAMUS-NBT all the other technologies were considered whereas in CBR method all the technologies were considered. The capital cost, the operation and maintenance cost every year, and the cost of repair/ replacement at the end of the lifetime were considered to be the cash outflow. The cost savings due to reuse of reclaimed water, and the cost of any other reclaimed resource such as biogas and fertilizer were considered to be the cash inflow. It was assumed that the systems attain a zero-scrap value at the end of their lifetime. Any additional costs have not been considered.

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According to the NPV analysis, the most financially viable option is the SWAB system with a NPV of Rs. 1,07,931.49. The CAMUS-NBT system will generate the highest benefits when compared to the costs associated according to the BCR incremental analysis.

The selection of a system should not be made only based on the financial cost associated with the system but rather also include site and scenario specific characteristics like wastewater load, wastewater characteristics, area available, etc. The SWAB system though among most financially viable requires open area for the setup which might not be available all the time. In case of lack of area, a modular system like tiger bio filter or trans bio filter will be beneficial. The decision should also be based on the regional considerations. Another factor to be considered is the available manpower for operation and maintenance. The scale of the plant also has a part to play, in case of a community level system, it is more viable to hire manpower for maintenance and upkeep whereas it is easier to get a less maintenance system in the case of an individual level system.

Acceptance analysis SWAB Bawana 2018 1000 KLD Rs. 180 lakhs Rs. 3.6 lakhs Industrial use, Irrigation, Rejuvenating lakes SWAB Rajokri 2018 600 KLD Rs. 77.15 lakhs Rs. 10k - 20k Groundwater recharge Trans Bio filter Chanod, 2015 30 KLD Rs. 8.0 lakhs Rs. 1.0 lakhs Irrigation/ Vadodara Horticulture Trans Bio filter Luna, Vadodara 2019 40 KLD Rs. 11 - 12 lakhs Rs. 50k - 60k Horticulture DEWATS Rewa 2019 200 KLD Approx. Rs. 1.2 None till now Irrigation/ crore Horticulture DEWATS Trichy 2006 5 KLD Rs. 5.1 lakhs Rs. 5000 Used for moisturising compost heaps

Odour issues

1

1

4

No Yes Requires periodic maintenance

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Public acceptance to a technology is one of the important aspects that determine the success of an implemented project. Two out of the six caretakers say that the system has odour issues but one of them also acknowledges that it is reduced with regular periodic maintenance. Odour is one among the important factors on which people form a perception about the system. People are less likely to continue with the same system when the lifetime expires in case the odour issue is a persistent one. None of the respondents reported the any algal growth in or near the system.

Frequent testing of water

2

4

Yes No

Overflow of the system during monsoon can indicate that the system receives a load that it is not designed for. This extra load also can affect the treatment process of the regular load. Specific design considerations need to be made depending on the location to divert rainwater away from the treatment system. Two of the systems experience an overflow during monsoons. Water quality tests determine the proper functioning of the system and can also help determine the consistent performance of the system. Besides, regular water quality tests are required to assess whether the treated water is fit for usage. Few of the establishments do not test frequently and one among them have not tested for years together. The authorities maintaining the system do not deem the necessity of testing the water quality. This shows us that there is much need for the education and awareness sessions for the stakeholders of the system.

Proper reuse of the reclaimed water is one of most important outcome of a decentralized wastewater treatment plant. Treated wastewater is generally used for non-potable purposes like irrigation of crops, horticulture, toilet flushing, ground water recharge, etc. All of the systems in the case study reuse the treated water thereby reducing their dependence on freshwater. Notable reuse applications include the water at Bawana Gogha drain being reused for industrial processes and rejuvenation of water bodies, the treated water at Rajokri being directed to a man-made lake in order to aid the groundwater recharge, treated water at the Trichy DEWATS being used to moisturize compost heaps. A few of the respondents have reported that the system suffers from choking in certain instances when there is plastic that comes in with the sewage. And a system failure due to any electric parts failure.

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A majority of the case studies considered were funded either by the government, or by a private institution/ company. The community did not have to spend on the capital or the operational cost. Hence, the project has been viable and affordable to these users where the funding was taken care of. One of the installations at a company acknowledge that the cost incurred if the groundwater is polluted by untreated sewage would be more than their current expenditure of spending on a treatment system. One installation which was handed over to the community to manage found that the capital cost was quite expensive. One of the respondents felt that the maintenance of the system is a very tedious process. One respondent said that even though there are issues in handling the system, they are happy with the overall functioning and the savings they are able to make on freshwater due to recycling. Most of the other respondents did not feel that there were any difficulties with respect to maintenance and usage of the system.

The perception of the common public and users of the system for all the cases have been good. People perceive that the systems are nature-based and green. They have accepted the treatment plants and reuse of the treated water. One of the respondents mentioned that the installed treatment plant has been instrumental in changing their employee’s and visitor’s views on sewage treatment plants. The lake in Rajokri which is filled with treated water was also used for Chath Puja by the local community. All of this indicate that majority of the people who interact with the system do not have apprehensions on the system or on the reuse of water for non-potable purposes.

Stakeholder involvement is an important aspect of the proper functioning of a system. Education and awareness on the issues surrounding wastewater is still required in order for the communities to come together to take action.

10. CONCLUSION The most appropriate technology is economically affordable, environmentally sustainable and socially acceptable. The technology for a scenario is simply not based on the financial costs associated with a technology, but is also dependent on the required performance, regional conditions, and characteristics of the wastewater. Inclusion of local cultural and sustainable practices and involvement of local people in the projects are also components of an environmentally sustainable design. (Massoud, Tarhini and Nasr, 2009; Capodaglio et al. , 2017) A careful decision has to be made while deciding on a treatment technology also considering the scale of implementation (Individual/Community/Institution).

Since the onus of maintenance in a decentralized system often falls on the community, the community needs to be empowered and, in a position to handle the financial aspects of the system. The local people should be provided access to resources and information necessary for sustainable wastewater management. (Massoud, Tarhini and Nasr, 2009) People need to be educated on the need for wastewater treatment and also on the need for continuous testing which seems to be lacking.

The decentralized systems can be setup individually or in institutions. But there is a need for government interventions for a community level setup. There needs to be an initiative and push from the government

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for large scale implementation and awareness building on decentralized wastewater treatments as they act as the potential bridges between on-site sanitation/ no sanitation and centralized sanitation systems.

Constraints or Challenges The process of data collection took more time than initial estimations which delayed the analysis process. The number of implementers and caretakers who responded were lesser than the expected number, therefore the study could not take into account the differences in cost estimates among different implementers of the same technology. Few technologies had to be omitted from the study due to lack of response from the implementers. Being unable to visit the sites also was a disadvantage as the data provided by the caretakers were not verified.

Way forward with Replicability and Scalability Focus Future studies can include more nature-based technologies and possibly more than one implementer for the same technology. This will give a wider perspective on the cost comparison. A more comprehensive questionnaire including details of the cost split up can be designed. Another aspect can be to focus on different capacities of the system and how the investment varies. More number of case studies can be included with an in-depth analysis on the functioning with site visits.

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY • Afzal, M. et al. (2019) ‘Floating treatment wetlands as a suitable option for large-scale wastewater treatment’, Nature Sustainability , 2(9), pp. 863–871. doi: 10.1038/s41893-019-0350-y. • Amador, J. A. and Loomis, G. W. (2019) ‘Soil-based Wastewater Treatment’. doi: 10.2134/sbwtreatment. • Bhaskar Tatwawadi Tuspl, C. (2017) Potable and Non-Potable Wastewater Reuse . • BORDA (2017) ‘DEWATS implementation by BORDA’, pp. 0–15. • Capodaglio, A. G. (2017) ‘Integrated, decentralized wastewater management for resource recovery in rural and peri-urban areas’, Resources , 6(2). doi: 10.3390/resources6020022. • Capodaglio, A. G. et al. (2017) ‘Sustainability of decentralized wastewater treatment technologies’, Water Practice and Technology , 12(2), pp. 463–477. doi: 10.2166/wpt.2017.055. • CPHEEO (2020) ‘on-Site and Off-Site Sewage Management Practices’, (June). • Garfí, M., Flores, L. and Ferrer, I. (2017) ‘Life Cycle Assessment of wastewater treatment systems for small communities: Activated sludge, constructed wetlands and high rate algal ponds’, Journal of Cleaner Production . Elsevier Ltd, 161, pp. 211–219. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.116. • Govt of Maharashtra (no date) ‘Faecal Sludge Management in Rural Areas Training Manual’. • Jung, Y. T., Narayanan, N. C. and Cheng, Y. L. (2018) ‘Cost comparison of centralized and decentralized wastewater management systems using optimization model’, Journal of Environmental Management . Elsevier Ltd, 213, pp. 90–97. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.01.081. • Kazmi, A. and Furumai, H. (2005) ‘Sustainable Urban Wastewater Management and Reuse in Asia.’, International Review for Environmental Strategies , 5(2), pp. 425–448. Available at:

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http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=18926590&site=ehost-live. • Ko, J. Y. et al. (2004) ‘A comparative evaluation of money-based and energy-based cost-benefit analyses of tertiary municipal wastewater treatment using forested wetlands vs. sand filtration in Louisiana’, Ecological Economics , 49(3), pp. 331–347. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.01.011. • Kumar, R. S., Jain, A. and Neog, K. (2016) ‘Circular Economy Pathways for Municipal Wastewater Management in India: A Practitioner’s Guide’, The 2030 Water Resource Group , (October), p. 24. Available at: https://www.2030wrg.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Circular-Economy-Pathways- India.pdf. • Massoud, M. A., Tarhini, A. and Nasr, J. A. (2009) ‘Decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management: Applicability in developing countries’, Journal of Environmental Management . Elsevier Ltd, 90(1), pp. 652–659. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.07.001. • Matto, M. et al. (2014) ‘Decentralised Wastewater treatment and reuse Case studies of implementation on different scale – community, institutional and individual building’, pp. 1–36. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-382182-9.00042-6. • Natural DEWATS Auroville (2020). Available at: http://www.green.aurovilleportal.org/waste/150- natural-dewats- (Accessed: 18 October 2020). • NGT STP discharge Standards (2019). • Parkinson, J. and Tayler, K. (2003) ‘Decentralized wastewater management in peri-urban areas in low- income countries’, Environment and Urbanization , 15(1), pp. 75–90. doi: 10.1630/095624703101286556. • Soil BioTechnology - sugam.in (2020). Available at: http://sugam.in/soilbiotechnology.html (Accessed: 17 October 2020). • Tchobanogious, G. et al. (2004) ‘Decentralized wastewater management: Challenges and opportunities for the twenty-first century’, Water Science and Technology: Water Supply , 4(1), pp. 95–102. doi: 10.2166/ws.2004.0011. • The Tiger Biofilter (2020). Available at: https://www.tbfenvironmental.in/the-tiger-biofilter.html (Accessed: 17 October 2020). • Tilley, E. et al. (2008) ‘Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies’, Development , p. 158. Available at: http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_sesp/downloads_ sesp/compendium_high.pdf. • Transchem (2020). Available at: http://transchem.in/bio-filter.html (Accessed: 17 October 2020). • World Bank (2013) ‘Review of Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems in Indonesia’, (June), pp. 1–32.

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3.0 PROJECT: DEVELOPING SHIT FLOW DIAGRAM (SFD) TO UNDERSTAND THE SANITATION STATUS OF THE DHARAMSHALA CITY BY SAIYAMI BHARDWAJ Fellowship Theme: Water Policy and Governance

SAIYAMI BHARDWAJ MSc Environmental Studies Department of Environmental Studies University of Delhi

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BGL Below Ground Level BIS Bureau of Indian Standard CDP City Development Plan CGWB Central Ground Water Board CPCB Central Pollution Control Board CSE Centre for Science and Environment CSP City Sanitation Plan EA Extended Aeration FS Faecal Sludge MCD Municipal Corporation of Dharamshala MoEF Ministry of Environment and Forest MoUD Ministry of Urban Development NGO Non-governmental Organization OP Oxidation Pond OSS On-site Sanitation System STP Sewage Treatment Plant SWM Solid Waste Management WTP Water Treatment Plant

LIST OF DEFINITIONS

Blackwater: A mixture of urine, feces, and flush water along with anus-cleansing water (if the water is used for cleansing), and dry cleansing materials used to clean the anus after defecation. Blackwater contains pathogens (of feces) and nutrients (of urine) that are diluted in the flush water. Desludging: The operation, performed by a licensed operator or trained sanitary workers, of removing FSS from the onsite sanitation system (OSS). Disposal: Transportation and discharge or transfer of FSS to notified locations. Effluent: The supernatant (liquid) discharged from an OSS. The liquid separated from the septage is also referred to as effluent. Fecal sludge: The settled contents of onsite sanitation systems. The characteristics of fecal sludge can differ widely from household to household, city to city, and country to country. The physical, chemical, and biological qualities of fecal sludge are influenced by the duration of storage, temperature, soil conditions, and the intrusion of groundwater or surface water into onsite sanitation systems, desludging technology, and pattern. Greywater: The total volume of water generated from washing food, clothes, and dishware, as well as from bathing, but not from toilets. It may contain traces of excreta and, therefore, also pathogens.

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Insanitary latrines: A latrine which requires human excreta to be cleaned or otherwise handled manually, either in situ or in an open drain or pit into which the excreta are discharged or flushed out before the excreta fully decomposes in such manner as may be prescribed. Provided that a water flush latrine, when cleaned by an emptier with the help of such devices and using such protective gear as notified in relevant guidelines is not to be deemed an insanitary latrine. Leach pit or soak pit: An underground pit that is used where there is no sewer and household wastewater is drained into them to permit leaching of the liquid into the surrounding soil. Night soil: Human excreta, with or without anal cleansing material, deposited into a bucket or other receptacle for manual removal. Pit latrine: A form of on-site sanitation with one or two pits for accumulation and decomposition of excreta from which liquid infiltrates into the surrounding soil. Sanitary latrine: A latrine which is not an insanitary latrine. Scum: Extraneous or impure matter like oil, hair, grease, and other light material that floats on the surface of a liquid in septic tanks. Septage: The fecal sludge desludged from a well-designed septic tank. Septic tank: A water-tight, onsite treatment system of domestic sewage, single-storied tank in which sanitary flow is retained long enough to permit sedimentation and digestion. Sewage: Wastewater transported through sewers. Sewers: Underground pipelines provided for the purposes of carrying liquid waste (wastewater) of a community. Transportation: Safe transfer of FSS through CNPP-registered vacuum tanker from the place of desludging to the notified location. Treatment: Any scientific method or process designed to alter the physical, chemical, or biological and radiological character or composition of FSS, sewage, and wastewater to reduce or prevent pollution. Vacuum tanker: It is a vehicle that has a pump and a tank, designed to pneumatically suck FSS from the OSS. These vehicles are also used to transport desludging FSS. Wastewater: Liquid effluent from domestic or commercial human activity including effluent from toilets, kitchen, and cleaning activity, which does not include effluent from manufacturing and industrial activity. Usually such effluent flows through stormwater drains, thus it includes stormwater as well.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Although sanitation legislation and regulations are available, enforcement is lacking. Wastewater is most often discharged into the environment directly, or through the open drainage system with practically no treatment processes in place. Until now no proper and satisfactory solution for wastewater management has been developed. Although a most individual or shared toilets are connected to septic tanks, these are hardly or badly maintained. This is mostly due to the lack of know-how. Therefore, a Sanitation (or Shit) Flow Diagram is required to present a clear picture of how excreta flows are managed within the city. Thus, mapping excreta of a city is increasingly used to analyze the sanitation in urban areas. It shows how excreta is or is not contained as it moves from defecation to disposal or end-use, and the fate of all excreta generated.

In Dharamshala the Sanitation Value Chain is based upon both Offsite as well as Onsite Sanitation System. Sanitation related work comes under the purview Irrigation and Public Health Department. 66% of the Containment system has relied upon Offsite Sanitation and 22% is dependent upon Onsite Sanitation System. The emptying stage is carried out by both Government and Private players with the help of vacuum-based motorized tankers and the collected material is transported to a designated site 10 km outside the city. As of now, the city has only one STP of capacity 5 MLD. SFD graphic generated after all data sampling and analysis shows that only about 48% of the total waste generated is safely managed and the remaining 52% is still needed to be managed.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT Although sanitation legislation and regulations are available, enforcement is lacking. Wastewater and fecal sludge are most often discharged into the environment directly, or through the open drainage system without any treatment processes in place. Until now, no proper and satisfactory solution for wastewater and fecal sludge management has been developed. Although a most individual or shared toilets are connected to septic tanks, these are hardly or badly maintained. This is mostly due to the lack of know- how. Therefore, a Sanitation (or Shit) Flow Diagram is required to present a clear picture of how excreta flows are managed within the city. Thus, mapping the excreta of a city is increasingly used to analyze the sanitation in urban areas. It shows how excreta is or is not contained as it moves from defecation to disposal or end-use, and the fate of all excreta generated.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT Non-compliance with standard sanitation systems in the Sanitation Service Chain can be the source of groundwater pollution , and any leakage or lack of proper management can allow the flow of contamination from the human excreta(Mara and Evans, 2018). SFD Report provides information on the institutional frameworks, roles and responsibilities, regulatory aspects, and other issues that directly or indirectly impact the provision of sustainable sanitation services. (Peal et al. , 2014) Also, under the Swachh Bharat Mission a lot of toilets were constructed including IHHL and Community / Public Toilets; due to this India has been declared Open Defecation Free. However, Challenges remain as to how the excreta generated from these toilets is managed. A significant data gap exists in the country in this regard. This study aims to study the excreta management of one of the cities i.e. Dharamshala using an SFD tool.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW According to the 2011 census, the population of the city was 22586 and the total no. of households (HH) was 7806 and spread across an area of 10.63 sq. km. The current population of the city is Census Year Population Growth Source 53543 and the total no. of households (HH) is Rate (%) 10992 which is divided into 17 election wards 1991 17493 - Census 2011 with an area of 27.6 sq. km. For the purpose 2001 19982 1.42 Census 2011 of SFD preparation, a population of 53543 2011 22586 1.30 Census 2011 has been considered for the preparation of Municipal SFD 2015 53543 13.70* Corporation of The city has a tropical climate with max Dharamshala temperature in summers of 27.1° C and min temperature in winter less than 9.9°C and an Population Growth rate Dharamshala City annual rainfall of about 2883 mm 2. The risk of groundwater contamination is low as the depth of the groundwater level is 1.56 - 15.44 mbgl.

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4. PROJECT LOCATION Dharamshala is a town situated in the foothills of the Himalayas in the District of Kangra in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India. Two distinct parts of Dharamshala are usually differentiated. Kotwali Bazaar and areas further down into the plains of the Kangra valley (at the average height of 1,250 meters) are called Lower Dharamshala, while McLeod Ganj (at the height of nearly 1,800 meters) and its surrounding areas on the hillsides are known as Upper Dharamsala. This document represents the project outline of the study, for which the fieldwork has been conducted in Dharamshala from August 2020 to October 2020.

5. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS The overall objective of the baseline study project is to provide information that facilitates participatory decision-making in planning for investments, in further project development and improvement of the day-to-day operational challenges for service delivery to the public in the field of water supply and sanitation. The main objectives are given below: • To collect relevant secondary data of the cities • To identify relevant stakeholders and conduct Key Informant Interviews ( KII ) and Focused Group Discussion ( FGD ) with them • To conduct random household surveys to collect relevant information on the ground • To document field observation through clicking good quality pictures • To develop an SFD graphic and SFD lite report

6. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY The main task of a baseline study is collecting various data and information. The variation of data types includes details of the prevalent containment system at the household level, sanitation situation, as well as understanding of the institutional set-up and socio-economic dynamics. The preparation phase of the study includes setting up a draft checklist of required data, identifying all stakeholders, and working out how they collect the relevant data. Most of the data will be collected through interviews with households, institutions, Municipal Corporation, district, or state authorities. Another source of information and data was obtained through direct observation and mapping techniques. The following tasks will be undertaken during this project:

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• To collect relevant secondary data and identify relevant stakeholders of the cities before the site visit. • To extensively travel within the designated city to collect relevant data using methodology recommended by SFD promotion initiative and discussed with the CSE team. • To conduct a random household survey to collect relevant, on-ground information. • To document field observations. • To analyze the collected data in the excel sheets. • To develop SFD graphics and develop SFD Lite report. • Write and publish the SFD lite report for the designated city in close coordination with CSE personnel.

7. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT S. No. Activities Timeline 1 Training of Trainees on the preparation of SFD by CSE July 27 - 29, 2020

2 Desk research & collection of secondary data Aug 7 – 9, 2020 3 Primary data collection - Site visit including data collection from Aug 10 – 16, 2020 relevant stakeholders in municipality, HH/commercial/institutional surveys, KII, FGDs, etc. 4 Data Analysis, Site Visit Report, and Submission of Bills Aug 16 – 17, 2020 5 Generation of SFD Graphic and SFD Lite Report Aug 17 – 23, 2020 6 Presentation of draft SFD and findings of the city to CSE team Aug 25, 2020 7 Finalization and submission of SFD graphic and factsheet Aug 27 – Aug 29, 2020 8 Draft SFD lite report Aug 31 – Sept 4, 2020 9 Final SFD lite report to be uploaded on SusSanA By Sept 18, 2020

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7. KEY FINDINGS SFD Matrix for Dharamshala

The overview of technologies and methods used for different sanitation systems through the sanitation service chain is as follows:

Offsite Systems The sewerage network has been laid in the city within the administrative boundary of Dharamshala with a total length of 72.8 km which accounts for 66% of the city’s population. Whereas 22% of the city’s population is dependent on On-site Containment Systems (OSS) includes a Septic tank and fully lined tank, whose outlet is connected to open drains (Field Observation; KII- 1, 2020; KII-2, 2020). The Department for Irrigation and Public Health (IPH) is responsible for the planning and construction of the sewerage system in the city.

There is 1 STP in the city with an installed treatment capacity of 5.15 MLD (KII-1, 5, 2020). The STP is based on UASBR technology. As per the current scenario, ~90% of the wastewater is reaching the STPs (W4a) considering the leakages from old defunct sewer lines which finds its way to either storm water drains or river. Presently, 4 MLD of wastewater is treated through STP out of a total 5 MLD capacity (KII-1,5,2020). Therefore, variable W5a is considered 81% in the SFD matrix. The treated wastewater from STP is discharged into nullahs/drains (KII-1, 2020; KII-5, 2020)

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Figure: Overflowed open drains/nallahs (Saiyami/CSE, 2020)

On-site Sanitation Systems Containment: Based on sample household surveys, KIIs, and FGDs with relevant stakeholders, it was concluded that 22% population is dependent on the On-site Sanitation Systems (OSS) (Field Observation; KII- 2, 2020; KII- 3, 2020; FGD-1 & 2, 2020). The containment systems prevalent in the city are a septic tank (ST) connected to an open drain or storm sewer (T1A2C6, 16%) and a fully lined tank (FLT) connected to an open drain or storm sewer (T1A3C6, 6%) (Field Observation; FGD-1 & 2, 2020).

Figure: Septic tank connected to open drain in Shyam Figure: FLT in a HH (Saiyami/CSE, 2020) Nagar (Saiyami/CSE, 2020)

The general size of STs and FLTs varies from 10 – 12 ft * 8 - 10 ft * 10 – 15 ft, depending upon the household size, income level, community, etc (Field Observation; FGD-1 & 2, 2020). The septic tanks are two or three-chambered with proper partition walls including plastered bottom whereas the FLTs are single-chambered with impermeable walls & sealed vaults.

Community Toilets/Public Toilets: There are 17 PTs with 130 seats in Dharamshala which have ST connected to open drain (Field Observation; FGD-1 & 2, 2020). The average size of septic tanks in Public toilets is 12 x 6 x 10 ft which are emptied every 3-4 years. As per the TCP report, 16% of the population was defecating in open but DMC has constructed PTs across the city especially near OD hotspots and as a result,

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though the number has substantially decreased, the city is still not ODF and this is purely attributed to the behavior of the people.

Figure: Public toilets located in Bhagsunag road, Mcleodganj (Saiyami/CSE, 2020)

Emptying The city is dependent on Govt. and Private operated mechanized desludging services for emptying of fecal sludge from STs/FLTs (Field Observation; FGD-2, 2020; KII-2, 2020). The emptying frequency varies from 3 years to even 5 years (demand-based) across the city depending upon the nature and the size of the containment system (FGD-2, 2020). There is a total of 3 (2 government and 1 private) vacuum trucks plying in the city, one for each municipal division (FGD-2, 2020). Each of these vacuum trucks is equipped with motorized pumps and has a storage capacity of 2000 L. Emptying service is carried out by 3-4 workers and charges are around INR 450- 500/ trip for Government operated vehicles and INR 1300/trip for privately operated vehicles (FGD-2, 2020). All the emptying vehicles are maintained properly by DMC at the designated depot (Field Observation). The municipal workers are provided with Personal Protective Equipment (PPEs) which they partially use it while emptying (FGD-2, 2020).

Figure: Truck mounted vacuum tanker (Source: Saiyami/CSE, 2020)

Transportation The emptied septage is transported through the truck-mounted vacuum tankers (FGD-2, 2020). The average time taken to dispose of emptied septage is around ~20 minutes (FGD-2, 2020). Around 2 trips per week are made by each vehicle (FGD-2, 2020). The fecal sludge (FS) emptied by vacuum trucks is discharged into agricultural land and nallahs in the vicinity (Field Observation, FGD-2, 2020).

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Figure: Septage disposed in nearby nallahs / open drains (Source: Saiyami/CSE, 2020) (Source: Saiyami/CSE, 2020

Treatment/Disposal The treated wastewater from STP while complying with CPCB discharge standards is disposed off into nallahs/ drains which eventually mixed with untreated wastewater. The sludge generated at STP is stored in sludge drying beds and given to the farmers for agriculture use (Field observation, KII-5, 2020)

8. INNOVATIVE WATER SMART SOLUTIONS OR STRATEGIES PROPOSED The SFD report that will be generated at the end of this exercise will present the service delivery context of the city and the data sources used for the assessment. The fate of excreta produced by populations across the globe is often poorly understood. SFD of the Dharamshala city will show how it is or is not managed as it moves from toilet to disposal or end-use. Because of this, the following solutions are proposed: • The toilets whose OSS are connected to open drains are carrying both grey- and blackwater which can be a serious health hazard to a neighbourhood. As the first step of improvement, the drains can be tapped and diverted to a designated treatment facility (STP) • OSS should be designed as per BIS standards for promoting a safe containment stage with a required emptying service of 3-5 years. • It might be necessary to check the design capacity of certain drains in the areas with low gradients, e. g. in the main market, to ensure an appropriate drainage system for capturing heavy rains. Create sensitisation among the society for mechanized emptying services regularly There should be a designated disposal site for the disposal of fecal sludge for reducing illegal discharge in open drains/open plots/lakes or rivers • There is no FSTP in the city. Construction of an FSTP should be done as earliest as possible to limit the ongoing groundwater contamination and polluting water bodies

9. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

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Figure: Context adapted SFD Graphic for Dharamshala

10. ACHIEVEMENTS, LEARNINGS, AND OUTCOMES Census 2011 was considered as the baseline and the data for all the stages of the sanitation chain were updated based on the data collected from the field through KII, FGDs, observations, secondary data collected from relevant stakeholders. The following are the outcomes for developing the SFD for Dharamshala. • The volume of wastewater generated is 80% of water supplied • 50% of the contents of Septic tanks and the Fully lined tank is Faecal sludge • The proportion of OSS emptied is considered as 90% considering the average desludging frequency of 3-4 years which is more than the required time (scheduled desludging) for an average containment size of 10x10x10 ft and rest 10% is not emptied considering not all FS get emptied due to less no. of trips taken for emptying of 1 containment system by vacuum tanker of 2000 lt capacity

11. CONCLUSION The SFD report generated at the end of this exercise presents the service delivery context of the city and the data sources used for the assessment. SFD of the Dharamshala city shows how excreta is or is not managed as it moves from toilet to disposal or end-use. It shows that 50% of the proportion of the content of the septic tank which is solid FS, generated and collected inside the septic tanks. 50% of the content is supernatant which attributes to be 8% of the population flows through open drains hence, not contained. The solid FS collected in the septic tank is considered to be contained and hence 8% of FS is contained (represented green in colour at containment stage). Followed by this, 6% FS contained is emptied, the remaining 2% is FS remains in the tank which is contained and never emptied. The supernatant generated

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from the septic tank connected to the open drain is not contained and hence considered to be unsafely managed (represented red).

12. CONSTRAINTS OR CHALLENGES There were six major challenges to develop the SFD 1. Lack of access to safe sanitation practices 2. Decision-makers are not sensitized about sanitation issues 3. Lack of reliable data 4. There is no coverage of citywide sanitation 5. Lack of planning for safe sanitation services 6. Prevalence of open defecation in the city

13. WAY FORWARD

As a way forward, context adapted SFD Graphic is suggested for correctly designed septic tanks, though connected to open drains at the containment stage. With an earlier assumption of 50% of the proportion of the content of the septic tank which is solid FS, generated and collected inside the septic tanks. 50% of the content is supernatant which attributes to be 8% of the population flows through open drains hence, not contained. The solid FS collected in the septic tank is considered to be contained and hence 8% of FS is contained (represented green in colour at containment stage). Followed by this, 6% FS contained is emptied, the remaining 2% is FS remains in the tank which is contained and never emptied. The supernatant generated from the septic tank connected to the open drain is not contained and hence considered to be unsafely managed (represented red). Overall, excreta of 50% population is not managed according to the context adapted SFD. Along with this, the following steps are recommended: 1. To present a clear picture of wastewater and fecal sludge management in a graphical format 2. To identify the aspects of service delivery where improvements are needed 3. To create awareness and sensitization

14. BIBLIOGRAPHY • District Census Handbook 2011 for Dharamshala (Houses and household amenities and assets table HH-08: percentage of households by the availability of the type of Latrine Facility https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/Hlo-series/HH08.html • Dharamshala Planning Area Development Plan 2035. Town and Country Planning Department, Government of Himachal Pradesh • Smart City Proposal, Dharamshala Municipal Corporation, 2017 • City Development Plan, Dharamshala Municipal Corporation, 2017 • Zurbrügg, C., (2001a). Baseline Study on Water Supply, Sanitation, and Solid Waste in Upper Dharamsala, India: SANDEC/ EAWAG, Dübendorf, Switzerland. • Report on Liquid and Solid Waste Management Survey of Dharamsala Town- Dhaulaudhar

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Public Education Society (2001). • Katrina, B. (2016) (PDF) Shit Flow Diagram Report for Hanoi, Vietnam . Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304495147_Shit_Flow_Diagram_Report_for_Hanoi_Vie tnam (Accessed: 22 September 2020). • Lawrence, A. R. et al. (2001) Guidelines for Assessing the Risk to Groundwater from On-Site Sanitation . • Mara and Evans (2018) ‘This is a repository copy of The sanitation and hygiene targets of the sustainable development goals: scope and challenges’. doi: 10.2166/washdev.2017.048. • Peal, A. et al. (2014) ‘Fecal sludge management (FSM): Analytical tools for assessing FSM in cities’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development . IWA Publishing, pp. 371–383. doi: 10.2166/washdev.2014.139.

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4.0 PROJECT: PREPARATION OF SHIT FLOW DIAGRAM (SFDS) FOR FARIDABAD, HARYANA BY NIHARIKA KAUSHIK Fellowship Theme: Water Policy and Governance

NIHARIKA KAUSHIK MSc Environmental Sciences Department of Environmental Sciences JC Bose University of Science and Technology, YMCA

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CETP : Common effluent Treatment Plant CPCB : Central pollution control board CT : Community Toilet FS : Faecal Sludge FLTs : Fully Lined Tanks FGD : Focussed Group Discussion FSTP : Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant HH : Household HIG : Higher Income Group KII : Key Informant Interviews KLD : Kilo Litres per Day LIG : Lower Income Group LPCD : Litre Per Capita Per day MCF : Municipal Corporation of Faridabad MIG : Middle Income Group MLD : Million Litre per Day NCR : National Capital Region NIT : New Industrial Town OD : Open Defecation OSS : Onsite Sanitation System PT : Public Toilet Rs : Rupees SBR : Sequential Batch Reactor SFD : Shit Flow Diagram ST : Septic Tanks STP : Sewage Treatment Plant UASB : Upflow Anaerobic Sludge flow Blanket ULB : Urban Local Body

LIST OF DEFINITIONS REFERRED IN THE REPORT • Blackwater: It is the combination of urine, faeces and flush water together with anal cleaning water (if water is used for cleansing) and/or dry cleansing materials • Centralised sewer system: A system used to gather, treat, discharge, and/or reclaim wastewater from large consumer groups (i.e. municipal and city level applications). • Combined Sewer: Sewer network where blackwater and stormwater runoff are taken by the similar sewers.

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• Decentralised sewer system : A system used to gather, treat, discharge, and/or reclaim wastewater from a, small community or pilot service area. • Desludging: The operation, performed by a licenced operator or trained sanitary workers (of CNPP, in the present case), of removing FSS from onsite sanitation system (OSS). • Discharge: This is used to define the flow of faecal sludge, effluent and wastewater between sanitation technologies and the unlawful practice of using or returning faecal sludge, effluent or wastewater to the environment, without proper treatment. • Disposal: Disposal is distinct and different to discharge and refers only to the termination fate of treated wastewater or faecal sludge. Any untreated wastewater or faecal sludge is regarded as discharged not disposed of. • Effluent: A common term for the liquid that leaves a technology, usually after blackwater or faecal sludge has gone through solids separation or some other sort of incomplete treatment. • Emptying: The manual or motorized removal of faecal sludge from onsite sanitation systems. • Excreta: It consists of urine and faeces that is not mixed with any flush water. They are lesser in volume, but concentrated in both nutrients and pathogens. • Faecal Sludge: It originates from onsite sanitation technologies or systems, i.e., it has not been conveyed through a sewer. It can be raw or partially digested, a slurry or semisolid, and found from the collection and storage/treatment of excreta with or without grey water from various systems that are not sewer lines. • Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant: it is an organised infrastructure setup constructed to convert faecal sludge into a product that is innocuous for end-use (It may not necessarily be used but it is not harmful after treatment.) • Fully Lined Tank (FLTs): A properly designed, suitably constructed and maintained fully lined tank with impermeable walls and base. It comprises of poorly planned and/or built and/or kept septic tanks that, as of these faults, are not acting as septic tanks, instead they are acting as sealed vaults. • Groundwater: Water found underneath the surface in soil aperture spaces and in the cracks of rock formations. It can be effortlessly found in silt, clay sand, gravel, sedimentary rocks or even in impermeable rocks like granite when such rocks are weathered. The water then seeps deep inside soil in response to gravity. • Groundwater Table: The level beneath the earth’s surface where the ground is inundated or saturated with water. It links to the level where water is found when ground is drilled or dug. A groundwater table is not stationary and can fluctuate by season, year or usage. • Lined Pit with semi-permeable walls and open bottom: A correctly designed, properly constructed and well maintained pit with semi-permeable lined walls and an open, permeable base, through which penetration can occur. • Lined tank with impermeable walls and open bottom: A correctly designed, properly constructed and well maintained lined tank with sealed, impermeable walls and an open, permeable base, through which infiltration can occur. It comprises of all lined but open bottomed tanks and containers which are sometimes misguidedly referred to as septic tanks.

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• Manual Emptying: It refers to the emptying of faecal sludge from onsite sanitation technologies, where humans manually lift the sludge. Manual emptying can be used with either manual transport or motorized transport. • Motorized Transport: It denotes to the use of motorized equipment for the transport of faecal sludge from onsite sanitation technologies. Usually humans are mandatory to run the equipment. Motorized transport can be used with either motorized emptying or manual emptying. • Offsite Systems: Sanitation system in which excreta (denoted as wastewater) is collected and conveyed/transported away from the place where they are generated. An offsite sanitation system depends on a sewer technology for wastewater transport. • Onsite Systems : A sanitation technology in which excreta (denoted to as faecal sludge) is collected and stored and emptied from or treated on the place where they are generated/produced. • Open Defecation (OD): It is a situation where there is no toilet in use; in this people defecate in fields, forests, bushes, water bodies or open areas. • Open Drain: It is an open system used to carry grey-water, surface water or storm-water. • Sanitation Service Chain: This is the whole chain that describes sanitation in a city beginning with containment, emptying, transport, and finally treatment and end-use or disposal of excreta and wastewater. • Septage: The faecal sludge desludged from a well-designed septic tank. • Septic Tank: A septic tank, if appropriately built, is a sealed chamber made of concrete, stonework or blockwork, fibreglass, pvc or plastic, through which blackwater and grey water flows for primary treatment. In Septic tank settling and anaerobic processes decrease solids and organics, but the treatment is restrained. • Sewer: A network of underground pipelines that transports blackwater, grey water and, somewhere, stormwater (combined sewer) from separate households and other users to treatment plants, using gravity or pumps when needed. The treatment plant and sewer network can either be decentralised or centralised. • Sewage treatment plant (STP): The place where sewage is treated to prescribed standards for safe disposal and reuse. • Transportation: Safe transfer of FSS through CNPP-registered vacuum tanker from the place of desludging to the notified location. . • Vacuum tanker: It is a vehicle that has a pump and a tank, designed to pneumatically pull FSS from the OSS. These vehicles are also used to conveyance de-sludged FSS. • Toilet: It refers to any sort of properly constructed toilet, pedestal, pan, or urinal that is the user interface with the sanitation system. • Treatment: Series of processes that alters the physical, chemical and biological characteristic or composition of faecal sludge or wastewater so that it is converted into a product that is safe for end- use. • Treated wastewater: Wastewater that has undergone a treatment process and has successfully been converted into a product that is safe for end-use.

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• Wastewater: Used water from sanitation technologies in households and those within any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial industrial, commercial or agricultural premises, but not the wastewater from these industrial, commercial or agricultural activities. • Wastewater Treatment Plant: Infrastructure designed to convert wastewater into a product that is safe for end-use or disposal. • Water Body: Any significant accumulation of water, both natural and manmade (i.e. surface water)

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY As a part of Urban Waste water management project at CSE as my partner organisation, SFD or Shit Flow Diagram was prepared with the national team in the guidance of Dr Suresh Rohilla sir and was mentored by Bhitush Luthra sir. Shit Flow Diagram is a tool to readily understand and communicate how excreta physically flow through a city or town. To provide an adequate sanitation services in urban/rural areas, primary step is to monitor the sanitation service chain, to classify its strengths and flaws, from containment, including emptying, transport, treatment and safe disposal or resource recovery. To achieve this, SFD is one of the innovative & diagnostic tools to engage sanitation experts, political leaders and civil society in synchronised discussions about excreta management in their city. SFD enables one to analyse a clear picture of how Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management services are transported in a city and the subsequent challenges that has to be tackled. Source of water in the city is groundwater in most places followed by Raneywell water project from the bedrock of river Yamuna. With increasing population in the city water demands is increasing rapidly that has led to depleting groundwater ranging from 250 meter to 750 meter near Aravali Hills. There were two significant waterbodies in Aravali Hills namely Badkhal lake and Surajkund lakes which have dried up due to illegal mining in those areas. As Faridabad lies in the region very close to the nation’s capital it holds a very important value in various projects.

Under YAP-I and YAP-II, (Yamuna action Plan) the cleaning of polluted Yamuna was carried out in line with the level of the biological oxygen demand of Yamuna. During these two phases, 286 schemes, which also comprised of 39 sewage treatment plants (STPs), were accomplished in 21 cities of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana at a price of Rs 1,453.17 crore and sewage treatment capacity of 767.25 million litres per day has been shaped. In Faridabad, 3 STPs and one CETP were also constructed despite of such large investments. Faridabad alone produces 220 MLD of wastewater every day with treatment efficiency of 50% according to the SFD calculations. Rest of the wastewater flows either into open drains or is discharged directly into river Yamuna that results in poor management of wastewater. City has only 30% population connected to sewer lines out of which only 65% of wastewater is transported to STP for treatment, this shows how defunct the present infrastructure city has in terms of sanitation. Along with sewer lines, two big drains also contribute to contamination of river Yamuna flowing through the city named as Gaunchi and Budhiya nallah which flows into river Yamuna. After preparation of SFD of Faridabad, all these issues related to water and sanitations were discovered. To which suggested innovations involve the construction of Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant (FSTPs) in the city as the septage transported to discharge points from non –sewered areas account for 712 KLD. This will ensure separate treatment of Faecal Sludge which can be used as resource for farmers or disposal of treated wastewater in water bodies. Also Co-Treatment at STP should be done which will ensure efficient treatment of Faecal Sludge along with wastewater. With Constructed wetland technology, the drains in cities can be diverted to the dried lake by placing screens in the drains that will ensure primary treatment and constructed wetland technology will manage the water quality for a longer time.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT To understand the situation of sanitation in the city, an SFD (SHIT FLOW DIAGRAM) was prepared for the city. Faridabad is one of the populous cities of Haryana state. With the population of 18,33,000 2 that live in the city and depend on one or the other sanitation technologies that also includes sewer network, septic tanks and even pit latrines at various places. SFD is basically an excreta flow diagram also described as Shit Flow Diagram (SFD) a tool to readily understand and communicate how excreta physically flow through a city or town. To provide an adequate sanitation services in urban/rural areas, primary step is to monitor the sanitation service chain, to classify its strengths and flaws, from containment, including emptying, transport, treatment and safe disposal or resource recovery. To achieve this, SFD is one of the innovative & diagnostic tools to engage sanitation experts, political leaders and civil society in synchronised discussions about excreta management in their city. SFD enables one to analyse a clear picture of how Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Management services are transported in a city and the subsequent challenges that has to be tackled. An SFD basically delivers technical and non-technical stakeholders with an advocacy tool to support decision-making on sanitation planning. With the production of SFD for a city like Faridabad various aspects of water and sanitation were studied that includes city demography, topography, source of water in the city mostly includes surface water and groundwater assessment, quantity of water supply in the city, prevalent sanitation technologies, emptying service providers, treatment facility.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Figure: Dried Up Badkhal Lake of Faridabad

Yamuna is the only main river that flows through the eastern boundary of Faridabad. Agra canal which originated in Okhla, Delhi flows through Faridabad before finally joining River Banganga. Whereas ground water level in Faridabad is 25 meters to 106 3 meters below ground level. Ground water level is comparatively higher in the eastern boundary of the District and in areas around the Badkhal and the Surajkund lakes. In last 27 years, it has consistently declined at an annual average rate of 0.50 meters. Water supply in the city is 247 MLD (Million liters per Day) with per capita water consumption of 135 LPCD

2 Population Data Municipal Corporation Faridabad, 2020 3 Central Ground Water Report, Faridabad, 2013

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(Liter per capita per day) which produces total wastewater generation of 220 4 MLD. In Faridabad, SFD graphic helped in identifying the improvements required in sanitation value chain. It helped in analyzing the amount of wastewater reaching STP and amount of wastewater which is treated and then discharged into the River Yamuna passing through the city. SFD also helped in evaluating the risk of faecal sludge management as it is either discharged into the city’s water body by government & private emptying service provider or transported to STPs (Field Observation). While using SFD, the volume of Faecal sludge which is treated in Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) or faecal sludge Treatment Plant FSTPs can be calculated and also how faecal sludge is contributing in contaminating the water body in the city

3. PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW Faridabad in its present situation requires many reforms in the area of water availability and sanitation. Improved sewerage infrastructure and design is the need of the hour. Apart from this, lakes in Faridabad needs to be rejuvenated. These lakes have the immense capacity to store the rainwater and restore back the depleting groundwater levels. Due to depleting groundwater levels, rain water harvesting structures can be explored in the city. As most of the rain water is mostly carried along with the storm water drains. Rainfalls are not prominent in Faridabad region. It has less rainy days and rainfall of those days is quite heavy of about 542 mm or (21.3 in) 5. Taking into consideration, the situation of city in terms of water availability, several investments were made in a bilateral project between Government of India & Japan called as Yamuna Action Plan, it is one of the largest river restoration schemes in the nation. Under Yamuna Action Plan, STP capacity of 115 MLD was constructed at an expense of Rs 37.05 crore, at a unit cost of Rs 32.22 lakh per MLD. For Zone I, a 20 MLD STP was built close to village Badshahpur . Sewage from the SPS at sector 33 is being passed on to this STP. It covers 32 sq km of the northern part of Faridabad between sectors 21 to 47. The 45 MLD STP close to Mirzapur village in Zone II treats the sewage from 1 to 21 sectors. The 50 MLD STP was installed at Pratapgarh village for the treatment purposes of Zone III of Faridabad. Aside from the domestic sewage from the New Industrial Town (NIT) also has the 7 MLD Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) installed as the area which has a high concentration of industrial effluent discharge. As per CPCB, Faridabad ranked at the 18th place with high (Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index) score of 77.07 and was declared as one of the most Critically Polluted Industrial Clusters in India. Faridabad is called as the industrial hub of Haryana state with total 12468 as listed industries, out of which 1216 are classified as red among all the established industries. The different industries that pollute water/soil comprises of Automobile parts, Breweries, Chemicals, Electroplating, finished leather, Hospital, Oil Recycler, Steel Tubes, Textile Dyeing, Tyre Manufacturing and Power Station generating total approximately 15732.74 KLD effluents.

4 Municipal Corporation Faridabad Data, 2020 5 District Disaster Management Plan, 2017

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A B Figure: Containment systems in the city (Picture -A showing defunct sewer system: Picture -B showing Septic tank emptied by emptying service providers)

As a regular exercise, these effluents are being treated and discharged to the River Yamuna alongside additional part of the effluent which is not being secondarily treated, is also cleared off into the unlined open drains. There are 11 intermediate sewage pumping stations and 3 main pumping stations with 3 STPs in the city having an installed treatment capacity of 140 MLD. The STPs are based on UASB and SBR technology. As per the current scenario, ~65% 6 of the wastewater is reaching to the STPs considering the leakages from old defunct sewer lines which finds its way to either open drains, canal or River Yamuna.

4. PROJECT LOCATION Project location is Faridabad city which is identified as one of the most populated city of Haryana. With total 40 wards in the city, it is situated in the NCR (National Capital Region) bordering the Indian capital New Delhi. Faridabad is located at mean elevation of about 205 m at 28.43°N 77.32°E on the plains of the river Yamuna bordered by the river to the east and Aravali hills towards the west and southwest. It is situated between Delhi, Noida, Greater Noida and Gurgaon. River Yamuna forms the eastern boundary of the district with Uttar Pradesh with an area of 207.88 Square kilometers.

6 Smart City Data, Faridabad, 2020

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Figure: Google Map and Ward map of Faridabad city

5. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS Excreta flow diagram or commonly called as Shit Flow Diagram (SFD) enables one to graphically and statistically deal with the fate of waste water and faecal sludge from each household. • Prime objective is to underline and analyze the present sanitation situation in the city. • With Shit Flow Diagram, one can examine how wastewater & faecal sludge current fate can be improved. • While conducting SFD study, one can identify the water bodies (Rivers, Lakes, and Ponds) suspected to serious water pollution. • Discovering the type of containment system in each household, one can examine the groundwater depth, which enables us to evaluate the significant risk of groundwater pollution caused by the overflowing wastewater/faecal sludge from septic tanks/sewers. . • SFD employs calculated figures of wastewater and faecal sludge that ends up contaminating the Rivers in the city thus help in River Rejuvenation and Tributary Management projects

6. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY Before visiting the city, mapping of stakeholders is being done. SFD methodology involves collection of Primary and Secondary Data. This is qualitative data that can be obtained through: • Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) – either conducted in person or remotely managed. Key informants may include community leaders and stakeholder in charge of different aspects of sanitation in the city • Field Observation of service provision and facilities through the sanitation service chain • Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with community representatives or service providers • Household surveys that involves visit to Lower Income Groups (LIG), Middle Income Groups (MIG) and Higher Income Groups (HIG) spread throughout the city.

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• Other surveys include Public/Community toilets, institutions, Tourist Places, Sewage Treatment Plants, Lakes, Rivers, and Industries etc.

During visit to Faridabad for SFD survey, letter to city commissioner was issued by partner organisation. The commissioner has appointed a Nodal officer who provided all the required secondary data and cooperated for Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) & Focus Group Discussions (FGDs).

Figure: Community Toilet Survey Figure: Focused Group Discussion with Sewer men

Secondary data was then triangulated with the primary data, KIIs with stakeholders of the city and FGDs with the masons, emptying service providers, STP plant operators and thus final SFD graphic was prepared.

7. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT Under the guidance of Dr Suresh Rohilla as Director of the Urban Water & Waste Management programme and closely mentored by Mr Bhitush Luthra, the detailed list of task is as follows: S. no. Tasks to be Accomplished Timeline 1. Training of Trainers on the preparation of SFD by CSE July 27 - 29, 2020 2. Desk research & collection of secondary data Aug 7 – 9, 2020 3. Primary data collection - Site visit including data collection Aug 10 – 16, 2020 from relevant stakeholders in municipality, HH/commercial/institutional surveys, KII, FGDs etc. 4. Data Analysis and Site Visit Report Aug 16 - 17, 2020 5. Generate SFD Graphic and SFD Lite Report Aug 17 - 23, 2020 6. Presentation of draft SFD and findings of the city to CSE team Aug 25/26, 2020 7. Finalis ation and submission of SFD graphic and factsheet Aug 27 – 29, 2020 8. Draft SFD lite report Aug 31 – Sept 4, 2020 9. Final SFD lite report to be uploaded on SusSanA Sept 18th 2020 10. Visit to Central Groundwater Board Faridabad to specifically Sept 20, 2020 learn about Groundwater scenario in Faridabad

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8. KEY FINDINGS Key findings mainly include Analysis of data collected and calculations based on that data along with sanitation service chain:

Containment System: Population of Faridabad is dependent on Onsite and Offsite systems for sanitation.

Table: Population Growth rate Faridabad City; Source Municipal Corporation Faridabad, 2020

Census Year Population Growth Rate (%) Source 2001 10,55,938 6.89 Census 2011 2011 14, 14,050 3.39 Census 2011 Faridabad Municipal 2020 18, 33, 000 2.96 Corporation City population ( last officially recorded census is of 2011, thus growth rates were studied till 2020

Individual Household data is prepared on the basis of sanitation technology, water source available, groundwater depth of that area, type of toilet facility and emptying service provider facility. 30% of city population has access to sewerage network, rest 60% of city’s population is dependent on hybrid system of on-site containment systems (OSS) a Septic tank and fully lined tank, whose outlet is connected to sewer lines & open drains respectively. Rest 10% is dependent on toilets constructed by government which are 29 PTs and 27 CTs 7 in Faridabad which have ST/FLT connected to sewer line. There are around 216 precast toilets and 09 Mobile toilets in the city. As per 2011 census, 9% of the population was defecating in open but Municipal Corporation Faridabad has constructed PT/CTs & individual household laterines (IHHL) 15687 8 in numbers across the city especially for Below Poverty Line (BPL) near low income settlements and as a result, the city has achieved ODF status 9 on 02/08/2019. Under SBM, there is a proposal for the new construction of 47 (CT) and (80) PT10 in the city. However, people living in slums and low income settlements are resorted to defecate in open due to poor accessibility & infrastructure or lack of maintenance in toilets (Field Observation).

Emptying: The city is dependent on Govt./Private operated mechanised desludging services for emptying of faecal sludge from STs/FLTs/ Lined tanks/ Lined pits. The emptying frequency varies from 6 months to 2 years (demand based) across the city depending upon the nature and the size of containment system. During field visits, it has been observed that a significant proportion of population empties their STs /FLTs/Lined tanks/ Lined Pits within 6 months or even 4 times in a year. There are total 18 government operated vacuum tractors and 26 registered private operated vacuum tractors plying in the city. Each of these vacuum tractors are equipped with motorised pumps and have a storage capacity of 5000-6000 L. This even include non-registered private vacuum tankers plying in the city. In order to carry out the work in

7 List of PT/CT Municipal Corporation Faridabad, 2020 8 Swacch Bharat Mission- Gramin, Annual Implementation Plan, 2018-2019 9 ODF status, MCF, 2020 10 List of Proposed PT/CT in Faridabad, MCF, 2020

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narrow and congested areas, these vehicles are equipped with ~120 ft long hose. Due to frequent emptying services, emptying was taken 90% in SFD matrix. There are no charges by Govt operated vacuum tractors whereas private operators charge the varying fees from INR 500-1000/ trip based on property type & containment size. The desludging services for the public and community toilets is carried out periodically by the service providers of Faridabad Municipal Corporation and hence are free of cost. All the emptying vehicles are maintained properly by Faridabad Municipal Corporation at the designated depot (Field Observation). They are not provided with Personal Protective Equipments (PPEs) for carrying out safe emptying services. Manual scavenging is prevalent in the city in case of containment/sewer clogging. In general 2 to 3 labourers are required and charged around INR 500- INR 1000 and the cost increases based on size of containment and number of labourers required. Mainly a person without any safety gears goes in and removes the sludge & solid material using sapde/buckets which is loaded into a tractor.

Transportation: The emptied septage is transported through the tractor mounted vacuum tankers. The average time taken to dispose emptied septage is around ~30 minutes. Around 5 to 6 trips per day are made by each vehicle. The faecal sludge (FS) emptied by Govt/ private operated vacuum tractors is discharged into designated disposal sites/nallahs instructed by Faridabad Municipal Corporation while private operators discharged Faecal sludge either in open fields or ground (Field Observation) hence efficiency was taken 54% in SFD matrix.

Figure: Emptying by manual scavenging & Vacuum Tractors

Treatment/Disposal: The treated wastewater is either used by private agencies or discharged into Budhiya nallah. Both treated and untreated wastewater is discharged in River Yamuna based on STP performance. The sludge generated in STP is provided for horticulture use but without adhering to standards compliance. In some cases the dried sludge is also given to private agency contracted by Municipal Corporation Faridabad which is then further sold as manure. The lab report from the STP revealed that the discharge standards prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) are met by one of three STPs, as other 2 STPs are under construction. Therefore, variable W5a & S5d is considered 52% in SFD matrix. (Refer SFD Matrix Figure)

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Figure: Shit Flow Diagram Matrix

9. INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS OR STRATEGIES PROPOSED On the basis of SFD survey conducted by me along with CSE team, Smart Water Solutions that can be proposed are as follows:

• The main issue in the city is illegal disposal of wastewater and faecal sludge into water bodies that is ultimately ending into Yamuna River.

• With Co-Treatment at STP , Faecal sludge along with wastewater can be managed

• With construction of FSTP, treatment of faecal sludge, the treated wastewater and dry sludge as manure can be reused in horticulture and agriculture and also this treated wastewater can be diverted into dry Lakes or can be discharged into Yamuna River.

• With Constructed wetland Technology , water quality of the lakes will be maintained forever. • Also, there are 2 big drains in the city wherein screens can be placed in those drains before they enter into Rivers/lakes this will ensure primary treatment.

10. RESULTS & DISCUSSION Shit Flow Diagram not only calculates wastewater but also ensure service delivery in whole sanitation value chain. So u can write like this- SFD assess the sanitation value chain from containment till its disposal and

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end use. It gives a reality check of the poor old technologies and false implementation of new ones . Only 31% of total faecal sludge and wastewater is safely managed however 69% still needs to be managed, which is presently in unsafe situation predominantly contaminating the water body in the city .

Figure: Shit Flow Diagram (SFD Lite) for Faridabad City, 2020

1. As a part of the Field Observation, 2% of city does not have the access the toilets, however the city had achieved an ODF status in 2017. 2. This percentage of population didn’t have the basic access to water for which they had to travel kilometers away (Field Observation) 3. Concretisation and poor sewer infrastructure is unable to catch rainwater in the city that also leads to water clogging at various places in the city during rainy season. 4. According to the latest construction going on in the city, L&T construction is laying the new rainwater harvesting infrastructure in the area which is approved as Faridabad Smart City. 5. As discussed, innovations for the city, restoration of lakes is the prime need of the hour along with installation of either FSTP or co-treatment at existing STP that will ensure discharge of treated wastewater in the river Yamuna.

11. ACHIEVEMENT LEARNING AND OUTCOMES

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As a part of Urban Waste water Management project at CSE as the partner organisation, preparation of SFD was one such achievement. This particular graphic is shared at Susana which is an international platform for Shit Flow Diagram, after the approval of international reviewer, the Shit Flow Diagram will be approved which is then available globally to everyone who wants to access it at http://sfd.susana.org/ It is also shared with the city officials especially with town planners and engineers who design sanitation plan for the city. This helps them frame policies and schemes according to the present situation. Various cities have shown improvement in their SFD graphics as the city improves in its water and sanitation situation. For this along with Shit Flow Diagram (SFD) selection grid and matrix is also used. The SFD Selection Grid permits the handler to outline the set of sanitation containment technologies existing in the city. With the SFD matrix, stakeholders can analyse the sanitation value chain with maximum contribution to contamination into water bodies and map the areas in city where proper sanitation technology has to be installed.

12. CONCLUSIONS There might be many ways to analyse situation of sanitation in the city. However written data present in form of tables, reports is not comprehensible. Water is one such resource that is being wasted away that must be reclaimed in order to save the depleting aquifers, lakes, ponds and water bodies. As estimated by the city authority themselves that the city population has reached more than 18 lakhs and the demand for adequate water supply by the residents has increased and will be higher as per the master plan of 2031. With groundwater being the only source at most of the places, due to high pumping of water from the ground, the depth has sharply reduced maximum to 750 feet in Aravali hills and range from 250 to 400 feet in other part of the city. Only source left to the city is Ranney well water project if groundwater gets depleted in coming future. The CGWB and the state governments in a joint survey had estimated replenishable groundwater resources of the country, including the National Capital Region (NCR), in 2009 have been categorised as “over exploited,” says a report published on behalf of the Union Ministry of Water Resources in August 2013. Centre for Science and Environment, had already claimed in a report in 2018 itself that 21 cities in the nation would have depleted water resources in 2030. Municipal Corporation Faridabad has list of over 1,400 authorised tubewells in various wards but city does have illegal tubewells which were sealed or forced to shut down in context with Section 4 of the Environment Protection Act 1986. There are large number of legal and illegal RO water treatment plants operational in the various parts of the city, that supply bottled water to inhabitants. With ponds and lands dried up, groundwater depleted and only source of water being contaminated, city will surely be depleted in its water resources by 2030. With Decentralised waste water treatment technology established along with new FSTPs and enhancement of existing STPs, wastewater and faecal sludge can be reused safely for irrigation and other purpose.

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A B Figure: A- Slums having no access to basic amenities; Water and Sanitation, B – Rich dependent on private water suppliers.

13. CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES Faridabad is a vast city spread around 207.88 square Kilometres. Faridabad district is distributed into three sub divisions viz. Faridabad, Ballabgarh and Badkhal each one regulated by a Sub Divisional Magistrate (SDM). The Municipal Corporation of Faridabad (MCF) provides the urban civic amenities to the people of Faridabad City. It was not an easy task to collect data about a very sensitive issue i.e. Water and sanitation. Challenges that were faced during survey and data collection were as follows: 1. Data collection and survey was conducted amid Covid-19 spread. It was a hard task to find officials as most were on medical leaves due to Covid-19. 2. Municipal Corporation of Faridabad is situated near Hospital dedicated to Covid -19 patients, so the data collection process became more complex. 3. Data provided by the officials was not updated so it was triangulated with Key Informant interviews (KII) and Focused group Discussions (FGDs) and primary data. 4. STP visit wasn’t coordinated well by the operator and Junior Engineer, which was then managed with and Focused Group Discussions (FGDs) with masons at the STP. 5. Due to Covid-19 emergency, household survey wasn’t well synchronized as people didn’t manage well due to the Covid-19 spread distress.

14. WAY FORWARD WITH REPLICABILITY AND SCALABILITY FOCUS This project has data collected from authenticated sources which can be further verified with the reports collected. Shit Flow Diagram has the capacity to review changes proceeded in the city in terms of water security and management of faecal sludge and wastewater along with its treatment. Project if repeated again in the same city will help in evaluating the changes and ensures authenticity and originality.

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15. BIBLIOGRAPHY • www.cseindia.org. (n.d.). Faecal Sludge and Septage Management in Chunar . [online] Available at: https://www.cseindia.org/faecal-sludge-and-septage-management-in-chunar-9719 [Accessed 10 Oct. 2020]. • www.cseindia.org. (n.d.). Online training on “Preparation of Shit Flow Diagram (SFD).” [online] Available at: https://www.cseindia.org/online-training-on-preparation-of-shit-flow-diagram-sfd--10272 [Accessed 28 Aug. 2020]. • Anon, (n.d.). Disaster Management | District Faridabad, Government of Haryana | India . • Central Ground Water Report , Faridabad, Haryana, 2013 • Revamping of Sewerage System & Sewage Treatment Works in Faridabad under JNNURM Detailed Project Report, 2011 • sfd.susana.org. (n.d.). The SFD Approach. [online] Available at: https://sfd.susana.org/about/the-sfd [Accessed 28 Aug. 2020]. • Rosin, K.G., Kaur, R., Singh, S.D., Singh, P. and Dubey, D.S. (2013). Groundwater Vulnerability to Contaminated Irrigation Waters - A Case of Peri-Urban Agricultural Lands Around an Industrial District of Haryana, India. Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Procedia Environmental Sciences, [online] 18, pp.200–201. • cseindia.org. (2019). [online] Available at: https://www.cseindia.org/page/aboutus [Accessed 28 Aug. 2020]. • Individual Household Laterines, Swacch Bharat Mission Data , Faridabad, Haryana (2018-2019) • Faridabad Smart City Plan , 2031 • City Master Plan, Faridabad Municipal Corporation, 2031 • Housing for all plan of action under Pradhan Mantra Awaas Yojna , Faridabad Municiapal Corporation, 2016 • MoUD. 2014. Guidelines for Swachh Bharat Mission.: Ministry of Urban Development. Government of India. • MoUD. 2013. Septage Management in Urban India . Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. • List of Public Toilets/ Community Toilets/ Parks/ Recreational areas of Faridabad (SBM Data, Municipal Corporation) • City Development Plan Faridabad, 2031 • Status report by State of Haryana to OA06 , 2020 • MoSJE. 2014. The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 [18th September, 2013]. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. • MoUD. 2017. National Policy on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management . Ministry of Urban Development • Service, T.N. (n.d.). Faridabad stares at water crisis . [online] Tribuneindia News Service. Available at: https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/haryanatribune/faridabad-stares-at-water-crisis-778046 [Accessed 09 Oct. 2020].

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• Rumani Saikia Phukan (2014). Yamuna Cleaning: Current Projects, and What More Needs to Be Done . [online] Mapsofindia.com. Available at: https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/society/yamuna- cleaning-current-projects-and-what-more-needs-to-be-done. • cseindia.org. (2020). [online] Available at: https://www.cseindia.org/mount/home [Accessed 09 Oct. 2020].

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5.0 PROJECT: WEB-BASED COMPENDIUM- GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE AND WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN AND PLANNING BY UPMA GARG Fellowship Theme: Water Security and Climate Change

UPMA GARG MSc Environmental Studies Department of Environmental Studies University of Delhi

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LIST OF DEFINITIONS 1. Sustainability: The usage of resources in a way that they are available for use by the generations to come. 2. Green Infrastructure: Green infrastructure refers to natural or semi-natural ecosystems that provide water resource management by introducing the natural water cycle into urban environments. It provides effective measures to manage urban flooding, water supply and quality regulation, at the same time generating multiple environmental benefits. 3. Water Sensitive Urban Design and Planning: Water sensitive urban design and planning (WSUDP) is an approach that integrates and optimises the use of available water sources and completes the water cycle by incorporating the following in planning and designing. 4. Urbanisation: it refers to the increase in the size of the urban areas and is linked with increasing number of people living there. 5. Globalisation: It refers to the increasing interaction among the people all over the world via transport, internet, trade etc. 6. Industrialisation: It means more and more mechanization of products and services with the advent of technology. Human labour is overtaken by the machines and finished products are formed mechanically in the industries. 7. Water Security: The term implies the decline in the water as a resource and deals with its diminishing availability over time in terms of both its quantity and quality. 8. Memorandum of Understanding: It refers to the terms, conditions and outlines of the agreement between two parties. 9. Sustainable Development Goals: SDGs refer to the set of 17 goals developed as a manual (blueprint) to achieve sustainability in a set amount of time by 2030.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This project is based on the theme of water security and climate change with the sub-theme being urban lake and stormwater management. Under this, a web-based compendium is being developed that would foster the availability and accessibility of the information related to the case studies across the world at one platform. With the increase in Urbanisation, globalisation, industrialisation and population explosion, the sustainability related problems have also increased. Development is taking place at a fast pace, and are exploiting natural resources faster than their rejuvenation capability. This has led to an imbalance between the uptake and regeneration of resources in the nature. Humans have given rise to a huge ecological imbalance which is called Climate Change. Consumer behaviour, materialism, increased ecological footprints, green revolution; all factors have resulted in the aggravation of the stimuli leading to climate change. Further, climate change is related to so many adverse effects like melting ice caps, species extinctions, disturbed biogeological cycles and much more. Climate change is also deeply related to the security of one of the basic needs of living organisms i.e., water. Climate change has resulted in unpredictable weather conditions. This is a major reason behind droughts at one place and floods at other.

To have a check on these situations, especially in the urban areas where rampant and unplanned growth is taking place in terms of space and demand for natural resources, it becomes important to have urban water management and stormwater management for drought and flood-like conditions respectively. As the populations are expanding and families are becoming nuclear families, the need for land for habitation arises and this land is taken away from water lands, waste lands etc. Due to this, the water bodies, which once used to be the lifelines of any community, are decreasing.

In many areas, work has been done to revitalise the aquatic systems back to life, but the work information is not accessible. Rejuvenation and management work have been done at all levels ranging from rural to urban. But, the accessibility of the data is an issue. Hence, to resolve this issue, a novel idea has been initiated to develop a web-based compendium in which a collection of summaries of various case studies related to water is being constructed and shall be made available to the global community for study. It provides many benefits like easy exploration of the information, using website. In this, information can be explored by interactive maps, by region, scale, intervention etc. Compendium provides many benefits. It allows easy access and availability of information related to water- sensitive design and planning. It unites global community towards a common goal of water sustainability by providing information to the people from all over the world. It makes analysis of information and reliability of innovative solutions at different locations, very handy. The target audience of the compendium ranges from individual to groups to scientists to people from many different disciplines. It is a very inter-disciplinary approach to deal with the issues of water sustainability in favour of green infrastructure (GI) and water sensitive urban design and planning (WSUDP). Green infrastructure refers to natural or semi-natural ecosystems that provide water resource management by introducing the natural water cycle into urban environments. It provides effective measures to manage urban flooding, water supply and quality regulation, at the same time generating multiple environmental benefits. Water sensitive urban design and planning (WSUDP) is an approach that

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integrates and optimises the use of available water sources and completes the water cycle by incorporating the following in planning and designing. Compendium deals with the development of a common platform for plethora of information on sustainable water management practices and dissemination of knowledge related to same. But only knowledge cannot bring a change. Constructive actions are also required. The compendium shall be a success only when it is able to influence the various projects and policies in favour of GI and WSUDP. Also, the success of the project shall be measured by the formation of a community that is water sensitive and uses its resources judiciously by becoming a part of the problem-solving process and not vice-versa. The compendium will be completed and available soon on the internet. Similar compendium on the same topic may not be required (presently) as the information shall be updated time to time and new or old case studies can be added anytime. Rather, similar compendium can be developed for other natural resources also. This includes soil, air, etc.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT World has gone on the track of development which is majorly at the cost of nature. So, the concept of sustainable development came into being. Now-a-days, it is a burning issue and people are beginning to realise the importance of a development that makes use of resources in such a way that they are available for the generations to come. The developments and societal structure have changed such that human race has become very resource intensive. Climate change and water security are obvious results of the intensive use of resources.

In the last decade, people have started becoming very aware about the need to consciously use our resources and conserve the degraded ecosystems and manage the existing ones. So, a lot of work has been done by individuals, group of people, NGOs, national and international agencies across the world. Many meetings have been done, agendas have been made and timelines and methodologies have been set up.

In many areas; for the water related issues; river rejuvenation, lake revitalisation, artificial construction of ponds, case sensitive measures have been taken up. Many agencies and departments have collaborated to bring about a change in the deteriorating scenario and get back to the beautiful scenic world.

For instance, Fredrick Smetacek (Jr), Chief Co-ordinator, Society of Appeal for Vanishing Bhimtal, Nainital Environments (SAVE) and Brijraj K. Das, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, Punjab University, Chandigarh came together to the rejuvenation of Bhimtal Lake, Uttarakhand.

These high-altitude lakes of Kumaon region have become highly polluted due to enrichment and unscientific stocking of fish like Gambusia affinis . Degradation of forests in the Bhimtal area, sedimentation, livestock open grazing, expanding infrastructure due to the establishment of several hotels and resort, residential buildings, government offices and road network, disposal of debris generated due to construction activities disposed-off in open that finds its way to the lake through the seasonal streams during monsoon, which is harmful for the health of the lake are other factors that had led to the deterioration of the lake water quality.

To improve the health of the lake, a comprehensive lake conservation plan using the stocking of environment friendly fish species. Aeration of the whole lake system was prepared to combat the pollution and slowly improve the lake ecosystem. The strategies were formulated to completely deutrophy (removal of the nutrients) the lake and help in the establishment of ecologically suitable, technically viable and socially acceptable aquaculture in the lakes. An aquarium was developed in the island in Bhimtal. The aquarium technically competes with the best aquariums in the world and is way forward than that of Indian standards. This way the lake was restored with the help of many agencies and individuals involved.

There is another example of a case study from Harike Pattan, Punjab. This man - made, riverine, lacustrine wetland covers an area of 4100 ha and came into being in 1952. Encroachment, use of the water for irrigation, effluent discharge of untreated wastes from industries and household into

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the wetland (polluted) water discharged and the extensive water hyacinth growth that covered 33 islands present in the wetland and 80% of the total surface area of the water were the major causes of its degradation.

To solve this issue, army was employed which used indigenously fabricated rakers, cutters, winches and booms, the army removed the hyacinth in huge chunks. The water currents helped in flushing out massive floating weed mats, segregated with cutters fitted on boats, during the monsoon "Booming" technique was used in which the ropes and empty drums are employed to stop the hyacinth floating into the cleared stretches. In fact, to overcome the menace of water hyacinth, the Irrigation and Power Research Institute released 46000 weevils against killer weed as a measure for its biological control. Compost was made from the heaps of weed. Village women were motivated towards creating handicrafts out of the extracted weed. Water hyacinth is a major problem at many places around the globe. This case study of Harike Pattan can be a model case study to deal with the menace of the weed at many places.

On a global level, many solution models, for example, for rain water harvesting, have been developed. But the fact remains that though the models are very potent but the information is not accessible. Also, they can’t be applied everywhere in the world. Technologies must be updated and modified according to the needs of the area. One project location may be very different from the location of other project where the project has been successful, in terms of topography, climate, demography, culture, availability of raw materials and much more. Due to these, limiting factors, a project successful in part of the globe may completely fail in other part of the globe. And, so, a comprehensive study, comparison and analysis of many contributing factors is required to have detailed information on the potent solutions. Many-a-times, the solutions that have already been developed may be required at other places.

In many cases, it is seen that the actions are taken, scenario is improved but the improvement remains restricted to the area. Due to such factors the project information also remains restricted to the area. At other places, information is not present and when the information is present, it is inaccessible or diffused (scattered in patches on various website or in various research papers). Hence, a need was felt to develop a data base from the tonnes of information available out there, needed to be fetched and put to its best use.

The best solution that can be done is compilation of the information at one place just like a library. So, an initiative of web-based compendium was developed in which case studies related to water as in river rejuvenation, rain water harvesting, lake revival, invention of water smart solutions etc. are involved. Web- based compendium is a platform where information related to case studies of water sensitive planning are present at one place, at one click of a button.

The main aim of the project is to develop the web-based compendium of case studies that is present on internet for everybody. It is in support of green infrastructure and water sensitive design and planning. This initiative is developed by Centre for Science and Education (CSE) under the MOU with University of the West of England (UWE), Bristol. Green infrastructure refers to natural or semi-natural ecosystems that

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provide water resource management by introducing the natural water cycle into urban environments. It provides effective measures to manage urban flooding, water supply and quality regulation, at the same time generating multiple environmental benefits and water sensitive urban design and planning (WSUDP) is an approach that integrates and optimises the use of available water sources and completes the water cycle by incorporating the following in planning and designing.

This Compendium of Case Studies is one stop platform to explore for the sustainable best management practices. The selective case studies showcase the projects and approaches in support of Green Infrastructure (GI) and Water sensitive Design and Planning (WSUDP) principles used to understand the urban ecosystem benefits globally. In this ongoing project, various case studies related to water effective and efficient solutions, information on various lakes, their rejuvenation methods, causes, innovative methods, funding and costs, green infrastructure solutions, agencies involved are put on the collective stage i.e. the compendium (all the applicable points in the specific case study). The case studies shall be from all over world where the work has been done to revive and rejuvenate the water bodies and other related projects. The compendium will shall be available on internet on a global scale for everyone to access the information at one platform.

There are many features of the web- based compendium as it allows easy access and retrieval of information. The compendium website along with being a global platform, provides many use- based advantages. The website makes it very easy to explore the information based on the various attributes of the case study. These can the project location or region, landuse, scale, objectives, ownership or intervention. Based on the region, case studies can be from Asia, Africa, Europe, Oceania or Americas region. The website also allows the exploring of data using interactive maps. Based on the landuse, these can be waterbody and flood plain, residential, institutional, parks and open spaces or transport and utilities.

Another criterion can be the scale of cases study ranging from institutional to neighbourhood to city to regional. For instance, regional scale includes population of medium density: 400 or more persons per hectare (pph), catchment areas/ river basins and peri-urban area.

Objectives like water conservation, pollution abatement and urban flood mitigation form the fourth criterion. For example, urban flood mitigation involves case studies that focus on stormwater management, flood mitigation, management of extreme flood events. Water retention practices like bio-retention and infiltration practices that support water capture and infiltration, and slow down release of run-off.

Case study projects can have government or private ownership. This can be used as fifth criterion to classify case studies. Based on intervention, whether the case study is a project, plan or project, the case studies can be differentiated. Case studies can have more than one criterion under the same classification. For example, a case study can fall under the domain of a policy and project both or even, plan also. The web- based compendium is also a knowledge marketplace as it provides individuals or groups, the

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opportunity to submit their case studies by communicating with the officials. In all, the compendium is user- friendly and shall be provided updated information. 2. PROJECT LOCATION

Images showing Project location i.e. Harike wetland (Punjab), Kali Bein (Punjab); Kotkapura (Punjab), Bhimtal Lake (Uttarakhand), (Clockwise). Citations provided in the bibliography.

3. PROBLEM STATEMENT The main problem statement for the project is that certain lakes and water bodies are being deteriorated in health and ecology, both temporally and spatially, in recent times, even when water bodies form the basic support system of communities and life on Earth. Hence, it becomes very vital to look-into the causes and plausible solutions to address the problem to conserve the healthy water resources for the generations to come. Few decades back, people led a life in which they were in close contact with nature. Ladies used to fetch water from the wells, children used to bath in the village lakes, men used to go to rivers for recreational purposes. The use was associated with rationality and respect for the resource as well as its source. Today, the concept of nature is being restricted to summer holidays. We get water at our homes in taps from city supplies, very handy. Due to these reasons, the connection with nature is being lost and so are the water bodies. When everything is being available at homes, everybody is focusing at building homes by encroaching the water bodies, using the land for purposes of rehabilitation, urbanisation, industrialisation etc. These all factors are leading to climate change that cause unpredictable weather conditions. This, in turn, leads to drought at one place and flood at other.

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We, humans are a major determining factor in the scenario we see around us. Urban water systems are confronted with significantly changing conditions. The impacts of climate change, rapid urbanisation, and deteriorating and outdated infrastructure aggravate current water challenges of causing flooding, water scarcity and rehabilitation costs on a scale that will overwhelm the capacities of cities. There exists a gap between the supply and demand of water. Water resources are polluted and ground water is being extensively used with no fixed or standard pricing. The existing urban planning paradigm lacks integration of land and water interface. So, it becomes very important to investigate the problem and get some sustainable solutions and judiciously using natural resources to re and help in keeping ecological footprints under control. Hence, in the wake of water security and climate change and changes societal behaviours, it becomes inevitably important to conserve the water resources and look-into the previous case studies to know the faults, causes, solutions etc.

4. PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW There is enough literature to show the basic concern areas, and the limiting factors that have been there in the planning to execution of lake management and the need for the same. There is ample quantity of fresh water in India but is not tapped to its potential. Various reports, research articles and conservation rules are there for the conservation of biodiversity at all levels but there are big loopholes in the execution of the rules. Co-ordination between different departments can be both used as strengths and weaknesses in the reaching of our sustainable and conservation goals. • The need to conserve water sustainably is evident from the fact that Sustainable Development Goal is formulated for the same. Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water for all by 2030. • The United Nations defines India as a water-stressed region. Per capita availability of water is 1,545 cubic metres as it is less than 1700m 3 per capita as per the international norms for being in or out of the category of water- stressed label for any country. • In 2015, a report by the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation stated that though India receives an average annual rainfall of 1170 mm out of which it can store only 6% of rainwater owing to the poor storage infrastructure, compared to 250% stored by developed nations. The Asian Development Bank has predicted that by 2030, India will have a water deficit of 50%. • On the World water day, March 22, 2019; World Bank Water tweeted, “Nearly half the world’s population lives with water scarcity. By 2050, nearly 20% of the world’s population will be at risk of floods.” • According to NITI Aayog, in view of limitations on availability of water resources and rising demand for water, sustainable management of water resources has acquired critical importance. • In one article by India Today newspaper, it was reported that as many as one billion people in India live in areas of physical water scarcity , of which 600 million are in areas of high to extreme water

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stress . 2.1 Billion people live without safe water at home. One in four primary schools have no drinking water service, with pupils using unprotected sources or going thirsty. • Most importantly, India ranked 120 among 122 countries in the water quality index in 2019. This is enough to tell the need to conserve water resources and bring them in their safe and healthy shape.

5. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS The objective of the project lies in finding out the key issues and aspects that led to the deterioration in the health of the water bodies under study and what innovative solutions have been taken till now to resolve the problems and what other potent solutions can be possible. Also, to prepare a check-list of wetland rules and the follow up by various states and analyse the lagging and backing up points. The main goals of the study are: • To create a single platform where case studies of water body rejuvenation are provided with many aspects (like culture, causes, innovations) of knowledge related to them. • To look-into the causes, solutions, innovative methods, costs, cultural aspects, population dynamics, political will linked with the case studies. • To look-into the innovative solutions that can be possible by combining the traditional methods, new scientific technologies, and the well-developed models of solutions from across the world. • To estimate the cost and funding that can be put into a water body rejuvenation process. • To analyse the role of communities, local governance, central governance, NGOs, and other various influences in the protection of our natural resources. • To learn from the short-comings of the previous case studies, to know what steps should not be repeated. • To mark the common flaws in activities that may be present in most of the case studies and learn from them. Failure case studies and success case studies are equally important to be considered before taking up any new project. • To encourage and disseminate knowledge and good practices for sustainable water management in the community. • To gather knowledge that can be useful in adding value to the social and ecological aspects of areas by planning and designing the built environment in accordance with community needs and water issues • To influence the making of upcoming projects and policies by the availability and accessibility of information. • The target audience for this compilation comprises anyone who is remotely interested and/or aware of urban water management challenges, or is perhaps a concerned citizen trying to understand the appropriate solutions for his/her region, city, neighbourhood, residential complex, institute etc. City officials from urban local bodies (ULBs) and development authorities from target states, such as urban planners, landscape and other architects, town planning officers, engineers, and others involved in preparing and enforcing regional and master plans, zonal plans, city

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development plans and city sanitation plans and various local design standards can make use of this information. • The main aim is collecting and documenting case studies to showcase successful water efficiency efforts across the world which will provide a platform for sharing information. Each case study includes a detailed description of the project intervention implemented and learnings that can be attained from them.

6. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY The basic approach used for the study is descriptive, qualitative, and analytical approach. It basically deals with the compilation of information related to rejuvenation of water bodies in a descriptive way using research articles and journals and the dissemination of the same information on a global platform. It also deals with the analysis of the same information to get from causes to the solutions of the problems and preparing a check-list for the activities done by the state wetland authorities in accordance with Wetland (conservation and management) rules, 2017.

Basically, the methodology for the Web-based Compendium involves literature review (research articles, journals, news articles etc.) and compilation of the valuable information related to the work done on water bodies under one case study. It deals with putting the information in the most concise form possible so that the information is reader-friendly. Also, the information deals with precise data under the headings like background and context, timeline, funding and costs, innovative solutions, and key learnings. The case studies also make use of icons and images to make the information readily comprehensible under the themes like objectives of the case study (water conservation, pollution abatement or urban flood control) or scale of the case study (neighbourhood, community) etc.

7. INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS OR STRATEGIES PROPOSED • The project proposes that the solution for these issues is the availability and accessibility of reliable information at the first-hand. The information will be soon made available by the development of the web- based compendium with case studies related to water conservation and innovative solutions used to solve the issues all over the world. • Secondly, in some case studies like Kali Bein, Punjab, it was seen that religious teachers (Gurus) had been highly influential in creating the mass environmental and awareness movements. Campaigns with the highly influential people can prove to be a great asset in creating mass awareness. The understanding of various aspects like cultural aspects (like worshipping trees), educational aspects (to create awareness among the mass) and scientific aspects (i.e. the development and dissemination of water smart solutions) from a holistic approach is very important. The project can also be used to influence policy formations and upcoming projects by making the information handy and available. • Moreover, the case studies can be used for educational and analytical purposes to find out the effects of various aspects of a community on the use and conservation of its resources. A good analysis and use of the case studies can help in inventing area-sensitive solutions in the future.

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• Such compendium can be made for other natural resources also and not just restricting to water.

8. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT Tasks Weeks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Orientation Literature Review Web -based Compendium Final Report Submission

9. KEY FINDINGS • Web- based Compendium on Green Infrastructure and Water Sensitive Urban Design and Planning is a very ambitious project. The availability of web resources is the key in the changing scenario when life has become so fast and everything should be available at the click of a button. In the project, in the few case studies done by our team, the key finding which was founded is that many of the water bodies; with negligible exceptions; were in deteriorated conditions because of anthropogenic reasons. Humans have impacted the natural resources to the extent that the effects are seen from top to bottom, left to right, in the system. Almost, in all water body case studies, it was seen that the source of pollution was industrial or domestic waste. Industrial pollution is a major cause of all the worry and much more is the disposal of untreated or partially treated waste water in the aquatic ecosystem. • Secondly, in the wake of rapid development and urbanisation, the urban growth had been unplanned in terms of infrastructure, resource utilisation etc. The urban areas need to be reimagined and planned in such a way that the overall ecosystem is balanced and populations becomes sensitive towards the natural resources. • There have been many strategies that have been used at some part of the globe and can be used in our country upon required formulations and modifications and vice-versa. • The sustainability approach needs to include elements of water quantity, water quality and ecology, along with community involvement. All environmental solutions can only be achieved when people are aware, sensitive, and as much involved in the process, as they expect from governments to be. • In the ongoing debate of development verses sustainability, there are solutions that can be designed according to the available resources and sustainable development can be possible as have been applied at various places on the globe. Yet the fact remains that human needs can be handled but greed leads to exploitation of resources. • There is a substantial gap in knowledge and skill building across the country at various levels of operation. Capacity building is essential to facilitate an integrated approach especially in the field of urban water and sanitation management.

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10. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The development of compendium is still in progress. The probable results shall be the one stop platform that shall make the reachability of the sustainable water management solutions very easy. Case studies shall be having information on the context, causes, innovative solution, authorities involved, money required and key learnings of the project. In all, pertaining to various key concepts of the projects. This shall make it very handy to look-into the cases studies and analyse the solutions that can be applied at other areas or to avoid the flaws that led to initial failures of some projects.

The existing urban planning paradigm lacks integration of land and water interface. These conditions are increasing the need for environmentally friendly alternatives. It is important to take up the challenge in controlling and judiciously using natural resources to reduce our ecological footprint. It is an open platform which will bring together the latest thinking on natural capital, ecosystem services and nature-based solutions. It provides a knowledge marketplace, which showcases case examples of Green Infrastructure and Water Sensitive Urban Design and Planning to simplify how we share, obtain, and create knowledge to better manage our urban environment.

11. OUTCOMES • The major outcomes of the project shall be the vast knowledge base that shall be created to disseminate a lot of information to the mass related to the sustainable water practices. This shall not only be beneficial to people of India but the global community as a whole. • Citizens shall become more aware of the local and global scenario and sustainable practices. Not only this, they shall be a part of the problem-solving process as they could submit the case study of some project done at their end. This can be achieved by communicating with the respective officials. • This shall be a step forward to building a water- sensitive society. • The compendium shall prove to be useful in influencing policy making towards GI and WSUDP by providing updated information to the practitioners, scientific community, and policy makers. • It shall have a larger application in the field of research and development outputs, enhanced research coordination, and informed research to help focus and research needs of value to policy, planning, design, practice, and assessment. • It shall aid in developing more liveable communities, lowest infrastructure costs to deliver green sustainable cities and healthy waterways, and a better-informed community on water sensitive planning.

12. CONCLUSION The compendium shall be a very vital tool to develop understand and wide information platform to the audience all over the globe. It shall target concerned individuals, groups, architects, engineers, practitioners, scientists, policy makers, and people from various fields. It shall make easy the evaluation of

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information to get desired results and shall help in the knowledge dissemination on the click of a button that can prove to be playing a pivotal role in developing a water- sensitive and water- prudent society.

13. CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES: • The key challenge that has been identified is a gap in knowledge and skill at various levels of operation. Any project cannot be successful until it brings a positive, desired change in the society. • Compendium deals with the development of a common platform for plethora of information on sustainable water management practices and dissemination of knowledge related to same. But only knowledge cannot bring a change. Constructive actions are also required. The compendium shall be a success only when it is able to influence the various projects and policies in favour of GI and WSUDP. Also, the success of the project shall be measured by the formation of a community that is water sensitive and uses its resources judiciously by becoming a part of the problem-solving process and not vice-versa. • Secondly, the compendium shall be available on internet. So, internet is a must to reach to the vast library of case studies (compendium). • The compendium deals with providing the most reliable information that can be possible and is available. Though, the fact remains that many institutions or agencies might not be interested in sharing the exact facts and figures. Such cases become a constraint to the cause.

14. WAY FORWARD WITH REPLICABILITY The compendium will be completed and available soon on the internet. Similar compendium on the same topic may not be required (presently) as the information shall be updated time to time and new or old case studies can be added anytime. Rather, similar compendium can be developed for other natural resources also. This includes soil, air, etc. All it needs is a vast base of information, a management team, a website, and audience. Financial expenses cannot be ignored. Such compendiums are a need of the hour. These shall aid in uniting the global community towards a common goal as the environmental problems may be different on a local level but are common to the whole Earth at a global level. Also, because, in this era of globalisation, activities in the one part of the globe especially in the western countries, influence the activities at other parts of the globe at a quite influential level. Hence, dissemination of knowledge and developing natural resource concern is important at the global level.

15. BIBLIOGRAPHY • Climate action network international. CSE. [online].Available at: http://www.climatenetwork.org/profile/member/centre-science-environment-cse.(Accessed: 27 August 2020) • Linkedin. CSE . no date. [online]. Available at: https://in.linkedin.com/company/centre-for-science-and- environment-new-delhi. (Accessed: 27 August 2020) • rainwaterharvesting.org. (n.d.). Kamoan lake . [online] Available at: http://rainwaterharvesting.org/kumaon_lake/kumaon_lake.htm [Accessed 21 Oct. 2020].

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• www.cseindia.org. (n.d.). CASES ON PROTECTION OF LAKES . [online] Available at: https://www.cseindia.org/cases-on-protection-of-lakes-2551. • United Nations (2018). About the Sustainable Development Goals . [online] United Nations Sustainable Development. Available at: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development- goals/.[Accessed 1 Oct. 2020] • A guide to citation .(n.d.). World Water Day: India is 3rd largest groundwater exporter, but 21 cities are running out of water by 2020! [online] India Today. Available at: https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/world-water-day-2019-water-crisis-india-1483777-2019-03- 22#:~:text=Water%20crisis%20in%20India(Accessed: 27 August 2020)

Image Citations • a guide to citation . Harike Wetland And Bird Sanctuary Amritsar .[online]. Available at: https://www.mouthshut.com/product-reviews/Harike-Wetland-And-Bird-Sanctuary-Amritsar- reviews-925752560. (Accessed: 28 August 2020) • Wikipedia.no date. view of bhimtal. [online]. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhimtal (Accessed: 27 August 20200 • Anon, Leading by example: Indian man's single mission turned a dying river into a paradise. Sott.net . Available at: https://www.sott.net/article/343134-Leading-by-example-Indian-mans- single-mission-turned-a-dying-river-into-a-paradise [Accessed August 28, 2020].

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WATER SMART SOLUTION REPORTS

by Fellows Placed with The Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW)

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6.0 PROJECT: CLIMATE PROOFING OF WATER INFRASTRUCTURE BY LIPI GANDHI Fellowship Theme: Water Security and Climate Change

LIPI GANDHI MSc Water Science and Governance Department of Regional Water Studies TERI School of Advanced Studies

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACCCRN : Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network CFCC : Cities Fit for Climate Change CBA : Cost Benefit Analysis DCCS : Durban Climate Change Strategy NAPCC : National Action Plan on Climate Change UCRPF : Urban Climate Resilience Planning Framework

LIST OF DEFINITONS Adaptation- Adjustment in natural or human systems in anticipation of or response to a changing environment in a way that effectively uses beneficial opportunities or reduces negative effects. Climate Change - refers to any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time. Climate change includes major variations in temperature, precipitation, or wind patterns, among other environmental conditions, that occur over several decades or longer. Changes in climate may manifest as a rise in sea level, as well as increase the frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events now and in the future. Climate stressor, hazard, or threat- The magnitude of the climate variable that may harm the water infrastructure system or asset. Climate variable- A characteristic of the climate that affects the transportation system. The climate variables most often analysed in a transportation vulnerability assessment are temperature, precipitation, sea level, and river discharge. Downscaling - A method that derives local- to regional-scale information from larger-scale models or data analyses. Exposure- Refers to whether an asset or system is located in an area experiencing direct effects of climate variability and extreme weather events. Sensitivity - Refers to how an asset or system responds to, or is affected by, exposure to a climate change stressor. A highly sensitive asset will experience a large degree of impact if the climate varies even a small amount; where as a less sensitive asset could withstand high levels of climate variation before exhibiting any response. Vulnerability- The degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change or extreme weather events. Water Infrastructure- the system built to supply or 11 provides water in a region or community. Consist of canals, waterways, reservoirs etc.

1The definitions have been adapted from: Filosa, G., Plovnick, A., Stahl, L., Miller, R. and Pickrell, D.H., 2017. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Framework (No. DOT-VNTSC-FHWA-18-04). United States. Federal Highway Administration. Office of Planning, Environment, and Realty.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Tremendous changes have been observed in climate across the world as we move towards development. But we need to be conscious of future risks associated with changing climate. There have been enough studies that express their concern over current climatic conditions and projections of climate models that favour the increase in such events in future. Hence, we need to change our perceptions about development towards sustainability for mitigating the risks and minimising the losses. This would reduce the destruction of different infrastructures, loss of lives and also significantly impact economy.

India has seen tremendous growth in its water supply infrastructure in past 150 years on both large scale and small scale projects. This has also boosted the economy for various sectors as it provided a baseline for industrialisation across various regions, encouraged farmers for commercial production and improved water access in rural and urban areas also. Furthermore, considerably good amount of rainfall has always favoured the country in providing with abundant water resources.(Briscoe, 2005)

But constant growth of commercial sectors and urbanisation has been putting immense pressure on the resource added with absence of incentives to conserve water. Adding to it are the constant changes in climate that have severely impacted a lot of regions across the country (Tortajada, 2016). These factors have affected the proficiency of existing water infrastructures along with the direct threats due to climate change. Therefore it becomes essential to understand how these events have been impacting the infrastructure and livelihoods of locals and what could be possible solutions to adapt to these conditions to make the cities robust(Ruettinger et al. , 2011).

Some efforts have been made by the government in order to deal with the problems associated with climate change. The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was introduced by the Prime Ministers’ council in 2008 with eight missions but did not clearly define the steps needed to be taken to adapt to climate change. Similarly, state specific climate action plans exist but they lack a well-defined framework and action plan (Rattani et al. 2018). The Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network framework has been adopted for a few cities but focused primarily on developing resilience for all sectors and is not specific to the water sector(Sharma, Singh and Singh, 2013). Furthermore, lack of coordination, data availability and adequate implementation support has been a key challenge for such frameworks.

This study is based on strengthening the water infrastructure of India and consecutively addresses the water security problems associated with climate change. It aims to provide a framework which can be used for analysing existing water infrastructure of the country and identify the threats pertinent to climate change. The building block of this framework consists of five major elements: Identification of climatic threats, Conducting Risk and vulnerability Assessment, Preparation of Strategic Plan, Implementation of the Roadmap and Monitoring and Evaluation.

It also intends to provide strategic interventions that can be adapted in amalgamation with existing policies and systems to make the infrastructures robust and resilient. This framework can be scaled up for different levels of infrastructure and can be replicated for different kinds of infrastructure.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT Water is a crucial resource for human survival. With increasing population, demand for fresh water has been increasing rapidly around the world. It is a key element for domestic, agricultural and industrial sectors and is indirectly an integral part of our economy and development (Caldecott, 2018). To satisfy the demands of each segment, we have been building water supply and management systems for provision of good quality water in form of desalination plants, canals, irrigation systems, reservoirs, waterways, dams, water treatment systems, storage systems etc. These infrastructures have been serving us successfully for ages and somewhere have been a fundamental segment of our traditional infrastructures. They have helped in optimisation and augmentation of water usage. In urban and rural scenario, they have improved the availability and accessibility of water.

India has been the third worst affected countries by climate change 112 . Its impact on these infrastructures is becoming evident as untimely rainfall and drought episodes, increasing cyclonic frequency, intense heat waves and flash floods have been tumbling with their life period and functioning. Adding to it are the additional financial costs of repairing these infrastructures or setting up new ones. At the same time, our inability to fulfil the existing demand supply chain makes it difficult to manage the resource in future as existing practices have already been leading to water scarcity problems in numerous regions. Inadequate resource management, unplanned constructions, overexploitation of existing structures with absence of accurate monitoring systems make it difficult to trace the problems and very little quantitative data available for analysing the losses (Ruettinger et al. , 2011). This puts further pressure on alternative sources which with time also start experiencing the impacts of climate change. The societal impacts can be observed as the inaccessibility to potable water continues to persist. All of this has posed a big question on water security.

The situation of climate change has high possibilities of aggravating in future and the consequences will only be worse. We need to understand that to avoid these extra financial and social losses, we need to integrate resilience planning with sufficient investment while development of these infrastructures (James et al. , 2018). Climate resilient infrastructures can not only withstand the climatic shocks, but also aid in building community resilience. They help in ensuring that water systems are least damaged and uninterrupted water supply is available to all. Furthermore, they will help in boosting economy as services provided by these infrastructures have a cascading impact on other segments.

The preliminary step to achieve resilience planning is to understand the risks, hazards and vulnerability associated with the infrastructure followed by its impact on communities and their adaptive capacities (Watkiss, Wilby and Rodgers, 2020). After downscaling the impacts and risks, the next step involves identification and involvement of stakeholders and initiating the planning of strategies(García. L. E. et al. ,

12 “India third worst-hit country by natural disasters: Antonio Guterres,” The Economic Times, September 19, 2017. Accessed 30 September 2020. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/india-third-worst-hit-country-by-natural-disasters-antonio- guterres/articleshow/60755819.cms?from=mdr

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2014). It includes finalising the strategies that are most suitable and feasible to be implemented. Post this, mainstreaming of these strategies into existing plans is performed where we implement them followed by continuous monitoring and evaluation.

The role of infrastructure in shaping the financial system is also important to be comprehended. Furthermore, the water infrastructure in India comes under difference institutional systems. Therefore it is important to acknowledge the national, regional and local governance systems as well as the informal governance systems prevailing for the infrastructure so that appropriate stakeholders can be identified while designing and implementing the framework.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT India faces the impressions of climate change every year in terms of untimely droughts, cyclones, torrential rains, heat waves etc. and actual loss are far more than the estimated losses. Most of our infrastructures have been planned on historical climatic data and continuous changes have been causing their frequent disruptions as they fail to withstand such climatic shocks(Goyal and Surampalli, 2018). It also puts pressure on our resources, especially water to fulfil the demands of increasing population. Therefore, it becomes important to provide water security to every individual by strengthening water infrastructures as it is a vital resource for our society(Muller, 2007). It is essential to identify the risks posed and integration of resilient measures in existing infrastructures of the country and map them to accordingly make them robust. This can best understood by devising a framework by comprehending different frameworks adapted by countries and plan of actions as well as analysing the key variables.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Water is a crucial element when impacts of climate change are addressed. The availability of water resources is seriously hampered as the impacts of climate change are clearly visible through inadequate supplies and inabilities to meet demands(Tyler and Moench, 2012). The concept of adaptation has emerged to prevent the negative impact of climate change on our resources and enabling sustainable planning for future. Multiple aspects are associated with water resource which needs to be taken into consideration while selecting resilience strategy. Therefore it becomes essential to have a well-defined framework that enables the decision makers to lead the steps for making infrastructure climate resilient.(Feldmeyer et al. , 2019)

Approach adopted for designing Frameworks For developing a framework, projections for different climatic variables is done under scenarios specific to each region followed by risk and vulnerability assessment in most of the countries (Watkiss, Wilby and Rodgers, 2020). Identification and involvement of stakeholders in developing a strategy has been considered crucial. Therefore experts, locals, authorities and organisations conducted a lot of workshops to understand what kind of infrastructure they would like to have and what changes could be made in existing scenario. Since every region has climate unique to itself, the impact of climate change varies in different

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locations. So for each region, sectors were identified based on baseline studies and field surveys and indicators were looked upon to assess how climatic variable has an impact on each sector. In some cases, gap analysis in existing development plans and government policies was also performed to understand where changes can be brought.

Based on this database, risk profiles were created for some regions. The final step included identification of appropriate climate resilient roadmap for short term and long term suitable to the region followed by devising mechanisms to implement them in existing policies and plans. It was also realised that the strategies are not constant as continuous changes in climatic conditions take place (OECD, 2018). To address this, continuous monitoring and evaluation of implemented strategies was placed as an integral component of almost all the frameworks. This provides the flexibility to bring changes in the framework in future.

Implementation of frameworks across different regions A number of frameworks have been developed worldwide for making infrastructure climate resilient and have been implemented at different scales. In Eyre Peninsula Australia, a regional level plan was designed by The Eyre Peninsula Integrated Climate Change Agreement Committee for identification of best available practices and key areas where joint actions could be taken. The government aimed at integrated approach and strategic planning where all sectors were taken care of along with reforms in current policies (Siebentritt, Halsey and Stafford-Smith, 2014). Similarly Durban Climate Change Strategy (DCCS) has been created in EThekwini, South Africa for setting up a city based approach for climate change adaptation and mitigation(Morgan, 2013). Interrelated themes and associated risks were identified after which strategies were developed by participatory approach. They set up Long Term Adaptation Scenarios Flagship Research Program and incorporated climate change in National Development Plan.

Some countries across Europe have introduced climate proofing programmes at policy levels. In United Kingdom, a framework was created under Climate Change Act for assessing adaptability of the country and it was compulsory to create a National Adaptation Plan under which risk assessment for all administration needs to be taken every 5 years. The existing Planning Policy Statement on Climate change sets out how preparation of Regional Spatial Strategies by regional planning bodies and preparation of Local Development Documents by planning authorities is taken into account (Gupta, Harker and Young, 2013). A lot of guidelines have been formulated for different sectors that are available for use and are based on vulnerability assessment(Veerbeek et al. , 2012). ClimPUDA framework developed by GIZ as a part of Cities Fit for Climate Change (CFCC) project is being implemented in Leipzig Germany (Palma and Frank, 2019). It has four fields of approaches: governance and management, policies and strategies, measures from policy to action and capacity development. The Leipzig 2030 concept has been developed based on this approach along with the Leipzig 2005 Climate Protection Programme. Concept of "Leipzig - City for Intelligent Mobility" has also been established comprising of different measures for achieving the target.

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National Adaptation Strategy was set up in Netherlands keeping climate, government and society at core(Van Schaik, 2008). They studied the impact of climate on economy, people and nature using a set of indicators across different time durations. A lot of stakeholders were involved across various domains. A thorough knowledge base was also created and measures were taken through a series of incentives by national and local programmes. Post that possible adaptation measures have been overviewed. An Integrated Water Management resulted in a new policy that shifted the focus from estimation of flooding probabilities to a more integrated approach. Governance was strengthened at multiple levels. Additionally economic instruments and online learning institutions were set up based on risk assessment.

A “Caribbean Regional Framework for Investment in Water Security and Climate Resilient Development” was set up by Global Water Partnership in collaboration with Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre for tackling water security issues that could be implemented in Caribbean Islands(Boodram N.; Nichols, K.; Woolhouse, 2016). Strategic climate risk assessment and investment planning have been formulated on six themes.

The Central Mekong Delta Region Connectivity Project was initiated in Vietnam by Asian Development Bank, the Government of Australia, and the Government of the Republic of Korea (Ishenaliev and Laplante, 2014). It intended to improve the understanding of climate risks among different stakeholders by establishment of a framework for assessing transport infrastructure, quantification of impacts and setting up adaptation strategies. Design constraints were set up by the government for bridges and roads. In 2011, National Strategy on Climate Change was set up to cope with disasters and continuous climate monitoring where Ministry of Transport came up with its action plan Response to Climate Change. Likewise, Bangladesh set up a “Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan” for mitigating climate vulnerabilities faced by the water infrastructures. A flood risk exposure map was created, critical impact elements were identified and appropriate resilient infrastructural measures were adapted. Policy level implementation included releasing manuals constituting design codes and standards for embankment and flood control & drainage infrastructures (Aulianida, Liestyasari and Ch, 2009).

The Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network (ACCCRN) supported by Rockefeller foundation was initiated in 2008 which aimed to develop strategies and address urban climate vulnerabilities in four Asian countries(Sharma, Singh and Singh, 2013). This network was based on Urban Climate Resilience Planning Framework (UCRPF) and followed resilience based approach. Seven Indian cities were picked up by them with climatic variables and sector specific indicators unique to each city. This was supported by foundations like TARU and other local institutions. They targeted vulnerable populations living in urban areas having minimal access to resources and formal systems thus making them more prone to climate related risks. They prepared resilience roadmap specific to each city with an aim of consolidation of fragile systems and agents by strengthening of institutions.

4. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS This study focuses on achieving following goals:

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• To devise a framework that is suitable for analysing climate resilience of water infrastructures in India. • To map different prevalent water infrastructures of India.

5. DETAILED APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY • Different frameworks for climate resilient infrastructures across different countries have been identified using available secondary literature. Key indicators and variables were recognized from these frameworks and their strategies were analysed. We tried to understand what kind of infrastructure did countries aim to work on and the framework adapted by the country. Then the detailed process and implementation of strategies was examined. We also looked at how these frameworks and roadmaps were adapted in policies of the region. For this, existing vulnerability indices and how indicators are defined for different domains have also been looked upon. First, the sectors suitable to Indian scenario were identified; a list of indicators was developed. It also included looking at some of the systems that were prevalent in older times and were resilient enough. Finally a framework has devised that will help in identifying the key areas and potential consequences of climatic irregularities on communities, resources, and infrastructure and accordingly build resilience strategies. • First we looked at how different countries defined water infrastructure and which ones fit for Indian Scenario. Once the kind of water infrastructure was finalised, we looked at infrastructures currently in working conditions using the Ministry of Water Resources website. After obtaining the list of infrastructures, maps were prepared using ArcGIS by creating a shapefile and adding point data for each infrastructure. These were marked on the base map.

6. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT 7. TASK WEEK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Literature Review Research for Case Studies Compilation of Case Studies Identification and Analysis of Key Variables Obtaining Data for Water Infrastructures Mapping Of Water Infrastructures Finalising key variables

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for Indian Context Compilation and Report Writing

8. KEY FINDINGS AND INNOVATIVE WATER SMART SOLUTION To address water security and climate change issue across the country, a framework has been developed for assessment of water infrastructures of India against climatic threats. This framework is based on the concept of downscaling climate resilience as it would involve a range of stakeholders for decision making and implementation. Four major aspects have been identified and covered: Social, Political, Environmental and Economical. This framework can be altered based on the kind of infrastructure (dams, waterways, canals etc.) and the level of scalability.

Through literature survey and analysis of available frameworks it was found out that to make any infrastructure resilient to climate change, it is first essential to identify which climatic variable has been causing threat to our structure subsequently followed by assessing the impact by creating artificial extreme changes in that variable. Based on that, all possible threats can be identified. It is also essential to understand the existing functioning of the infrastructure so that we are aware of how long it can serve the purpose without any disruptions due to climatic uncertainties. The framework comprises of five stages and is based on identification of climate variable specific to the infrastructure followed by risk and vulnerability assessment. The assessments form an integral part of this framework as they lead the framework towards what roadmaps specific to the identified hazard needs to be adapted. Once hazards are identified, one can work on developing and implementation of the strategies followed by continuous monitoring and evaluations on the effectiveness of the strategy.

9. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The Framework

Identification of Climatic Threats

Risk and Continuous Vulnerability Monitoring and Assessment Evaluation across Sectors

Implementation Preparation of of Strategic Strategic Plan Plan

Figure: Framework for climate resilience of water infrastructure

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The objective of this framework is to provide a reliable source of data to practitioners for informed decision making in regards to any water infrastructure. It is based on the “bottoms-up” approach and would offer flexibility and robustness to the governing bodies in choosing their roadmap and sustain long term resilience(García. L. E. et al. , 2014). The fundamental idea behind the framework is assessing how changes in each climatic variable related with the water infrastructure causes significant variations in non-climatic elements such as population, livelihoods, economy etc. This can be scaled up at different levels and can be structured based on the kind of infrastructure that is being assessed. The framework consists of five phases as discussed below:

1) Identification of climatic threats The first step of analysis requires answering of the question- why do we need to protect our infrastructure. This is followed by recognition of the climatic variables that shall potentially impact the infrastructure(Ray, Patrick and M. Brown, 2015). Subsequently, we try to comprehend how the variable impacts our infrastructural functioning by addressing the following questions: • Have there been any changes in the water storage capacity in past due to rains/high temperature? • To what extent were the infrastructural capabilities to avail the community affected due to these variables? • In long term, how could these variables alter the water availability in region/sector due to damage to these infrastructures?

2) Conducting Risk and vulnerability Assessment This step assesses the amount of exposure to the climatic variable by different projections followed by how sensitive the infrastructure is to the climatic inputs. The vulnerable sections and components of the infrastructure shall be identified. Different levels of risks can be scaled up and the capacity of infrastructure to withstand the risk can be understood.

This stage also looks at the performance of the infrastructure for different sectors because to develop a holistic approach, it is essential to examine the infrastructure over multidisciplinary aspects (Sharma, Singh and Singh, 2013). There are several interlinkages among different sectors and therefore they cannot be looked at as an individual entity. Apart from this, it is also important to look at projection for population dependent on that infrastructure because it should meet the current population needs as well as future needs. The following sectors have been identified for consideration in this framework: • Social- for understanding the social dynamics associated with infrastructure in terms of who will be most impacted and how is it perceived among community. Identification of vulnerable communities and their social strata will help in categorising the levels of risks and threats faced by people at different levels. • Economic- where we look at how the infrastructure supports economy at different scales (local, regional, national). This plays an important part in terms of provision of funding’s for protecting

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infrastructure against climate change and depicts how the infrastructure is interlinked across various sectors for their development. • Environment- for understanding the hydrological component of infrastructure as well as how it supports ecosystem functioning. This component is vital because excess alterations to the natural landscape and functioning might surge the impact of climate change on the infrastructure. • Institutions- where we comprehend different level of governance (national, regional, local) as well as power dynamics revolving around infrastructure in terms of statutory and non-statutory laws. To make the infrastructure robust, one must be aware of who is willing to govern the functioning and managing the infrastructure, because good governance is a key aspect while implementing the framework.

After identification of appropriate indicators and vulnerable sections, the planners can start working on preparing strategic plan.

3) Preparation of Strategic Plan This stage would involve bringing locals, decision makers, experts and other stakeholders together to share their views and expectations over making infrastructure resilient. This would involve activities like shared learning dialogues, detailed consultation, dialogue with financing partners, surveys, interviews and identification of appropriate stakeholders. The strategies could be a combination of hard (infrastructural changes on technicalities) and soft measures (water conservation measures and increasing efficiency through policy reforms). The strategies have to be prepared for both short term and long term credibility.

This stage would propose solutions that would be suitable to reduce the impact of stressor on the infrastructure thus making it robust and more efficient. Once the strategies are proposed, its economic analysis can be performed by using different available economic instruments. Generally, Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) is considered as suitable option for economic assessment as it is helpful in estimating current worth of future investments thus finding the optimal solution as well as preventing unnecessary investment failures. Five ways have been suggested through which climate resilience in water sector could be achieved(García. L. E. et al. , 2014): • Expanding the capacity of existing infrastructure (reservoirs, dams, canals, supply system). • Consistent supervision over functioning of existing infrastructure based on water demands. • Repairing and safeguarding of current systems. • Bringing changes in existing systems in terms of finance, institutions and legislations. • Introduction of water use efficient technologies feasible to be adapted and affordable.

4) Implementation of the Roadmap A planning is successful only when it is implemented at some level. After finalising the adaptation strategies, they will be put into action by integration in existing policies or through policy reforms based on the feasibility. The priority shall be making them compatible with existing policies for application on existing

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infrastructure. At national level, institutional changes can be done by formulation of new designing standards and initiating programs focused on climate adaptation while at local levels, capacity building programs and awareness campaigns can be conducted to involve community in resilience building. Pilot projects could be initiated and similar small scale research work could be executed. The measures for short term implementation will have an immediate impact on the functioning aspect while the long term impacts will build resilience of the infrastructure for higher duration and make it susceptible to climatic changes.

5) Monitoring and Evaluation Climatic uncertainties keep deviating and so it is crucial to supervise the effectiveness of current action plan on the infrastructure and make changes to it when needed. This can be done by evaluation of the framework based on its capabilities to keep the infrastructure resilience over time with changes in social, economic, ecological and institutional structure. Evaluating the performance of infrastructure is crucial to understand how efficient the strategies have been in terms of making infrastructure robust. Gaps can be identified and effectiveness of the current roadmap can be understood. The findings can then be incorporated accordingly for revising existing framework or developing a new one.

Mapping of Water Infrastructure Using the data obtained by website of Central Water Commission, the following dams have been mapped using ArcMap software. The map represents the existing working dams and reservoirs of India.

Figure: Dams of India. (Source for list of reservoirs: http://cwc.gov.in/reservoir-storage )

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10. CONCLUSION This study has been helpful in comprehending that while we are addressing water security in India, the infrastructural component of water systems plays a huge role in provision of safe and adequate water to all irrespective of any other factor. At the same time, it also signifies that while we are moving towards expanding these infrastructures, we must keep in mind the associated challenges that might severely hinder the development and in turn have a cascading impact on all other associated aspects. Climate change is a hovering threat to the infrastructures as our populations keep rising and demands expanding simultaneously. This is why it is becoming important to introduce the concept of climate resilience in the development phase itself because it gets much more complicated to implement any strategy at the later stage. Some attempts have been made to achieve climate resilience by the government and organisations but they have not been successful due to absence of clear work plan and data unavailability.

This framework attempts to provide the government and decision-makers with a roadmap that can be adapted by them in existing policies and aid in making water infrastructure robust against climate change. It will help them in identification of the key areas and potential consequences of climatic irregularities on communities, resources, and infrastructure and accordingly build resilience strategies. They will have a well-defined path so as to secure the water infrastructure, improve the adaptive capacities of communities and make them less susceptible to climatic vulnerabilities.

It has been comprehended that making the structures resilient does not involve only one aspect but needs to be looked at through wider lens because all aspects form the part of same picture. The foremost aspect is Societal as any infrastructure that has been built is to serve the society for a common good. Any technology is not built solely on scientific concepts but is a combination of socio-technocratic concepts and findings. Similarly, Economy plays a major role in deciding the importance of infrastructure in fiscal terms. It clearly defines the role of infrastructure in contributing to the monetary values of any sector. Likewise, Environment cannot be kept separately while we are trying to confine the resource in built infrastructure as alterations have already been made to its natural course. To avoid further losses and damage, understanding the rudimentary functioning and role of infrastructure is also important. Another significant feature to be noted here is acknowledging the institutional mechanism of the infrastructure. Every infrastructure is under different constitutional bodies and therefore when devising a strategy for its climate proofing, it is vital to consider the scope of management and monitoring of the infrastructure and clearly stating the roles of each body.

The importance of every indicator and variable is time specific i.e. an indicator which seems crucial to measure any entity in existing scenario may not be that important after 10 years. Therefore it is important to understand and continuously evaluate the suitability of existing frameworks and should be updated after a certain period of time.

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Using these frameworks for analysing the infrastructures in reality needs proper financing and institutional mechanisms as well as classifying clear roles of different stakeholders at the initial levels itself. At the same time, people should be acknowledged with the concept of climate resilience at local levels and made aware of associated risks. Hence, we should understand that water infrastructures are not limited to supply water but play a bigger role which is why eliminating the vulnerability component related to climate change is very crucial.

11. CONSTRAINTS OR CHALLENGES The biggest challenge faced in this project was that very little literature has been available in Indian context. A lot of frameworks have been created in developed countries like US, Europe and Australia and implementation at policy level have been uncomplicated because of various factors. But when it comes to designing such frameworks for Indian subcontinent, multifaceted approach is essential to be adopted because of complex interlinkages. The multifaceted approaches needed for Indian context seemed missing in case studies worldwide and therefore. Much work has not been done for south Asian countries.

12. WAY FORWARD WITH REPLICABILITY AND SCALABILITY FOCUS As mentioned earlier, this framework can be scaled on different levels based on the capacity of the infrastructure. It is flexible enough to be applicable at different levels of infrastructure that exist. There are a lot of geographical variations which leads to different climatic variables for each kind of infrastructure. Therefore a variable which might pose risk for a particular infrastructure might not cause any harm to the other infrastructure with different geographical characteristics. It could be replicated specifically for water infrastructures located in different regions.

This framework can be applicable at initial stages of development of any infrastructure and would provide more informed decision about how further actions need to be taken for reducing the climate uncertainties. It would not only benefit the government in reducing the financial expenditure endured when any disaster happens but would also maintain the communal integrity over water availability and accessibility in times of climate change.

13. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aparna Roy, “Making India's Coastal Infrastructure Climate-Resilient: Challenges and Opportunities”, Occasional Paper No. 207, August 2019, Observer Research Foundation. Asian Development Bank. 2014. Central Mekong Delta Region Connectivity Project: Rapid Climate Change Threat and Vulnerability Assessment. © Asian Development Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/11540/765. License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. Biggs, D., Miller, F., Hoanh, C.T. and Molle, F., 2009. The delta machine: water management in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta in historical and contemporary perspectives. Contested waterscapes in the Mekong region: Hydropower, livelihoods and governance , pp.203-225. Brown, A. and Kernaghan, S., 2011. Beyond climate-proofing: taking an integrated approach to building climate resilience in Asian Cities. UGEC Viewpoints, 6, pp.4-7.Chu, E., 2016. The political economy of urban

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climate adaptation and development planning in Surat, India. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 34(2), pp.281-298. Caldecott, B., 2018. Water Infrastructure for Climate Adaptation: The Opportunity to Scale-up Funding and Financing. World Water Council . Feldmeyer, D., Wilden, D., Kind, C., Kaiser, T., Goldschmidt, R., Diller, C. and Birkmann, J., 2019. Indicators for monitoring urban climate change resilience and adaptation. Sustainability , 11 (10), p.2931. Filosa, G., Plovnick, A., Stahl, L., Miller, R. and Pickrell, D.H., 2017. Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Framework (No. DOT-VNTSC-FHWA-18-04). United States. Federal Highway Administration. Office of Planning, Environment, and Realty. García, L.E., J.H. Matthews, D.J. Rodriguez, M. Wijnen, K.N. DiFrancesco, P. Ray. 2014. Beyond Downscaling: A Bottom-Up Approach to Climate Adaptation for Water Resources Management. AGWA Report 01. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. ICEM, 2014. USAID Mekong ARCC Climate Change Impact and Adaptation Study for the Lower Mekong Basin: Main Report. James, A.J., Bahadur, A.V. and Verma, S., 2018. Climate resilient water management: an operational framework from South Asia. ACT Learning Paper . Liao, K.H., Le, T.A. and Van Nguyen, K., 2016. Urban design principles for flood resilience: Learning from the ecological wisdom of living with floods in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta. Landscape and Urban Planning , 155 , pp.69-78. Lu, P. and Stead, D., 2013. Understanding the notion of resilience in spatial planning: A case study of Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Cities, 35, pp.200-212. Ray, Patrick A.; Brown, Casey M.. 2015. Confronting Climate Uncertainty in Water Resources Planning and Project Design: The Decision Tree Framework. Washington, DC: World Bank. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/22544 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.” Moench, M., 2014. Experiences applying the climate resilience framework: Linking theory with practice. Development in Practice, 24 (4), pp.447-464. Muller, M., 2007. Adapting to climate change: water management for urban resilience. Environment and urbanization , 19 (1), pp.99-113. Sharma, D., Singh, R. and Singh, R., 2013. Urban Climate Resilience: A review of the methodologies adopted under the ACCCRN initiative in Indian cities. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development. Siebentritt, M., Halsey, N. and Stafford-Smith, M., 2014. Regional climate change adaptation plan for the Eyre Peninsula. Prepared for the Eyre Peninsula Integrated Climate Change Agreement Committee . Taenzler, D., Ruettinger, L., Ziegenhagen, K. and Murthy, G., 2011. Water, crisis and climate change in India: a policy brief. Adelphi, Berlin . URS (URS Corporation Ltd), 2010. Adapting Energy, Transport and Water Infrastructure to the Long-term Impacts of Climate Change. Rattani, Vijeta, Shreeshan Venkatesh, Avikal Somvanshi, Kundan Pandey, Ishan Kukreti, Jitendra, and Akshit Sangomla. “India's National Action Plan on Climate Change Needs Desperate Repair,” October 18, 2018.

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https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/climate-change/india-s-national-action-plan-on-climate-change- needs-desperate-repair-61884 http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/energyoffice/Pages/DurbanClimateChangeStrategy.aspx https://www.arcc-network.org.uk/wp-content/D4FC/D4FC24-Bicester-new-town-full-report.pdf https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/information/publications/studies/2018/climate-change- adaptation-of-major-infrastructure-projects https://www.giz.de/climate-proof-cities/#12 https://www.iisd.org/publications/building-climate-resilient-city-transportation-infrastructure https://english.leipzig.de/environment-and-transport/environmental-protection-and-nature- conservation/flood-control/ https://english.leipzig.de/environment-and-transport/leipzigs-climate-protection-programme/ https://www.interreg-central.eu/Content.Node/FIRECE-D.T.1.1.1-State-of-the-Art-Analysis.pdf https://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop15026/app_b.htm http://www.asiapacificadapt.net/sites/default/files/resource/attach/Surat_City%20Resilience%20Strategy_ TARU-SMC.pdf https://umzimvubu.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/20150824_ueip_ucpp-presentation-sean-od.pdf

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7.0 PROJECT: WATER SECURITY PLANNING FOR RURAL WATER ACCESS BY NIHARIKA NITIN LABHSETWAR Fellowship Theme: Access to Safe Drinking Water

NIHARIKA NITIN LABHSETWAR M Tech Water Resource Engineering and Management Department of Regional Water Studies TERI School of Advanced Studies

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to record most sincere thanks and appreciations to Ms Kangkanika Neog & Ms Surabhi Singh for their constant support and valuable guidance to carry out this work. Their inspirations are also worth mentioning here during the course of this study. Sincere thanks to the C4YIWP Fellowship Program for kindly allowing to carry out this work and giving me this opportunity. Thanks to all colleagues for their constant support.

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS ABY : Atal Bhujal Yojana ARDWSP : Accelerated Rural Drinking Water Supply Program NRDWM : National Rural Drinking Water Mission RGNDWM : Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission NRDWP : National Rural Drinking Water Program SDG 6 : Sustainable Development Goal 6 VWSC : Village Water Security Committee GP : Gram Panchayat

LIST OF DEFINITIONS 1. WATER SECURITY: Water security is a very important binding factor when it comes to efficient water management and suitable governance structure. As water security can be defined in terms of various shaping factors such as the area of focus, climate change, water availability, social structure and governance. As none of these factors can be stated as static subjects in case of change therefore water security is a very contextual aspect than being a rigid concept.

2. JAL CHOUPAL: People’s water platform a democratic water source which results in maximum participation without any discrimination based on any caste, religion and marginalised sections. Decentralized water governance pattern providing a middle ground for proper discussion.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Water is a critical form of resource for the planet, the ecosystems and the inhabitants to thrive. There is a sufficient amount of water available but less is suitable for direct consumption or use. This limited form of existence and distribution has led to the water scarcity and increased the need for water security. Water security can be defined as a multi- dimensional concept, stating adequate quantity and quality of water available for social, environmental and economic uses. It is a form of integrated and comprehensive framework in order to provide sustainable access to water. Global rapid development has a two-faced impact on the consumption and management of existing natural resources. In the case of water, it is a limited form of a resource and therefore the rising gap between demand and supply due to population growth and urbanisation resulting in a water-stressed pattern of development. Rapid urbanisation has led to several issues such as societal impacts, environmental degradation, power dynamics and economic imbalance. To tackle these complex issues there is a need for an innovative solution in smart water management and active involvement of the stakeholders. The accelerated changes in the developing world had led to immediate need for understanding the complex and diverse factors affecting the rural water access and impacting water security. Studies show for establishing a successful water security plan it is very important to maintain coordination between different actors influencing the process at different levels of implementation. The objective of this study is to understand the existing schemes released by the government, try to comprehend data on a grass root level by interacting with NGOs and develop a better sense about the challenges they faced while designing and implementing water security plan and lastly by the help of this study and data available on the public domain design a water security plan. This sequence of work majorly focuses on developing a sense of ownership amongst the people, increasing public participation and awareness, encouraging women engagement, sustainability of the source and coping mechanism for climate change. The study lays a ground for identifying various factor influences such as understanding the demographic, hydrogeological and multi-stakeholder pattern for water security planning for ensuring rural water accessibility and source sustainability.

Water is a shared public resource with multiple stakeholders, spatiotemporal variations and socio ecological differences. Collective action is a form of integrated approach to establish a sense of understanding within the public about the resource. Many studies and analysis have shown that in water security planning collective action is one of the key components apart from other collateral factors. Implementation of collective action is a complex process as it differs from the place to place, rural to urban, economic conditions, social distribution, governance structure. It can be stated as a set of perspectives and ideas. It is basically a group of people working towards a particular goal with a common objective, where every individual involved is responsible and holds a share in the problem solving. The implementation of this approach widely depends upon the dominant factor of influence, it requires a proper understanding about the governing institutions. It is important to consider collective action as a major component for ensuring the proper implementation and planning. This is a cumulative action for beneficiaries and government perspectives, to showcase a collective effort. It is also important to involve the local public to understand their need and major use of water. Collective action is a multi-factor dependent process where its implementation widely matters on several components and balance

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between them. It is necessary to understand the social structure, major economic dependency, the working and decision making of local bodies and hydrogeological conditions. But certainly, there are some barriers to this process as well such as for small holders, marginalisd sections, skills & knowledge exclusion, widening gaps between urban rural developments potentially leading to great inequalities, restriction and limitation to access demanding markets, pervasive inequity, power dynamics are few issues in case of practicing collective action.

1. BACKGROUND Water is one of the most important forms of resource and basic necessity of life. Ensuring supply of water in rural areas and improving the accessibility of the resource has been one of the most prime goals of the government. Since independence there have been a number of schemes introduced by the Government to improve the accessibility for Rural Water Supply. To improve the conditions of rural water supply GOI introduced Accelerated Rural Drinking Water Supply Program (ARDWSP) in 1972 to support states and union territories for financial and technical aid. Later in 1986 National Rural Drinking Water Mission (NDWM) was launched and subsequently it was retitled as Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) in 1991. The scheme focused on uncovered habitations, water quality affected sources and water quantity sensitive areas. It mainly followed a “catchment area approach” for reviving the conditions and worked in pattern by classifying the progress of work in to three categories Not Covered (NC), Partially Covered (PC) and Fully Covered (FC) which can improve the coverage for the habitations. In the year 2009 the ARWSP guidelines were revised and renamed as Nation Rural Drinking Water Program (NRDWP) which aimed at few critical issues such as gap between the designed and available facilities, sustainability and portability of the source, stakeholder participation, futuristic approach, climate change, equitable distribution and decentralized approach. Followed to the 2009 scheme Jal Jeevan Mission was launched in the year 2019 with a futuristic goal for providing a Functional Household Tap Connection (FHTC) by 2024. The main objectives are inadequate investments, source sustainability, poor maintenance of schemes, and willingness of the public to pay for water and service delivery. It mainly focuses on developing village water sustainability. Sustainable Development Goal 6, Clean Water and Sanitation (6, aims at ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Water Security Planning for ensuring rural water access is a comprehensive subject influenced by multiple factors. To ensure an effective mechanism it is very important to understand the challenges faced on a grass root level and an integrated approach is followed to make sure there is balance maintained between the technical, social, governance and economical aspects.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT 1. How a water security plan for a village can be developed by considering spatial hydrological aspects and impact of climate change for ensuring rural water accessibility and source sustainability? 2. How government schemes like Jal Jeevan Mission, Atal Bhujal Yojana, etc. can adopt this water security planning process?

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3. LITERATURE REVIEW Water Security is a paradigm, as set of multiple ideas and perspectives co-dependent upon the focused area. This concept is build based on water institutions/ social structure, technological interventions, policy and governance, sustainability and economic conditions. Therefore, it is difficult to define water security based on certain stringent terms but can be understood based on the variability of these factors and it requires a multi-disciplinary approach. It is the distribution of potential productive quantity and quality, limiting the destructive use of the resource to ensure sustainable use. Water is a critical form of resource for the planet, the ecosystems and the inhabitants to thrive. There is a sufficient amount of water available but less is suitable for direct consumption or use. This limited form of existence and distribution has led to the water scarcity and increased the need for water security. The focus on water security is a dynamic relationship between humanity and hydro-geological changes with hypothesis of several actors. Water security is also termed as web of other relevant sectors necessary for the existence, such as food, energy, climate, national security, human security and water resource management. It is basically a socio-political phenomenon. As per UN the term water security is “the capacity of the population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities and of acceptable quality for sustaining livelihood, human wellbeing, socio- economic development, for ensuring protection against water borne pollution and water related disasters, and for preserving the ecosystem in climate peace and political stability”. In older days most of the villages were situated near to the river and increasing dependency such as for irrigation, flora and fauna, aquatic life on this abundant form of the resource was one of the key factors for its conservation and efficient use. This can also be stated as potential solutions to improve the existing conditions.

Government schemes: Since independence there have been a number of schemes introduced by the Government to improve the accessibility for Rural Water Supply. To improve the conditions of rural water supply GOI introduced Accelerated Rural Drinking Water Supply Program (ARDWSP) in 1972, to support states and union territories for financial and technical aid. Later in 1986 National Rural Drinking Water Mission (NDWM) was launched and subsequently it was retitled as Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) in 1991. The scheme focused on uncovered habitations, water quality affected sources and water quantity sensitive areas. It mainly followed a “catchment area approach” for reviving the conditions and worked in pattern by classifying the progress of work in to three categories Not Covered (NC), Partially Covered (PC) and Fully Covered (FC) which can improve the coverage for the habitations. In the year 2009 the ARWSP guidelines were revised and renamed as Nation Rural Drinking Water Program (NRDWP) which aimed at few critical issues such as gap between the designed and available facilities, sustainability and portability of the source, stakeholder participation, futuristic approach, climate change, equitable distribution and decentralized approach. Followed to the 2009 scheme Jal Jeevan Mission was launched in the year 2019 with a futuristic goal for providing a Functional Household Tap Connection (FHTC) by 2024.

Atal Bhujal Yojana: Central sector scheme the time period was 2020-21 to 2024-25 for 6 states are selected UP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Gujrat and Haryana based on the groundwater extraction, implementation framework and institutional readiness. Encourage community

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engagement and inculcate behavioral change, Increase the states to maximize participation in ground water management and alternative solution that can be practiced, Stringent and strong framework is being proposed to ensure effective stakeholder participation and Strengthening the information and research framework.

Sustainable Development Goal 6, Clean Water and Sanitation (6, aims at ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Water Security Planning for ensuring rural water access is a comprehensive subject influenced by multiple factors. To ensure an effective mechanism it is very important to understand the challenges faced on a grass root level and an integrated approach is followed to make sure there is balance maintained between the technical, social, governance and economical aspects.

4. IMPLEMENTATIONAL CHALLENGES i. Source sustainability: Water security basically deals with the provision of adequate amount of water and quality; this also significantly depends on the source of the water for that particular village. In many studies it is found that the villages are dependent on a single source, this leads to major issues in regards of water supply. ii. Growing population and demand: the increasing demands are result of high scale urbanisation taking place due to which there is a serious imbalance between the availability of the resource and that can be supplied. And the increasing graph of population has made it worse. Many population projections studies have shown that if this mismanagement of the resources continues there would be increasing rate of population vulnerable to starvation from basic amenities. iii. Climate change: the major effect of climate change is, multiple un-certainties leading to major hydro-geological changes. Hydrology and geology can be categorised as important actors when it comes to water security, the spatial and temporal variation are the key area of interest. For example due to climate change there has been overall increase in the temperatures which disturbs the cycle of evaporation, rainfall patterns have become unpredictable etc. iv. Completion of water infrastructure is basically the construction of infrastructure for enhancing the water management and conveyance of water to the need users. But un-fortunately only construction of infrastructure can’t be helpful for ensuring water accessibility it also important to maintain the infrastructure and also renew the aging infrastructure to prevent major crisis. v. Major economic dependency: traditionally India has been dominant holder in agriculture production, and maximum population here is dependent on it. In many rural regions, agriculture is the key type of economic source, and therefore this makes it more important to ensure water security. As water is a necessary component for good yield and ensuring sufficient amount irrigation facility is available. vi. Potential consumption of water vii. Governance structure viii. Power dynamics ix. Collective action

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5. TOOLKIT COMPARISON A collaborative approach of including the concept of IWRM in WASH delivery, by working with NGOs in this domain. In a governmental structure there are multiple ministries a gram Panchayat a collection of many villages involved in water management sector. This toolkit recognises the importance of community level and immediate watershed are the building blocks for water security. Efficient tool for monitoring and communication of the information on the national, state and local level. WASH is a collective term for water, sanitation and hygiene. The benefit of an improved drinking water source can only be possible when there is access to improved sanitation and adherence healthy hygiene practices. IWRM is defined as a process of capacity building for water management, theoretically and practically there are some important factors such as: Enabling environment: through policies, interventions and legislations, Management interventions: economic incentives and Institutional arrangements: policies and regulatory frameworks. The village community of Kakupur Sitaram was successfully able to design their own water security plan with a technical support of Shramik Bharti, Water Aid and INERM foundation. Gram Panchayat had designed this water security plan with an implementation of 5 years. The support from various government departments and community it targeted to achieve the water security in next 5 years. The GP water security plan main component of this WSP was formation of Jal Choupal. Jal Choupal or People’s platform for water. This is a democratic, decentralized form of platform allowing widest participation of community involving marginalised sections of the society and encouraging participation of women. Formation of Jal Choupal is a systematic form of method for managing the water. The People’s Water Security Plan is designed based on the collective action and shared resource concept where the utility end was made to understand the importance of water to them and need for water management techniques. This type of planning and execution increases the sense of ownership amongst them and makes the people more aware about the present conditions. A holistic and participatory approach was adopted, following institutional roles and responsibilities. A Gram Panchayat and Village Water & Sanitation Committee were formed to ensure proper decision making and participation. It was helpful for acquiring ground level information via support organisations and focussed group discussions.

This project was conducted in Bhilwara, Raipur. The major objectives for this project were for funding components and address the gaps of sustainability, capacity building of gram Panchayat and VWSC, planning on a village and block basis, WSP designing DWSM and BRC to check the operational viability, develop a professional capacity to VHWSC role of PHED can be complemented. It defines the key concept of defining what is water source and a resource. A water source is at which water can be access for consumption and a wide range on which the delivery from the source depends is a resource. Water Aid’s major focus was on improving access to water for basic domestic consumptions, sanitation and hygiene. Centred around the demand of water for regular needs acknowledging other multiple uses of water. This tool kit tries to define the possible reasons behind water insecurity like insufficient political will or support, insufficient investment capacities or funding agencies and skill management. Exclusion of certain socially constructed and dominated, economically marginalised groups. The main objectives for this toolkit are: • Strengthen the community adaptation and residence

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• Structure of community level • Framework for allocation of resources • Reduce conflicts between end users • Design of WASH services and increase efficiencies • Community empowerment and encourage them to be vocal about their needs to the people • Promoting a concept of cumulative effort

KAKUPUR WATER AID 1. Identifying the key focus areas. 1. Water security frame work: (Climate change, gender and water, water • In depth assessment of demand and sources budgeting, transboundary issue and ground • Water resources available water) • Source reliability and water quality 2. The plan was designed for 5 yrs implementation • Threats to availability and accessibility 3. Formation of Jal Choupal to increase public 2. Water Aid multi country program: participation • Focus on 5 countries 4. Understanding the demographics (number of • Ground water related threats households, total population, division of male • Multi-level governance framework [OECD] and female, no. of handpumps and wells, GW) was followed 5. Functional survey prior to Jal Choupal • Introduction and background study to 6. Water quality test conducted by Shramik Bharti understand the demographics 7. Sanitation inspections • Two stage analysis institutions, laws and 8. Recommendations and measures for all blocks actors, organisations based on test results • Characterisation of ground water resources 9. Mitigation measure were designed for every key • Systematic arrangement of ground water focus area key pointers across the countries 10. Domestic water usage the consumption levels • Institutional and governance mapping 11. The typed of crops grown and amount of water used per crop and suggestion for using less water intensive crops 12. Community mapping to develop a better understanding for the requirements of the village WASH BASIN [FRANK WATER] GOVERNMENT 1. Follows STEEP frame work that is social, • Community participation technical, environmental, economical and • Assessment of community perception on political natural resource base and drinking water 2. The initial site visit is performed to and sanitation understand the key parameters and this • Sample survey: technical and household covers the technical part of the frameworks • Gram panchayat profile ( water budgeting,

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(geographical conditions, infrastructure, source, gender, infrastructure etc -) economic activities, leadership structure, • Drinking water profile ( existing conditions, rainfall, ground water and surface water) water quality) 3. Interim report to mention the watershed • Water budgeting hydrology of the area, GIS maps, data, • Project plan: economical activities information and • Source sustainability financing • Water quality 4. Second field visit for other possibilities of • Sanitation facilities other water interventions, social structure • Governance structure mapping, surveys and water quality tests • Implementation (procurement, material, 5. Ground water assessment hydraulic construction) conductivity, transmissivity and flow. • Monitoring and evaluation 6. Water budgeting • Performance indicators 7. Detailed water budgeting

6. PROJECT LOCATION Project Location: Village: Kakupur Sitaram, District : Kanpur, State : Uttar Pradesh

Fig 1: Village Kakupur Sitaram (Boundary - Red Outline); Source: Google Earth

7. OBJECTIVE AND GOALS • To understand how policies or schemes gap be bridged to strengthen the design of water security planning. • To comprehend the hydro geological variations caused due to climate change hence impacting the water security in rural areas.

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• To understand the importance of women's engagement in ensuring sustainable water management and water security planning.

8. DETAILED APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY The project is divided into three phases as detailed below: 1. Firstly, a thorough review of existing government schemes related to rural water supply, groundwater management, and irrigation efficiency will be conducted. 2. Thereafter, Shramik Bharti NGO will be interviewed to understand the issues faced by them in implementation of water security plan at Kakupur Sitaram. 3. By taking in the inferences will be drawn from interviews, water security plan for village Kakupur Sitaram in U.P. will be created using GIS tools, hydrological & meteorological data and ground observations

Phase Phase Phase

LITERATURE REVIEW INTERACTION WITH NGOs DESIGN OF WATER SECURITY PLAN 1. Reviewing the existing 1. Qualitative Interviews 1. Understanding the factors Government schemes. with NGOs, like FRANK influencing water security 1.1. National Rural Drinking Water, WOTR, Shramik a. Hydrogeological Water Programme Bharti, etc. conditions 1.2. Jal Jeevan Mission 2. Discussion with grassroot b. Demography of the 1.3. Atal Bhoojal Yojana NGO, Shramik Bharti, village 1.4. PMKSY (Har Khet ko working for rural water c. Land Use Paani) access in India, for d. Water Budgeting 2. CAG Audit Report on NRDWP understanding barriers e. Major economic 3. Understanding the loopholes and innovation needs for activities in operational guidelines, designing and f. Agricultural delivery mechanism and implementing water dependence and implementation of rural security plans in villages cropping calendar water supply schemes and g. Water quality issues & role of water security other hazards planning. 2. Watershed Modelling using ground observations and GIS tools.

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9. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT Task Name Start Date End Date Percent Complete Phase 1 (Literature Review) Orientation Workshop 7/13 7/15 100% Literature Review (LR) 7/27 9/1 80% Project Outline 8/25 8/28 100% Blog Post 1 8/21 8/28 100% Report Draft 1 8/29 9/2 10% Phase 2 (Interaction with NGOs) Semi -Structured Interviews with NGOS 8/29 9/10 Qualitative Analysis (LR + Interviews) 9/10 9/14 Case Studies 9/14 9/18 Photo Slides & Narratives 9/15 9/18 Report Draft 2 9/21 9/24 Phase 3 (Water Security Plan for Kakupur Sitaram) Data Collection & Cleaning 9/19 9/20 0% Watershed Modelling 9/21 9/24 0 o Water Security Plan 9/25 9/28 0°o Infographic Poster 9/28 10/1 0% Final Report 9/24 10/1 10%

10. INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS OR STRATEGIES PROPOSED Through this study, we are able to understand the social, economic, environmental, technical and political division of the selected site. In case of social, this will include encouraging more participatory management that is involvement of people in the planning as well as implementation and women engagement in order to establish a sense of ownership and better water resource management. Environmental and technical, with using spatial analysis tools like QGIS, it will help to build a sense about the hydrogeological conditions, water availability, distribution of the consumption levels, major users, vicinity to any water body and hence examining the spatiotemporal variations for the influencing factors. This would also result in analysing the major economic dependency of the village and political structure of governance. From this comprehensive study of several shaping factors a watershed model will be generated which will be helpful in designing a well suitable ‘Water Security Plan’ for Kakupur Sitaram village. Water security plan for Kakupur Sitaram will contain a water balance for the village to assess the physical water security, assessment of water infrastructure, vulnerability to specific hazards or water risks and a detailed assessment of institutional and governance arrangement for providing access to safe water.

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11. KEY FINDINGS Understand the social, economic, environmental, technical and political division of the selected site. • This will include encouraging more participatory management that is involvement of people in the planning as well as implementation and women engagement in order to establish a sense of ownership and better water resource management. • Understanding the demographics of the village. • Reviewing and studying in detailed manner the government interventions and other toolkits to comprehend a suitable approach for this project • Analysing the loop holes of the study and implementation challenges • Comprehensive study of several shaping factors a watershed model will be generated which will be helpful in designing a well suitable ‘Water Security Plan’ for Kakupur Sitaram village.

12. CONCLUSION This study highlights evidences that technical interventions, policy amendments and community engagement are strongly inter-related and interdependent on each other. The impact of every single variable in this process is dependent on every other variable that is it follows an integrated approach or a holistic approach. In this process villages form VWSCs which enhance the process of formation of their own rules, which helps to make their governance stronger and even make community independent to manage their own water resources. On the policy end the implementation of JJM was a very important factor to understand the functioning of the governmental schemes in the rural part. Water security is an issue which can be tackled only by giving a liberal set of frameworks for public participation and hence acceptance for the technical interventions.

13. CONSTRAINTS & CHALLENGES 1. To understand and work considering the existing social construct and, institutions and beliefs of people. This majorly influence the acceptance of the society and implementation of the new interventions. 2. Major economic dependability and development funds. 3. Anticipated climate change and its impact over the hydro geological conditions, it impacts the characteristics such rainfall pattern, temperature variations and recharge mechanisms. In case Kakupur Sitaram village this was a major issue for designing the water security plan. 4. Amount of storage and recharge structures 5. Transboundary water disputes due to the location of the village near the Ganga basin has impacted the water usage pattern based on certain pre-established political and social institutions. 6. Gendered power dynamics practiced on a large scale in distribution of the duties where women majorly are responsible for collecting the water and maintaining the availability for the household purpose. 7. The construction and maintenance of the water infrastructures.

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14. REFERENCES 1. Atal Bhujal Yojana, Government of India, Ministry of Jal Shakti 2. Accelerated Rural Drinking Water Supply Program (ARDWSP),1972, GOI 3. National Rural Drinking Water Mission ,1986, GOI 4. Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM), 1991, GOI 5. National Rural Drinking Water Program (NRDWP), GOI 6. Sustainable Development Goal 6 , Clean Water and Sanitation, GOI 7. The WASH Basin toolkit , ARUP & Frank Water 8. Water security: Debating an emerging paradigm ; Christina Cook, Karen Bakker

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WATER SMART SOLUTION REPORTS

by Fellows Placed with Development Alternatives (DA), J S Water Energy Life Co and TARU Leading Edge Pvt Ltd

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8.0 PROJECT: SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY PROCESS FOR GROUNDWATER STUDIES IN INDIA BY EKANSHA KHANDUJA Fellowship Theme: Water Policy and Governance

EKANSHA KHANDUJA M Tech Water Resource Engineering and Management Department of Regional Water Studies TERI School of Advanced Studies

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AHP : Analytical Hierarchical Process LULC : Land Use Land Cover MCDM : Multi Criteria Decision Making NDVI : Normalised Difference Vegetation Index RS : Remote Sensing WTF : Water Table Fluctuation PCM : Principal Component Matrix

EXPLANATION OF ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY PROCESS “The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a general theory of measurement. It is used to derive ratio scales from both discrete and continuous paired comparisons. These comparisons may be taken from actual measurements or from a fundamental scale which reflects the relative strength of preferences and feelings …In its general form the AHP is a nonlinear framework for carrying out both deductive and inductive thinking without use of the syllogism by taking several factors into consideration simultaneously and allowing for dependence and for feedback, and making numerical trade-offs to arrive at a synthesis or conclusion .” (Saaty, 1987). AHP has found several applications in multi criteria decision making (Saaty, 1987; Chowdhury, Jha and Chowdary, 2010; Kaliraj, Chandrasekar and Magesh, 2014), conflict resolution and in planning and resource allocation (Saaty, 1987). It was formed by T.L. Saaty from 1971-75, as a tool to combine events of physical and psychological domains (Saaty, 1987).

Fig.1: Hierarchy of Finnish energy decision for nature of power plant (incomplete hierarchy) Source: Saaty (1987)

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Saaty (1987) explains that AHP models a problem by representing it as a hierarchic /network structure and then requires pairwise comparison to establish relations within the structure. In discrete case this would give dominance matrices and in continuous case this would lead to kernels of Fredholm operators 13 (these matrices/kernels are positive and reciprocal e.g. aij = l/aji). In both cases ratio scales are derived in the form of principal eigenvectors or eigenfunctions respectively. Elements of a hierarchy are then grouped in clusters according to homogeneity and a level may consist of one or several homogeneous clusters. These elements present in levels can be refinements, constraints or decompositions of the elements above. Hierarchies can themselves be defined to be of two types – complete and incomplete. Complete hierarchy is when all elements in one level have all elements in succeeding level as descendants. When not all succeeding elements are present in the preceding level, we have incomplete hierarchy. Fig. 1 shows example of incomplete hierarchy – Finnish Parliament wants to decide on what kind of power plant to build. They wanted to figure its impacts on their national economy; health, safety and environment; and political factors that might play a role like relations with U.S.S.R. Each of these criteria is composed into sub—criteria and alternative options are suggested. The main aim is to improve overall welfare of the nation.

A general rule is that the hierarchy should be complex enough to capture the situation, but small and nimble enough to be sensitive to changes. In the example of Finnish parliament, the hierarchy established was complex enough to capture the situation at hand and solvable enough for the decision makers involved.

Pairwise comparisons are fundamental in the use of the AHP. Priorities for main criteria must first be established by judging priorities in pairs for their relative importance, thus generating a pairwise comparison matrix . Judgments on comparison are represented by numbers from the fundamental scale shown in Table 1. “ The number of judgments needed for a particular matrix of order n, the number of elements being compared, is n(n - 1)/2 because it is reciprocal and the diagonal elements are equal to unity .” (Saaty, 1987)

Table: The fundamental scale

13 Not a part of this study

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Source: Saaty (1987) - The next step is to compare the sub criteria that belong to each of the main criteria, thus constructing more pairwise comparison matrices (3 more such matrices for Finnish parliament example). Then the (three) alternatives have to be compared with respect to each of the sub criteria, leading to (nine) more pairwise comparison matrices. The final step is to weight or synthesise the results to obtain the final priorities. - The steps involved in AHP for groundwater studies can be summarised as follows: (Kaur et al. , 2020; Verma, Singh and Srivastava, 2020) 1) Define problem goal 2) Decide variables/indicators 3) Arrange them in a hierarchy (goal, criteria, and alternatives) 4) Construction of Pairwise Comparison Matrix (PCM) of each element within each level using Saaty’s scale of 1-9 rating , where 1 means equal importance for the parameters and 9 means extreme importance of one element over another. If there are n parameter or criteria then PCM of order n × n can be written as below equation:

Equation 1: Principal Component Matrix Source: Verma, Singh and Srivastava, 2020 5) Next is to compute an eigenvector or priority vector. It is necessary to compute an eigenvector to normalise each column of the matrix. Eigenvector shows relative weights compared with the parameters. For normalized relative weight, each column of the reciprocal matrix is summed and then divide each element of the matrix with the sum of its column. The normalised principal eigenvector can be obtained by averaging across the rows. Since it is normalized, the sum of all elements in the priority/eigenvector is 1. 6) Elements of the normalised eigenvector are weighted with respect to the criteria/sub criteria and rated with respect to the alternatives – expert judgement is generally used for this. Other parameters like principal component analysis or catastrophe theory also exist. 7) Estimate consistency ratio to check the consistency of judgment. The consistency ratio describes whether the judgments over the factors are consistent or inconsistent. The pairwise-comparison matrix is strongly consistent if and only if the condition given below is true:

AIk * A kj = Aij , for all I, j …….. Equation 2 AHP captures the idea of uncertainty in judgment through the principal eigenvalue and consistency index CI is calculated as:

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CI = (λ max −n) / (n−1) …….. Equation 3 Where, n is the number of parameters/ factors, and,

λ shows the average value of the consistency vector { (XW)/ nW } If λ = n, then pairwise comparison is a consistent matrix. 8) The appropriate consistency index is known as random consistency index (RI), and consistency ratio (CR) is calculated to judge whether the original pairwise matrix values should be revised or not if needed. The value of CR should be less than 0.1, and then it is considered to be acceptable and also indicates the judgment is consistent. If the values are greater than 0.1, then it indicates inconsistent judgment. In this condition when CR > 0.1, the judgment made in determining the PCM elements is to be modified so as to remove the inconsistency CR = (CI) / (RI) …… Equation 4 Value of RI can be obtained from the table below

Table 2: Values of Random consistency Index (RI) Source: Biswas, Mukhopadhyay and Bera, 2020

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1. SELECTION AND REVIEW OF ARTICLES This study aims to review the groundwater studies conducted using AHP and GIS and/or RS environment. The string of search phrases – “AHP” and “Groundwater Recharge” and “India” and “GIS” and “RS” were the search words used on Google Scholar. Google Scholar was the search engine used. Time filter was set from 2000 to 2020 and only patents were included. This phrase gave 680 results, which were then sorted based on following criterion: • Studies based on only India were reviewed • Groundwater potential studies were included • Groundwater recharge studies were included • Studies which explored groundwater recharge/potential and integrated it with planning for other resources were included • Studies which were aimed at studying only morphology of the region were excluded • Studies which studied morphology as a part of layers determining GWR/ potential were included • Studies aimed at exclusive understanding of RWH systems were excluded • Studies which proposed recharge structures and their relevance to groundwater recharge were included • Studies in only peer reviewed journals were used: all studies which made through the above sorted criteria were found to be in peer reviewed journals only. So no studies were discarded based on this criteria • Studies published in magazines/conference papers/books were also included • Studies which used AHP only were used. There were studies which compared AHP with other methods for multi-criteria decision making, they were excluded. • If judgements/weights were given to layers based on methods other than expert’s judgements in AHP, such studies were also included since these other methods were a part of subset of AHP methodology. • Review studies on usage of AHP in groundwater studies were included

Reviewed, 74, Can't be (11%) downloaded, 12, (2%)

Reject Reject Title, 432, (63%)

Reject Methhodology, 1, (0%)

Can't be downloaded Reviewed Reject Abstract

Reject Methhodology Reject Title

Figure: Distribution of 680 articles found

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432 studies were rejected based on their title and 12 studies could not be downloaded. 236 studies were downloaded. 144 from this were rejected based on abstract and 1 was rejected based on Journal wise, these articles were found in 40 journals. Arabian Journal of Geosciences; followed by Environmental Earth Sciences; and then Environment, Development and Sustainability and Groundwater for Sustainable Development had the maximum articles. Their distribution can be seen in Table 3

Table: Journal-wise distribution of articles Sr. No Journal No. of Articles found 1 Applied Water Science 1 2 Arabian Journal of Geosciences 7 3 Earth Science Information 1 4 Engineering Reports 1 5 Environment, Development and Sustainability 5 6 Environmental Earth Sciences 6 7 Environmental Management 1 8 Geocarto International 3 9 Geology, Ecology and Landscapes 2 10 Groundwater for Sustainable Development 5 11 Hydrogeology Journal 1 12 Hydrological processes 1 13 Hydrospatial Analysis 2 14 i-manager's Journal on Civil Engineering 1 15 Information and Communication Technology for Sustainable 1 Development - Proceedings of ICT4SD 2018 (book) 16 International Conference on Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture 1 17 International Conference on Innovations in IT and Management - 2018 1 18 International Journal for Scientific Research & Development 1 19 International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology 1 20 International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics 1 21 International Journal of Remote Sensing 2 22 International Journal of Remote Sensing & Geoscience 1 23 International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews 1 24 International Journal of Technical Innovation in Modern Engineering & 1 Science 25 International Water Resources Association Journal 1 26 Journal of Cleaner Production 1 27 Journal of Rural Development 1 28 Journal of the Geological Society of India 2

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29 Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing 3 30 Modelling Earth Systems and Environment 2 31 Natural Resources Research 1 32 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section A: 1 Physical Sciences 33 Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 2 34 Remote Sensing of Land 1 35 Scientific Reports 1 36 Spatial Information Research 1 37 Springer Nature Applied Sciences 1 38 Sustainable Water Resources Management 1 39 The Engineering Journal of Application & Scopes, 1 40 Water Resources Management 2

Year-wise distribution of the articles (from 2000 to 2020) shows maximum articles towards ending years, with year 2020 having the maximum relevant articles.

16 15 14 12 12 10 8 7 6 6 5 4 4 4 3

Studies conducted 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 State

West Bengal Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Orissa Jharkhand Andhra P. Uttar Pradesh Gujarat Karnatak Rajasthan Kerala Punjab Delhi Chhatisgarh Himachal P. Haryana Assam Uttrakhand Madhya P Kashmir Jharkhand and Bengal

Figure: State-wise distribution of studies conducted since 2000

Since studies conducted only in India were used, an analysis was done on state-wise distribution of the studies also. Maximum studies were conducted on state of West Bengal, followed by Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.

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20 19

15 13 13

10 6 5 5 5 5 3

Studies Conducted 2 1 1 1 0 Year

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Figure: Year-wise distribution of studies conducted

A review of these articles was done for layers used in them. This can be summarised as below: Table : Review of Articles Sr. Paper Reviewed Area of Study No. of Layers used No. Layers 1 (Chowdhury et al. , West Medinipur 7 Lithology, landform, drainage density, recharge, 2009) district, Bengal soil, land slope and surface water body. 2 (Jha, Chowdary Salboni block, 10 Geomorphology, land slope, soil, drainage and Chowdhury, Medinipur density, recharge, proximity to surface water 2010) district, Bengal bodies, aquifer resistivity, aquifer thickness, geology and depth to post- monsoon groundwater level 3 (Chowdhury, Jha West Medin ipur, 5 geomorphology, geology, drainage density, slope and Chowdary, Bengal and aquifer transmissivity 2010) 4 (Sargaonkar, Rathi Sub watershed of 7 Lineament density, depth to bedrock; soil cover; and Baile, 2011) River Kanhan, drainage density, slope, landforms and land Nagpur, use/land cover; and water table level fluctuation Maharashtra 5 (Taylor, Rolland Waielapalli 3 Slope, soil, LULC and Rangarajan, watershed, 2012) Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh 6 (Kaliraj, Vaigai, Tamil 11 Lineament, slope, soil pe rmeability, soil texture, Chandrasekar and Nadu soil depth, geomorphology, geology, drainage, Magesh, 2013) LULC , aquifer, rainfall

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7 (Chowdary et al. , Mayurakshi 4 LULC, soil, drainage density, slope 2013) watershed, Jharkhand 8 (Sharma, 2013) Bist -doab basin, 8 Geomorphology, geology , land use/ land cover , Punjab drainage density, slope, soil texture, aquifer transmissivity, and specific yield 9 (Shekhar and Palamu district, 9 Geomorphology, lithology, soil, slope, lineament Pandey, 2014) Jharkhand density, weathered zone thickness, drainage density and rainfall 10 (Dabral et al. , Mahi - Narmada 6 Geology, geomorphology, soil, slope, drainage 2014) inter stream density and land use, region, Gujarat 11 (Dhar, Sahoo and Hirakud 10 LULC, soil, geology, recharge rate, drainage Mandal, 2014) Command Area, density, rainfall, slope, elevation, NDVI, GWD Orissa 12 (B, G and Vinaya, Sita Swarna basin, 8 Geomorphology, geology & structures, lineament 2014) Karnataka density, soil, slope, drainage density, surface runoff and land use/land cover 13 (Srivastava and Bargarh district, 8 Geomorphology, land use, lithology, lineament, Bhattacharya, Orissa soil, drainage density, river gradient and slope 2014) maps 14 (Dhar, Sahoo and Kanpur, Uttar 10 LULC, soil, geology, recharge rate, drainage Sahoo, 2015) Pradesh density, rainfall, slope, elevation, NDVI, ground- water depth or depth to groundwater table 15 (Palaka and Kosigi watershed, 4 Geomorphology, drainage density, lineament Shankar, 2015) Kurnool district, density, and LULC Andhra Pradesh 16 (Agarwal and Loni and Morahi 8 Geology, geomorphology, LULC, soil, slope, Garg, 2015) watersheds, drainage density, WTF and rainfall Unnao and Rae Bareli districts, Uttar Pradesh 17 (Mallick et al. , New Delhi 10 Geomorphology, geology, soil, topographic 2015) elevation (digital elevation model), land use/land cover, drainage density, lineament density, proximity of surface water bodies, surface temperature and post-monsoon groundwater depth 18 (Muralitharan and Karur district, 7 Lithology, lineament density, geomorphology,

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Palanivel, 2015) Tamil Nadu slope, post – monsoon water level, drainage density and LULC 19 (Anbazhagan, Ponnaiyar basin, 9 Lithology , Lineament density , Land use land 2016) Tamil Nadu cover , Soil depth , Depth to water level Distance from river , Drainage density , Rainfall , Slope aspect 20 (Mandal et al. , Balasore district, 12 LULC, soil, geomorphology, hydrogeology, 2016) Orissa surface geology, recharge rate, drainage density, rainfall, slope, surface water bodies, lineament density, and NDVI. 21 (Kumar and Hazaribagh 8 Geomorphology , weathered zo ne thickness , Krishna, 2016) District, slope, lithology, soil, lineament density, drainage Jharkhand density and rainfall 22 (Pani, Chakrabarty Jhargham block, 8 Geology, geomorphology, lineament, soil, and Bhadury, west medinipur drainage density, slope, land use/ land cover and 2016) district, Bengal the potentiality around stream channels 23 (Jhariya et al. , Saja block, 10 Geomorphology, geology, drainage de nsity, 2016) Chhattisgarh slope, rainfall, soil texture, groundwater depth, soil depth, lineament and LULC 24 (Kirubakaran et Tirunelveli taluk, 8 al. , 2016) Tirunelveli Geomorphology, lineament density, drainage district, Tamil density, topographic slope, LULC , annual mean Nadu rainfall, soil, and subsurface geology 25 (Kumar and Ranchi Urban 9 Geomorphology, weathered zone thickness, Chandra, 2017) Agglomeration, slope, groundwater level, rock type, lineament, Jharkhand groundwater fluctuations, drainage density, road density 26 (Maity and Kumari river 10 Geology, drainage density, LULC, distance from Mandal, 2017) basin, West river, altitude, geomorphology, lineament Bengal and density, soil type, slope and average rainfall. Jharkhand 27 (Gaikwad and Kas Basin, 19 Stream Order , bifurcation ratio, stream Bhagat, 2017) Ahmednagar length, basin area ,basin length, basin perimeter, district, drainage density , stream frequency , form factor Maharashtra , circularity ratio, elongation ratio , compactness coefficient , drainage texture ,texture ratio, drainage intensity, relief ratio, ruggedness number, slope and soil 28 (Saha, 2017) Md. Bazar Block, 12 Geolo gy, soil texture, relief, LULC, slope, rainfall,

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Birbhum District, lineament density, drainage density, pond West Bengal frequency, stream junction frequency, topographical wetness index, geomorphology 29 (Kumar et al. , Shimla city, 9 Lineament density, LULC, DEM, slope, geology, 2017) Himachal Pradesh geomorphology, soil, aspect and drainage density 30 (Madhumitha et Kongu Uplands, 6 Geology, lineament density, geomorphology, al. , 2018) Tamil Nadu slope, drainage density and soil texture 31 (Chaudhary and Koshalya - 5 Geomorphology, slope, drainage density, LULC, Kumar, 2018) Jhajhara (K-J) geology watershed, Haryana 32 (Chakrabortty et Raniganj Block, 8 Topography, lithology, geological structure, al. , 2018) Paschim depth of weathering, slope, drainage pattern, Bardhaman, West LULC and rainfall pattern. Bengal 33 (Husen, S. D. Explains methodology to opt for GWP/GWR studies integrating AHP with GIS Khamitkar, et al. , 2018) 34 (Das and Pal, Barind Tract, 11 Only lithological parameters: fine sand breadth, 2018) West Bengal fine to medium sand breadth, medium sand breadth, medium to coarse sand breadth, coarse sand breadth, percentage of total various sizes sand layer breadth, weighted total sand layer breadth, continuity of sand layers, coarse sand starting depth, total breadth of silt/clay above major water-bearing strata(coarse sand layer) and presence of clay layer immediate below water-bearing strata 35 (Patra, Mishra and Ganga Alluvial 11 LULC, soil type, geomorphology, geology, Chandra, 2018) Plain of Hooghly elevation, slope, rainfall, NDVI, drainage density, district , West recharge rate, groundwater depth Bengal 36 (Patil et al. , 2018) Darwa block, 6 Soil, g eomorphology, slope, LULC, topographical Yavatmal district, wetness index, and drainage density Maharashtra 37 (Husen, S. Kalmnoori Taluka, 6 Geomorphology, soil, slope, LULC, lin eament Khamitkar, et al. , Hingoli district, density, and drainage density

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2018) Maharashtra 38 (Ahmed, 2018) Lower Barpani 10 Water table, rainfall ,litholo gy, lineament watershed, density, drainage density , soil, elevation, slope, Assam LULC, aspect 39 (Gupta et al. , Haridwar district, 7 Precipitation, slope, lineament, vegetation, 2018) Uttarakhand drainage density, LULC, and lithology 40 (Saxena, Jat and Kolayat 6 DEM, stream order and drainage, slope, soil, Kumar, 2018) watershed, LULC, rainfall Bikaner district, Rajasthan 41 (Hasan and Kanga, Bankura district, 7 Geology, lineament density, drainage density, 2018) Bengal slope, elevation, LULC, pre/post monsoon groundwater levels 42 (Sinha, Kumar and Udaipur district, 8 Geomorph ology, soil, slope, topographic Singh, 2018) Rajasthan elevation, LULC, recharge, post-monsoon groundwater depth and transmissivity 43 (Kumar, Machiwal Saraswati River 11 Rainfall, topographic elevation, slope, slope and Parmar, 2019) basin, Gujarat length, slope steepness, soil, geomor- phology, geology, drainage density, and pre- and post- monsoon groundwater levels 44 (Tiwari et al. , Bhopal district, 9 Slope, geology, geomorphology, LULC, 2019) Madhya Pradesh water-level fluctuation, drainage density , soil, lineament density, and precipitation 45 (Maniar et al. , Rajkot district, 6 LULC, slope, lineament density, rainfall, drainage 2019) Gujarat density, and soil 46 (S.Lakshmi and Gummidipoondi 7 Geology, geomorphology, soil, LULC, slope, Reddy, 2019) district, Tamil aspect and rainfall maps Nadu 47 (Roy et al. , 2019) Sonepur district, 8 LULC, soil, geology, geomorp hology, drainage Odisha density, lineament density, slope And rainfall 48 (Muniraj, Tirunelveli Taluk, 8 Geology, geomorphology, lineament density, Jesudhas and Tamil Nadu drainage density, rainfall, slope, soil and LULC Chinnasamy, 2019) 49 (Das et al. , 2019) Puruliya district, 8 Geology, lineaments, slope, rainfall, soil, LULC, Bengal water table data and yield of the bore wells 50 (Kolandhavel and Nandi Aru sub 10 Geology, geomorphology, lineament density, Ramamoorthy, basin, Tamil Nadu resistivity of topsoil, topsoil thickness, weathered

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2019) zone resistivity, weathered zone thickness, first fracture zone resistivity, second fracture zone resistivity, and fracture zone thickness 51 (M., G., et al. , Veerapanayani 8 Geomorphology, geology, LULC, drainage 2019) Palle, Kadapa density, lineament density, soil, slope, rainfall district, Andhra Pradesh 52 (Murmu et al. , Dumka district, 8 Litholo gy, lineament density, geomorphology, 2019) Jharkhand slope, soil, rainfall, drainage density and LULC 53 (Nithya et al. , Chittar basin, 7 Geology, lineaments, geomorphology, slope, 2019) Tamil Nadu drainage density, soil and rainfall 54 (Arulbalaji, Vamanapuram 12 Geology, geomorphology, LULC, lineament Padmalal and river basin, Kerala density, drainage density, rainfall, soil, slope, Sreelash, 2019) roughness, Topographic Wetness Index, Topographic Position Index and curvature 55 (M., G, et al. , Kothacheruvu 8 Geomorphology, drainage density, slope, LULC, 2019) Mandal, lineament density, geology, soils and rainfall Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh 56 (Das and Pal, Goghat ‑I block, 6 Geology, geomorphology, slope, soil texture , 2020) Hugli District, pond frequency and LULC West Bengal 57 (Satheeshkumar Pappireddipatti 11 Annual rainfall, well type, fluoride , TDS, and watershed, geomorphology ,lithology, soil, slope, drainage Venkateswaran, Vaniyar sub-basin, density , lineaments density and LULC 2020) Tamil Nadu 58 (Pal, Ghosh and Purba Bardhaman 6 LULC, soil, lithology, rainfall, distance from the Chowdhuri, 2020) district, Bengal river and surface water body 59 (Das and Birbhum district, 9 Geology, drainage density, aquifer thickness, Mukhopadhyay, Bengal pond frequency, soil texture, lineament density, 2020) land use/land cover and rainfall 60 (Biswas, Prasad Uttar Dinajpur 10 Geomorphology, slope, geology, LULC, rainfall, and Amit, 2020) district, Bengal slope curvature, MNDWI, drainage density, soil type and the Topographic Wetness Index 61 (Krushna, Shiv ganga basin, 8 Slope, geology, drainage densit y, surface run off, Bhavana and Pune, geomorphology, LULC, soil and vadose zone Sankhua, 2020) Maharashtra 62 (Roy et al. , 2020) Red and Laterite 6 Hydrogeomorphology, slope, drainage density,

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soil zone of lineaments density, LULC, and fractiona l Bengal (districts impervious surface of Burdwan (part), West Medinipur and Birbhum (part), Kashipur block of Purulia district and Chhatna block Bankura district 63 (Jena et al. , 2020) Rana basin, Orissa 8 Soil type, LULC, geomorphology, lithological structures, aquifer thickness, drainage density , lineament density (LD), and slope 64 (Achu, Thomas Manimala River 7 Lithology, geomorphology, LULC, the density of and Reghunath, Basin, Kerala lineaments and stream network, slope, and soil 2020) texture 65 (Dar et al. , 2020) Kashmir valley 8 Slope, soil texture, drainage density, LULC, lithology, geomorphology, lineament density, and rainfall 66 (Ghosh et al. , Upper Kangsabati 7 Ge ology, lineament, slope, drainage, rainfall, soil 2020) river basin, West and LULC Bengal and Jharkhand 67 (Bera, Karha river basin, 10 Geomorphology, geology, LULC, drainage density, Mukhopadhyay Maharashtra slope angle, lineament density, rainfall and Barua, 2020) distribution map, curvature, topographical wetness index, and soil map 68 (Thabile et al. , Kalahandi district, 7 Geomorphology, LULC, soil, land slope, drainage, 2020) Orissa pre/post groundwater monsoon and lineament density 69 (Saranya and Kancheepuram 8 Topography, geology, drainage density, Saravanan, 2020) District, Tamil geomorphology, soil, LULC, rainfall, and Nadu lineament density 70 (Saravanan et al. , Gundihalla 8 Geomorphology, lithology, LULC, soil, drainage 2020) watershed, density, lineament density, rainfall, and slope Bellary district, Karnataka 71 (Kumar, Mondal Part of Deccan 7 Geomorphology, LULC, soil, slope, drainage,

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and Ahmed, 2020) Volcanic Province, geology, and lineamen t density Maharashtra 72 (Verma, Singh and Lucknow, Uttar 8 Hydrogeomorphology, geology, LULC, depth to Srivastava, 2020) Pradesh water level, rainfall, soil texture, NDVI, and slope 73 (Khan et al. , 2020) Parts of Yamuna 8 Soil, slope, geology, rainfall, drainage density, river basin (Agra, LULC, water fluctuations and geomorphology Firozabad and Etawah district), Uttar Pradesh 74 (Karunanidhi, Vattamalaikarai 10 Soil, drainage density, lineament density, 2020) Basin, Tamil Nadu geology, slope, LULC, geomorphology, topographic position index, rainfall and groundwater level

2. BIBLIOGRAPHY Achu, A. L., Thomas, J. and Reghunath, R. (2020) ‘Multi-criteria decision analysis for delineation of groundwater potential zones in a tropical river basin using remote sensing , GIS and analytical hierarchy process ( AHP )’, Groundwater for Sustainable Development . Elsevier B.V., 10. doi: 10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100365. Agarwal, R. and Garg, P. K. (2015) ‘Remote Sensing and GIS Based Groundwater Potential & Recharge Zones Mapping Using Multi-Criteria Decision Making Technique’, Water Resources Management . doi: 10.1007/s11269-015-1159-8. Ahmed, R. (2018) ‘Analyzing Factors of Groundwater Potential and Its Relation with Population in the Lower Barpani Watershed , Assam , India’, Natural Resources Research . Springer US, (Mollinga 2016). doi: 10.1007/s11053-017-9367-y. Anbazhagan, A. J. S. (2016) ‘Modeling groundwater probability index in Ponnaiyar River basin of South India using analytic hierarchy process’, Modeling Earth Systems and Environment . Springer International Publishing. doi: 10.1007/s40808-016-0174-y. Arulbalaji, P., Padmalal, D. and Sreelash, K. (2019) ‘GIS and AHP Techniques Based Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones : a case study from Southern Western Ghats , India’, Scientific Reports . Springer US, (January), pp. 1–17. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-38567-x. B, A., G, S. and Vinaya, M. S. (2014) ‘Webgis Enabled Integrated Approach for Identifying Groundwater Prospect Zones in Sita-Swarna Basin, Karnataka, India’, International Water Resources Association Journal , 9(2), pp. 8–17. Bera, A., Mukhopadhyay, P. B. and Barua, S. (2020) ‘Delineation of groundwater potential zones in Karha river basin , Maharashtra , India , using AHP and geospatial techniques’, Arabian Journal of Geosciences . Springer, 13. Biswas, S., Prasad, B. and Amit, M. (2020) ‘Delineating groundwater potential zones of agriculture dominated landscapes using GIS based AHP techniques : a case study from Uttar Dinajpur district , West Bengal’, Environmental Earth Sciences . Springer Verlag. doi: 10.1007/s12665-020-09053-9.

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Chakrabortty, R. et al. (2018) ‘Modeling and mapping of groundwater potentiality zones using AHP and GIS technique : a case study of Raniganj Block , Paschim’, Modeling Earth Systems and Environment . Springer International Publishing. doi: 10.1007/s40808-018-0471-8. Chaudhary, B. S. and Kumar, S. (2018) ‘Identification of Groundwater Potential Zones using Remote Sensing and GIS of K-J Watershed, India’, Journal of the Geological Society of India , 91(June 2018), pp. 717–721. doi: 10.1007/s12594-018-0929-3. Chowdary, V. M. et al. (2013) ‘Multi-Criteria Decision Making Approach for Watershed Prioritization Using Analytic Hierarchy Process Technique and GIS’, Water Resources Management , pp. 3555–3571. doi: 10.1007/s11269-013-0364-6. Chowdhury, A. et al. (2009) ‘Integrated remote sensing and GIS-based approach for assessing groundwater potential in West Medinipur district, West Bengal, India’, International Journal of Remote Sensing . Taylor and Francis, 30(1), pp. 231–250. doi: 10.1080/01431160802270131. Chowdhury, A., Jha, M. K. and Chowdary, V. M. (2010) ‘Delineation of groundwater recharge zones and identification of artificial recharge sites in West Medinipur district , West Bengal , using RS , GIS and MCDM techniques’, Environmental Earth Sciences , 59, pp. 1209–1222. doi: 10.1007/s12665-009-0110-9. Dabral, S. et al. (2014) ‘GROUNDWATER SUITABILITY RECHARGE ZONES MODELLING – A GIS APPLICATION’, in The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Volume XL-8. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. doi: 10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-8-347-2014. Dar, T. et al. (2020) ‘Delineation of potential groundwater recharge zones using analytical hierarchy process ( AHP )’, Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes . Taylor & Francis, pp. 1–16. doi: 10.1080/24749508.2020.1726562. Das, B. et al. (2019) ‘Modeling groundwater potential zones of Puruliya district , West Bengal , India using remote sensing and GIS techniques’, Geology, Ecology, and Landscapes . Taylor & Francis, 3(3), pp. 223–237. doi: 10.1080/24749508.2018.1555740. Das, B. and Pal, S. C. (2020) ‘Assessment of groundwater recharge and its potential zone identification in groundwater-stressed Goghat-I block of Hugli District, West Bengal, India’, Environment, Development and Sustainability . Springer Nature, 22(6), pp. 5905–5923. doi: 10.1007/s10668-019-00457-7. Das, N. and Mukhopadhyay, S. (2020) ‘Application of multi-criteria decision making technique for the assessment of groundwater potential zones: a study on Birbhum district, West Bengal, India’, Environment, Development and Sustainability . Springer Netherlands, 22(2), pp. 931–955. doi: 10.1007/s10668-018-0227- 7. Das, R. T. and Pal, S. (2018) ‘Delineation of potential ground water-bearing zones in the Barind tract of West Bengal, India’, Environment, Development and Sustainability . Springer, 20(2), pp. 543–567. doi: 10.1007/s10668-016-9897-1. Dhar, A., Sahoo, S. and Mandal, U. (2014) ‘Hydro-environmental assessment of a regional ground water aquifer : Hirakud command area ( India )’, Environmental Earth Sciences . doi: 10.1007/s12665-014-3703-x. Dhar, A., Sahoo, S. and Sahoo, M. (2015) ‘Identification of groundwater potential zones considering water quality aspect’, Environmental Earth Sciences . Springer Berlin Heidelberg. doi: 10.1007/s12665-015-4580-7. Gaikwad, R. and Bhagat, V. (2017) ‘Multi-Criteria Watershed Prioritization of Kas Basin in Maharashtra

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India : AHP and Influence Approaches Multi-Criteria Watershed Prioritization of Kas Basin in Maharashtra ( India ): AHP and Influence Approaches’, Hydrospatial Analysis . 2018 GATHA COGNITION, 1(1). doi: 10.21523/gcj3.17010105. Ghosh, D. et al. (2020) ‘Impact of hydro-geological environment on availability of groundwater using analytical hierarchy process ( AHP ) and geospatial techniques : A study from the upper Kangsabati river basin’, Groundwater for Sustainable Development . Elsevier B.V., 11. doi: 10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100419. Gupta, D. et al. (2018) ‘MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS FOR IDENTIFYING OF GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL SITES IN HARIDWAR ’, The Engineering Journal of Application & Scopes, 3(2), pp. 9–15. Hasan, M. sayeed ul and Kanga, S. (2018) ‘Geospatial Approach for Delineation of Artificial Recharge Sites in Gandheswari Watershed, West Bengal (India)’, i-manager’s Journal on Civil Engineering , 8(4), pp. 28–40. doi: 10.26634/jce.8.4.15292. Husen, S., Khamitkar, S. D., et al. (2018) ‘Effective Use of GIS Based DSS for Identification of Artificial Water Recharge Sites’, in International Conference on Innovations in IT and Management - 2018 . Husen, S., Khamitkar, S., et al. (2018) ‘Integrated Use of AHP and GIS Techniques for Selection of Artificial Water Recharge Sites’, in Tuba, M., Akashe, S., and Joshi, A. (eds) Information and Communication Technology for Sustainable Development - Proceedings of ICT4SD 2018 . Springer, pp. 171–181. Jena, S. et al. (2020) ‘Delineation of groundwater storage and recharge potential zones using RS-GIS-AHP: Application in arable land expansion’, Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment . Elsevier B.V., p. 100354. doi: 10.1016/j.rsase.2020.100354. Jha, M. K., Chowdary, V. M. and Chowdhury, A. (2010) ‘Groundwater assessment in Salboni Block , West Bengal ( India ) using remote sensing , geographical information system and multi-criteria decision analysis techniques’, Hydrogeology Journal , 18, pp. 1713–1728. doi: 10.1007/s10040-010-0631-z. Jhariya, D. C. et al. (2016) ‘Assessment of Groundwater Potential Zone Using Remote Sensing , GIS and Multi Criteria Decision Analysis Techniques’, Journal of the Geological Society of India . Springer, 88(October), pp. 481–492. Kaliraj, S., Chandrasekar, N. and Magesh, N. S. (2013) ‘Identification of potential groundwater recharge zones in Vaigai upper basin , Tamil Nadu , using GIS-based analytical hierarchical process ( AHP ) technique’, Arabian Journal of Geosciences . Springer. doi: 10.1007/s12517-013-0849-x. Kaliraj, S., Chandrasekar, N. and Magesh, N. S. (2014) ‘Identification of potential groundwater recharge zones in Vaigai upper basin, Tamil Nadu, using GIS-based analytical hierarchical process (AHP) technique’, Arabian Journal of Geosciences , 7(4), pp. 1385–1401. doi: 10.1007/s12517-013-0849-x. Karunanidhi, S. A. T. S. D. (2020) ‘Delineation of groundwater potential zones and recommendation of artificial recharge structures for augmentation of groundwater resources in Vattamalaikarai Basin , South India’, Environmental Earth Sciences . Springer Verlag. doi: 10.1007/s12665-020-8832-9. Kaur, L. et al. (2020) ‘Groundwater potential assessment of an alluvial aquifer in Yamuna sub- basin ( Panipat region ) using remote sensing and GIS techniques in conjunction with analytical hierarchy process ( AHP ) and catastrophe theory’, Ecological Indicators . Elsevier, 110. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105850. Khan, A. et al. (2020) ‘Groundwater for Sustainable Development Identification of artificial groundwater recharge sites in parts of Yamuna River basin India based on Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System’, Groundwater for Sustainable Development . Elsevier B.V., 11. doi: 10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100415.

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Kirubakaran, M. et al. (2016) ‘A geostatistical approach for delineating the potential groundwater recharge zones in the hard rock terrain of Tirunelveli taluk , Tamil Nadu , India’, Arabian Journal of Geosciences . Springer. doi: 10.1007/s12517-016-2419-5. Kolandhavel, P. and Ramamoorthy, S. (2019) ‘Investigation of groundwater potential zones in NandiAru Sub Basin , Tamilnadu , India — an integrated geophysical and geoinformatics approach’, Arabian Journal of Geosciences . Springer, 12. Krushna, A., Bhavana, K. and Sankhua, N. U. R. N. (2020) ‘Assessment of recharge potential zones for groundwater development and management using geospatial and MCDA technologies in semiarid region of Western India’, Springer Nature Applied Sciences . Springer Nature, 2. doi: 10.1007/s42452-020-2079-7. Kumar, A. and Chandra, A. (2017) ‘Geoinformatics based groundwater potential assessment in hard rock terrain of Ranchi urban environment , Jharkhand state ( India ) using MCDM – AHP techniques’, Groundwater for Sustainable Development . Elsevier, 2–3(2016), pp. 27–41. doi: 10.1016/j.gsd.2016.05.001. Kumar, A. and Krishna, A. P. (2016) ‘Assessment of groundwater potential zones in coal mining impacted hard-rock terrain of India by integrating geospatial and analytic hierarchy process ( AHP ) approach’, Geocarto International . Taylor & Francis, (September). doi: 10.1080/10106049.2016.1232314. Kumar, S. et al. (2017) ‘Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zone Using Geospatial Techniques for Shimla City , Himachal Pradesh ( India )’, International Journal for Scientific Research & Development , 5(04), pp. 225–234. Kumar, S., Machiwal, D. and Parmar, B. S. (2019) ‘A parsimonious approach to delineating groundwater potential zones using geospatial modeling and multicriteria decision analysis techniques under limited data availability condition’, Engineering Reports . Wiley, 1(5), pp. 1–22. doi: 10.1002/eng2.12073. Kumar, V. A., Mondal, N. C. and Ahmed, S. (2020) ‘Identification of Groundwater Potential Zones Using RS , GIS and AHP Techniques : A Case Study in a Part of Deccan Volcanic Province ( DVP ), Maharashtra , India’, Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing . Springer India. doi: 10.1007/s12524-019-01086-3. M., R., G., S. R., et al. (2019) ‘Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones of Semi-Arid Region of YSR Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones of Semi- Arid Region of YSR Kadapa District , Andhra Pradesh , India using RS , GIS and Analytic Hierarchy Process’, Remote Sensing of Land . 2018 GATHA COGNITION, 2(2), pp. 76–86. doi: 10.21523/gcj1.18020201. M., R., G, S. R., et al. (2019) ‘Identification of Suitable Sites for Artificial Groundwater Recharge Structures in Semi-arid region of Anantapur District : AHP Approach’, Hydrospatial Analysis . Gatha Cognition, 3(1). doi: 10.21523/gcj3.19030101. Madhumitha, R. et al. (2018) ‘Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones of Kongu Uplands , Tamilnadu’, International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews , 5(3), pp. 246–256. Maity, D. K. and Mandal, S. (2017) ‘Identification of groundwater potential zones of the Kumari river basin , India : an RS & GIS based’, Environment, Development and Sustainability . Springer Netherlands. doi: 10.1007/s10668-017-0072-0. Mallick, J. et al. (2015) ‘Geospatial and geostatistical approach for groundwater potential zone delineation’, Hydrological Processes . Wiley, 29(3), pp. 395–418. doi: 10.1002/hyp.10153. Mandal, U. et al. (2016) ‘Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones of Coastal Groundwater Basin Using Multi-Criteria Decision Making Technique’, Water Resources Management . Water Resources Management.

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doi: 10.1007/s11269-016-1421-8. Maniar, H. H. et al. (2019) ‘Application of Analytical Hierarchy Process ( AHP ) and GIS in the Evaluation of Groundwater Recharge Potential of Rajkot District , Gujarat , India’, International Journal of Technical Innovation in Modern Engineering & Science , 5(04). Muniraj, K., Jesudhas, C. J. and Chinnasamy, A. (2019) ‘Delineating the Groundwater Potential Zone in Tirunelveli Taluk , South Tamil Nadu , India , Using Remote Sensing , Geographical Information System ( GIS ) and Analytic Hierarchy Process ( AHP ) Techniques’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section A: Physical Sciences . Springer India. doi: 10.1007/s40010-019-00608-5. Muralitharan, J. and Palanivel, K. (2015) ‘Groundwater targeting using remote sensing , geographical information system and analytical hierarchy process method in hard rock aquifer system , Karur district , Tamil Nadu , India’, Earth Science Information . doi: 10.1007/s12145-015-0213-7. Murmu, P. et al. (2019) ‘Delineation of groundwater potential zones using geospatial techniques and analytical hierarchy process in Dumka district , Jharkhand , India’, Groundwater for Sustainable Development . Elsevier, 9(October 2018), p. 100239. doi: 10.1016/j.gsd.2019.100239. Nithya, C. N. et al. (2019) ‘Assessment of groundwater potential zones in Chittar basin , Southern India using GIS based AHP technique’, Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment . Elsevier B.V., 15. doi: 10.1016/j.rsase.2019.100248. Pal, S. C., Ghosh, C. and Chowdhuri, I. (2020) ‘Assessment of groundwater potentiality using geospatial techniques in Purba Bardhaman district, West Bengal’, Applied Water Science . Springer International Publishing, 10, pp. 1–13. doi: 10.1007/s13201-020-01302-3. Palaka, R. and Shankar, G. J. (2015) ‘Identification of Potential Zones for Groundwater Recharge in Kosigi Mandal , Kurnool District , using Remote Sensing and GIS’, International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology , (January). Pani, S., Chakrabarty, A. and Bhadury, S. (2016) ‘GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL ZONE IDENTIFICATION BY ANALYTICAL HIERARCHY PROCESS ( AHP ) WEIGHTED OVERLAY IN GIS ENVIRONMENT ─ A CASE STUDY OF JHARGRAM’, International Journal of Remote Sensing & Geoscience , 5(3), pp. 1–10. Patil, N. et al. (2018) ‘Mapping groundwater recharge potential using GIS approach in Darwha block’, Arabian Journal of Geosciences . Springer, 11(8). Patra, S., Mishra, P. and Chandra, S. (2018) ‘Delineation of groundwater potential zone for sustainable development : A case study from Ganga Alluvial Plain covering Hooghly district of India using remote sensing , geographic information system and analytic hierarchy process’, Journal of Cleaner Production . Elsevier Ltd, 172, pp. 2485–2502. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.161. Roy, A. et al. (2019) ‘Delineating groundwater prospect zones in a region with extreme climatic conditions using GIS and remote sensing techniques : A case study from central India’, Journal of Earth System Science . Indian Academy of Science, 0123456789. doi: 10.1007/s12040-019-1205-7. Roy, S. et al. (2020) ‘Assessment of groundwater potential zones using multi ‑ criteria decision ‑ making technique : a micro ‑ level case study from red and lateritic zone ( RLZ ) of West Bengal , India’, Sustainable Water Resources Management . Springer, pp. 1–14. doi: 10.1007/s40899-020-00373-z. S.Lakshmi and Reddy, Y. (2019) ‘Multicriteria Decision Making Ahp Base Groundwater Potential Mapping for Gummidipoondi District’, International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics , 119(17), pp. 41–58.

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Saaty, R. W. (1987) ‘The analytic hierarchy process-what it is and how it is used’, Mathematical Modelling , 9(3–5), pp. 161–176. doi: 10.1016/0270-0255(87)90473-8. Saha, S. (2017) ‘Groundwater potential mapping using analytical hierarchical process: a study on Md. Bazar Block of Birbhum District, West Bengal’, Spatial Information Research . Korean Spatial Information Society, 25(4), pp. 615–626. doi: 10.1007/s41324-017-0127-1. Saranya, T. and Saravanan, S. (2020) ‘Groundwater potential zone mapping using analytical hierarchy process ( AHP ) and GIS for Kancheepuram District , Tamilnadu , India’, Modeling Earth Systems and Environment . Springer International Publishing. doi: 10.1007/s40808-020-00744-7. Saravanan, S. et al. (2020) ‘Delineation of groundwater potential zone using analytical hierarchy process and GIS for Gundihalla watershed , Karnataka , India’, Arabian Journal of Geosciences . Springer. Sargaonkar, A. P., Rathi, B. and Baile, A. (2011) ‘Identifying potential sites for artificial groundwater recharge in sub-watershed of River Kanhan, India’, Environmental Earth Sciences , 62(5), pp. 1099–1108. doi: 10.1007/s12665-010-0598-z. Satheeshkumar, S. and Venkateswaran, S. (2020) ‘Influence of groundwater recharge in Vaniyar sub-basin, South India: inference to socioeconomic benefits’, Environment, Development and Sustainability . Springer Nature, pp. 1211–1239. doi: 10.1007/s10668-018-0246-4. Saxena, A., Jat, M. K. and Kumar, S. (2018) ‘Application of GIS and MCE Techniques for Optimum Site Selection for Water Harvesting Structures’, Journal of Rural Development , 37(2), pp. 195–206. doi: 10.25175/jrd/2018/v37/i2/129659. Sharma, C. S. (2013) ‘Artificial Groundwater Recharge Zones Mapping Using Remote Sensing and GIS : A Case Study in Indian Punjab’, Environmental Management , 52, pp. 61–71. doi: 10.1007/s00267-013-0101-1. Shekhar, S. and Pandey, A. C. (2014) ‘Delineation of groundwater potential zone in hard rock terrain of India using remote sensing , geographical information system ( GIS ) and analytic hierarchy process ( AHP ) techniques’, Geocarto International , (June), pp. 37–41. doi: 10.1080/10106049.2014.894584. Sinha, A. K., Kumar, V. and Singh, P. (2018) ‘Delineation of groundwater potential zones using remote sensing and geographic information system techniques : A case study of Udaipur district ’, in International Conference on Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture . Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, pp. 265–273. Srivastava, P. K. and Bhattacharya, A. K. (2014) ‘Groundwater assessment through an integrated approach using remote sensing, GIS and resistivity techniques: a case study from a hard rock terrain’, International Journal of Remote Sensing , (September 2014), pp. 37–41. doi: 10.1080/01431160600554983. Taylor, P., Rolland, A. and Rangarajan, R. (2012) ‘Runoff estimation and potential recharge site delineation using analytic hierarchy process’, Geocarto International , (June), pp. 37–41. doi: 10.1080/10106049.2012.665499. Thabile, G. et al. (2020) ‘Assessment of Groundwater Potential in the Kalahandi District of Odisha ( India ) Using Remote Sensing , Geographic Information System and Analytical Hierarchy Process’, Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing . Springer India, 3. doi: 10.1007/s12524-020-01188-3. Tiwari, A. et al. (2019) ‘Groundwater Potential Zone (GWPZ) for Urban Development Site Suitability Analysis in Bhopal, India’, Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing . Springer India, 47(11), pp. 1793–1815. doi: 10.1007/s12524-019-01027-0.

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Verma, P., Singh, P. and Srivastava, S. K. (2020) ‘Development of spatial decision-making for groundwater recharge suitability assessment by considering geoinformatics and field data’, Arabian Journal of Geosciences . Springer, 13. doi: 10.1007/s12517-020-05290-1.

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9.0 PROJECT: PHYCO-REMEDIATION OF WTP POND, DELHI GOLF CLUB (DGC), DELHI, INDIA BY AMRITA SINGH Fellowship Theme: Water Security and Climate Change

AMRITA SINGH MA Environmental Studies Department of Environmental Studies University of Delhi

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS WW : Wastewater

TIC : Total inorganic carbon TOC : Total organic carbon COD : Chemical oxygen demand BOD : Biochemical oxygen demand DW : Distilled water TC : Total carbon Cd : Cadmium Cr : Chromium H2S : Hydrogen Sulphide

LIST OF DEFINITIONS • Benthos: It is the community of organisms that live on, in, or near the seabed, river, lake, or stream bottom, also known as the benthic zone. • Biofilteration: It is a pollution control technique using a bioreactor containing living material to capture and biologically degrade pollutants. Common uses include processing waste water, capturing harmful chemicals or silt from surface runoff, and micro-biotic oxidation of contaminants in air. • Blue Green Algae: They are types of bacteria known as Cyanobacteria. They normally look green and sometimes may turn bluish when scums are dying. Taste and odour problems commonly occur with large concentrations of blue-green algae and some species are capable of producing toxins. • Diatoms: They are single-celled algae. Diatoms are algae that live in houses made of glass. They are the only organism on the planet with cell walls composed of transparent, opaline silica. Diatom cell walls are ornamented by intricate and striking patterns of silica. • Dissolved Oxygen: It is the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water. Oxygen enters the water by direct absorption from the atmosphere, by rapid movement, or as a waste product of plant photosynthesis. Water temperature and the volume of moving water can affect dissolved oxygen levels. • Faecal Coliforms: It is a facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, gram-negative, non-sporulating bacterium. Coliform bacteria generally originate in the intestines of warm-blooded animals. • Photosynthesizer: Any organism that uses photosynthesis to generate carbohydrates. • Macrophytes: It is an aquatic plant that grows in or near water and is either emergent, submergent, or floating.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT The Delhi Golf Club, a municipal course in the early 1930s became a corporate entity in 24th February 1950. The Course, comprises of the championship 18-hole Lodhi Course, part of the Asian PGA Tour, and the shorter 9-hole Peacock Course. The latter came into being when the course was re-designed by Peter Thomson in 1976-77.

The WTP pond is located at Delhi Golf Club near gate number 2. The pond water is mostly made up of wastewater generated in the Golf Club and also through the accumulation of the rain water coming from the nearby areas. The pond has two fountains which are used from time to time to aerate the water and improve its quality. The water from the WTP pond is also used for irrigation purposes in the golf course and hence has a significant importance for turf maintenance and healthy growth.

Area 0.339 acre

Average Depth 2.5 m Length of Pond 55 m

Width of Pond 30 m Volume of Water 4.9 million litres or 49,000 cu.m

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2. PROBLEM STATEMENT It was observed that the pond was inundated with general waste and leaves. There were floating algal mats. The waste was putrefying and a strong foul smell emanated from the pond. Mosquitoes were breeding in the water and there was froth and foaming. People were finding it difficult to even stand near the pond because of the overwhelming smell.

DO Measurement of the WTP Pond TDS Measurement of the WTP Pond

S no. Testing Point DO (mg/lit) TDS (mg/lit)

1. Near WTP Pump 0.7 521 2. Right bank of Pond 0.5 503 3. Left Bank of Pond 0.5 543 4. Opposite WTP pump 0.5 534

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3. LITERATURE REVIEW Phycoremediation involves the remediation of contaminants in a water body using algae (micro and macro). Algae fix carbon-dioxide by photosynthesis and remove excess nutrients effectively at minimal cost. It removes pathogens and toxic materials from waste water. Xenobiotics, chemicals and heavy metals are known to be detoxified, transform, accumulated or volatilized by algal metabolism. It offers advantage over conventional methods of remediation by its effectiveness, efficiency and eco-friendly nature. Commercially, it involves design and construction of Waste Stabilization Pond System (WSPs) and High Rate Algal Ponds (HRAP) with difference in that WSPs are unmixed or involves a little mixing, so can experience stratification, but the HRAPs involves process of mixing using paddle wheel. There are industries that are commercially involved in phycoremediation and they experience cost reduction and maximisation of profit compared to the convectional system of remediation.

Nutrient contamination of surface waters has led to widespread excessive algae growth, a process known as eutrophication. Eutrophication can lead to fish kills through oxygen depletion or the growth of toxic dinoflagellates that produce neurotoxins harmful to fish and humans. Eutrophication also can cause taste and odour issues that create expensive problems for municipalities that rely on surface water for their drinking water and individual households depending on groundwater.

Benthic diatoms are the dominant algal community in water bodies and they contribute significantly to nutrient removal and dissolved oxygen levels in water. They also form the basis of benthic food web in water bodies. Diatom algae contribute up to 40% of primary production in lakes and oceans, which is more than that of all the tropical rain forests on earth. Diatoms play an important role as a major carbon carrier to Deep Ocean to be one of the major contributors to the “biological carbon pump”.

Diatoms are microscopic plants, which use nitrates and phosphates to grow along with other nutrients such as silica, iron, copper, molybdenum, etc.; they use CO2 and produce O2 and they can also accumulate heavy metals, so by triggering the growth of these algae, many problems related to lake pollution can be solved. Growth of diatoms also reduces the growth of harmful algae such as blue green algae (BGA).

Diatoms are important primary producers in streams, lakes and wetlands. The main source of energy in streams was once thought to be detritus from terrestrial origin but later research showed that primary production by algae was important in many streams.Diatoms are primary harvesters of inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen in stream spiralling in lake littoral modulation of influxes and in wetlands. Diatoms on surface sediments and plants are considered to be important sinks for nutrients before release into the water.

Diatoms as indicators of lake water quality were well studied by many researchers but diatoms also play a significant role in maintaining the water quality, so using diatom algae for nutrient removal is novel and

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cost-effective method of water treatment. The main bottleneck in using only diatom for nutrient removal is to trigger only diatom growth instead of other algae, so to solve this problem, the main solution is to use the silica as the nutrient, which is absolutely required by diatoms for their growth.

Growing microalgae/phytoplankton such as diatom algae in the sewage will enable the nutrients in the sewage to be consumed and the oxygen produced will satisfy the BOD and chemical oxygen demand (COD) and provide oxygen to fish. Phytoplankton is the natural food for fish and diatoms are the best group of phytoplankton. Thus, polluted lakes will become clean and have plenty of fish.

About 50% of the photosynthesis on Earth takes place-in water—lakes and oceans and diatom algae account for about 50% of the algae in waterbodies. Treated water with BGA and green algae cannot be released into public water bodies. Diatoms assimilate a significant amount of nutrients because they require high amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus for the synthesis of proteins (45–60% of microalgal dry weight), nucleic acids and phospholipids. Nutrient removal can also be further increased by NH3 stripping or P precipitation due to the rise in the pH associated with photosynthesis.

4. PROJECT LOCATION

5. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS • To clean the water pond of algae, leaves and floating waste. • To make water from the WTP Pond available for use in turf irrigation • To remove algal mats at the bottom of irrigation pond of DGC • To remove frothing and foaming of water surface • To remove foul smell • To let plants and animal life associated with the pond thrive

6. DETAILED METHODOLOGY AND APPLICATION Technology : Phyco-Remediation Product : Aquaritin

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Aquaritin bio-oxygenate and bio-stimulate the growth of aerobic organisms in water. This not only improves the water quality but also the rate at which the improvement in water quality occurs. This process is called accelerated Phyco- Remediation which can be included in the wider term of Bioremediation. Since in many water bodies, the inherent microbial life under constant low DO environment suffers to the point where they become inactive. To offset this, Bioaugmentation with the use of powerful naturally accelerated effective microbes is also recommended.

• It enhances diatom growth • Provides Phyco- nutrients essential for the growth of diatoms • In-Situ Treatment • No infrastructure involved; capital expenditure only for product, hence cheap • Diversity in Application • Works in both lentic and lotic water bodies • Works in varied water environments • Phytoplankton or diatoms can be used for the removal or biotransformation of pollutants including nutrients, heavy metals and pathogens from water bodies • It is a 4th generation technology with intervention at the intersection of Nano- and Bio-technologies • Application of the right type of Nutrients are the key to this technology

7. APPLICATION 1. Pre-treatment tasks: survey of the pond was conducted. Thereafter, estimation of solid wastes and algae was gauged along with testing the water quality 2. Removal of solid waste, weeds and desludging: removal of solid wastes, weeds and algae present in the water body. Desludging the water to make it navigable 3. Dosing of Aquaritin: dosing of Aquaritin and bacterial formulation using stationary pumps, vehicles and back mounted sprayers onto the surface of the water body 4. Maintenance: reduced dosing and installation of fountains to uphold the water quality once the water quality is improved

8. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT Treatment phase: July 2020 onwards The intensive treatment phase of the WTP Pond began on the 15th of July 2020. In this phase the pond was dosed regularly with Aquaritin and Bacteria so as to improve the water quality and eliminate the foul odour being emanated from the pond. The project log has been given below:

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th A. 15 July 2020 • Dosing started in WTP Pond • Aquaritin dosed using pressurized back-mounted sprayer • Dosing continued on daily basis for one month

th B. 17 Aug 2020 • Desludging, de-weeding and solid waste removal • Sludge pumped out from WTP Pond, dosed with Aquaritin and afterwards dumped near Green-8, Peacock course to be used as manure in the greens th • Desludging finished on 4 September 2020

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th C. 30 August 2020 • Painting and refurbishment of WTP, Shed and associated machinery.

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st D. 1 September onwards • Daily dosing of Aquaritin and bacteria • Cleaning of leaves, solid wastes etc from the sides of the pond

th th E. 15 and 26 September 2020 • Infusion of fishes into the pond to upkeep the improved water quality

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9. KEY FINDINGS • Increase in the level of Dissolved Oxygen - The first and foremost advantage of Bio- Remediation of WTP Pond by the use of Aquaritin is the increasing DO levels of the pond. Aquaritin favours the growth of Diatoms which photosynthesize to produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis. These Oxygen bubbles sustain in the water for weeks.

• Decrease in BOD and COD- The organic waste present in the drain is degraded by bacteria dosed along with Aquaritin. As the organic waste gets degraded by the bacteria, the levels of BOD and COD are dropped down. • Bio-dredging of Sludge- As the oxygen level increase in water, these nano-oxygen bubbles stick to the surface of sludge settled at the bottom. The sludge thus gets oxidized and starts breaking down. The broken sludge is pushed to the surface of the drain and gets degraded by aerobic bacteria. Thus the depth of the drain/river is restored progressively. • Elimination of Foul smell- The foul smell coming from the pond was due to the presence of organic waste in it which leads to the release of H2S gas which may be harmful for the people nearby. As

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the process turns from anaerobic to aerobic, foul smell is eliminated. This is particularly important as this was a major concern for the Delhi Golf Club patrons. • Revival of Sub Ecosystem- Aquatic life and terrestrial organism are seen to be flourishing. Water quality and ammonia levels are under control.

• Improvement in quality of Turf Irrigation Water- The water from the WTP pond is drawn for the irrigation of the greens inside DGC. Earlier due to very high levels of TDS and TSS the water was very unfit for turf irrigation and was causing a lot of damage to the turf. Now with the enhanced irrigation water quality, the turf on the greens and the trees are being restored. The Superintendent and the Green Committee of the DGC are very pleased with the improvements.

The Delhi Golf Club – Significant improvement in the quality of the turf after applying Aquaritin Foliar for 2 months.

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Before: 25 July (Before using Aquaritin Product- less green, more patches)

After: 25 Sept 2020 (After using Aquaritin Foliar- Turf has started to revive greens)

10. INNOVATIVE WATER SMART SOLUTION AND STRATEGIES • Phyco-remediation overcomes the constraints of conventional bio- remediation and these are: • In phyco-remediation, dosing of live organisms is substituted with dosing nutrients which enhance the growth of diatoms without causing any conflict with the native living microorganisms. Diatoms and native bacteria form a symbiotic floc wherein the diatoms take up nutrients produced by the bacteria and provide dissolved oxygen to them. • Phyco-remediation works over the entire water column including the benthic zones irrespective of the depth of the water as diatoms can move throughout the water column. • Through phyco-remediation the dissolved oxygen of water body is enhanced as diatoms perform photosynthesis. Hence the process is much faster. • Diatoms are ubiquitous organisms and hence leveraging their ability does not require any site specific research. • Accelerated growth of diatoms does not pose any toxicity threat as they form the lowermost tier in the aquatic food chain and serve as food for fishes and other aquatic organisms.

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11. ACHIEVEMENTS, LEARNINGS AND OUTCOMES Water Quality Comparison: The water from the WTP Pond at DGC was tested on multiple occasions by JSWEL representatives. The testing included real-time water quality testing. The report from these tests have been summarised below:

On Site Water Quality Tests using Multi Parameter Reports (Source STP Water):

S.no Parameters Unit Value on Value on Value on 07.09.2020 19.09.2020 28.09.2020 1. DO a. Surface mg/lit 7.1 7.5 7.2 b. Middle mg/lit 5.2 6.9 6.2 c. Benthic mg/lit 4.5 3.7 4.8 2. TDS ppm 770 574 556 3. pH - 7.99 8 8.18 4. Chlorophyll -a ug/L 400 55.98 4.5 5. Blue -Green -Algae Cells/mL 400 55 4 6. Conductivity mS/cm 1.9 1.33 0.07 7. Turbidity NTU 18.24 10.73 4.15 8. Temperature Celsius 29.44 30.49 35.87

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12. CONCLUSION Treatment of WTP at Delhi Golf Club by Aquaritin has been a notable success with reduction in COD and BOD by over 80%. Similarly, TDS has declined, pH level and chlorophyll has increased. The accumulated sludge over years deposited at the bottom of the pond is being digested rapidly and thereby restoring the carrying capacity of the pond. The fish population can be seen increasing. Animals and birds are seen visiting the pond.

13. CHALLENGES • Conflicts with local bacteria biodiversity: dosing of live microorganisms like bacteria can cause conflict with native bacteria existing in the water body • Limited application: bioremediation process require a lot of site specific research and impact assessment • Effects biodiversity: introduction of foreign bacterial species and enzymes can easily disturb the ecological balance. This can cause harm to the local biodiversity • Authorisation from state and central government: clearance from the state biodiversity authority is required for dosing bacteria and enzymes • Toxicity threat: if not done with extreme caution, bioremediation process can cause degradation of pollutants resulting in increased toxicity • Slow process: effect of bioremediation is constrained by depth of the water body. It is limited to photic zone of the water column. In absence of dissolved oxygen, the remediation process is very slow and hence take a lot of time

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14. WAY FORWARD WITH REPLICABILITY AND SCALABILITY FOCUS • Government Bodies: Treatment of natural water bodies such as drains, ponds, rivers, lakes etc. • Agricultural Farms: To increase crop productivity, increase resistance to diseases and pests such as locusts. Reduced need of fertilizers. • Aquaculture Farms: Increasing stocking density and fish growth. Reduce mortality rate and nutrient load. • Golf Courses: Increasing grass resistance to diseases and pests. Improving grass quality. • Private Establishments: Improving the water quality or increasing productivity. • Urban River Segments: Removal of weeds, Improvement of water quality and mitigation of pathogens. • Canals: Improvement in irrigation water and agricultural productivity. • Large Lakes: For restoring diminishing fish population and improving water quality and beautification. • Drains: Reduction of sludge, Improvement of water quality and restoration of aquatic food chain and ecosystem. • STPs and ETPs: Improves performance of STPs. Reduces the need for artificial aeration and reduces pathogens in water. Reduces heavy metals such as Cd, Cr etc in effluent. • Temple Ponds: Sludge reduction and restoration of water to bathing quality. Installation of fountains.

15. BIBLIOGRAPHY Water quality and wastewater (online). UN Water. Available from: unwater.org. Accessed on 25th August 2020. History of Delhi Golf Club (online). Delhi. Delhi Golf Club. Available from: delhigolfclub.org. Accessed on 25th August 2020. Marella Thomas Kiran, Mallimadugula Venkata Bhaskar and Archana Tiwari (August 24th 2016). Phycoremediation of Eutrophic Lakes Using Diatom Algae, Lake Sciences and Climate Change , M.Nageeb Rashed, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/64111. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/lake-sciences-and-climate-change/phycoremediation-of-eutrophic- lakes-using-diatom-algae Raymond Ezenweani Jeffrey Ogbebor (2018) Phycoremediation: An Eco-Solution to Environmental Protection and Sustainable Remediation. Nigeria: University of Benin, Science Publishing Group.

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10.0 PROJECT: ENHANCING PARTICIPATORY PLANNING AND COMMUNICATION IN WASH TO ADDRESS PERIOD POVERTY AMID COVID-19 BY ANANYA MUKHERJEE Fellowship Theme: Water Security and Availability amid COVID-19

ANANYA MUKHERJEE MA Environment and Development School of Human Ecology, Dr B R Ambedkar University Delhi

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS COVID-19 : Corona Virus Disease- 2019 WASH : Water, Sanitation & Hygiene MHM : Menstrual Hygiene Management WHO : World Health Organization UNICEF : The United Nations Children's Fund JMP : Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene MHH : Menstrual Health & Hygiene PRA : Participatory Rural Appraisal

LIST OF DENIFINITONS

Menstruation : The natural bodily process of releasing blood and associated matter from the uterus through the vagina as part of the menstrual cycle.

Menstrual hygiene management (MHM): It refers to management of hygiene associated with the menstrual process. WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene has used the following definition of MHM: ‘Women and adolescent girls are using a clean menstrual management material to absorb or collect menstrual blood, that can be changed in privacy as often as necessary for the duration of a menstrual period, using soap and water for washing the body as required, and having access to safe and convenient facilities to dispose of used menstrual management materials. They understand the basic facts linked to the menstrual cycle and how to manage it with dignity and without discomfort or fear. (Source: UNICEF)

Menstrual health and hygiene (MHH): This encompass both MHM and the broader systemic factors that link menstruation with health, well-being, gender equality, education, equity, empowerment, and rights. These systematic factors have been summarised by UNESCO as accurate and timely knowledge, available, safe, and affordable materials, informed and comfortable professionals, referral and access to health services, sanitation and washing facilities, positive social norms, safe and hygienic disposal and advocacy and policy. (Source: UNICEF)

Menstruator: Any person who menstruates and therefore has menstrual health and hygiene needs – including girls, women, transgender and non-binary persons. (Source: UNICEF)

Period Poverty: The lack of access to menstrual hygiene products, menstrual hygiene education, clean lavatories, clean water and handwashing facilities, and, or, menstrual waste management.

WASH : WASH is the collective term for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene. Due to their interdependent nature, these three core issues are grouped together to represent a growing sector in development and natural resource management.

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1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY One of the major obstacles to improving the livelihoods of poor is the lack of attention given to gender issues and women’s access to natural resources, in particular land and water. The COVID-19 crisis has indefinitely affected almost every aspect of our life. Very recent studies show that period poverty, the global shame and stigma attached to menstruation, and access to Water, Sanitation & Hygiene (WASH) facilities have worsened ever since the pandemic broke in. Period poverty is defined as the lack of access to menstrual hygiene products, menstrual hygiene education, clean lavatories, clean water and handwashing facilities, and/or, menstrual waste management. While Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) has always been a concern for international organizations such as World Health Organization (WHO) and The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the pandemic followed by a worldwide lockdown has been suggested to adversely affect menstrual health and hygiene, access to WASH facilities, encompassing broader systemic factors associated with menstruation such as advocacy and policy.

Existing literature suggest that access to essential water, sanitation, hygiene facilities, and safe absorbents are necessary to prioritize the health, safety, dignity, and welfare of all people who menstruate. Access to WASH facilities play a significant role in the lives of adolescent girls and women, both biologically as well as culturally. Basic sanitation has now been recognized as a fundamental human right, the deprivation of which affects the social, physical, and economic well-being of societies worldwide, and has been observed to trigger adversities especially for women. In most societies, women are primarily responsible for managing household water supply, sanitation, health, and hygiene. While COVID-19 and the ensuing lockdown has severely affected women’s access to clean water for sanitation and hygiene purposes, the pandemic highlights the need to accelerate progress on WASH to ensure good health and dignity of menstruators. The worldwide response to COVID-19 has also accentuated the importance of WASH, especially hygiene, in households, schools, and health care facilities for reducing the transmission of infectious diseases and ensuring well-being.

Inspired by global research, I have designed my project in a way that attempts to enhance participatory planning and communication, among menstruators to encourage them to participate in discussions in existing voluntary community-based organizations, community-level institutions in Parvati Ghat Bustee, Jamshedpur to address issues related to period poverty and take decisions by ensuring availability of secure, clean water sources/supply amid COVID-19. This study also looks upon the gendered implications of COVID-19 in exacerbating key challenges in WASH facilities for all people who menstruate.

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2. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT On any given day, it may be estimated that more than 800 million women in the age group 15-50 are menstruating. Despite worldwide occurrence, menstruation remains concealed from the world, deep inside a menstruator’s closet, shrouded in silence, secrecy, embarrassment, shame and indignity. Worse still, in many cultures’ systemic discrimination decrees that girls and women must not talk about their menstrual cycles openly, must not complain, must bear the pain and discomfort in stoic silence and must somehow cope on their own. WHO & UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (JMP) is known to produce internationally comparable estimates of national, regional and global progress on water, sanitation and hygiene and is responsible for global monitoring of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) targets related to WASH. The COVID-19 outbreak consequently posed certain primary and secondary threats to human health, challenging the SDGs. While the primary threats are being catered to at a global level, COVID-19 is estimated to soon have secondary impacts on the health of girls, women, and gender non-binary people who menstruate-estimated to be 1.8 billion worldwide, due to the lack of adequate and regular access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene facilities. MHM is also largely affected by contingent facets, such as access to clean places, rooms, and toilets where women can safely undertake menstruation-related washing, cleaning, and bathing in privacy and comfort. These factors are further influenced by having access to water, hygiene, and sanitation facilities at the household. The central practical dimension of menstruation is the need to manage it hygienically, safely and with dignity. This challenge is present across women and girls’ daily lives. Hygienic, convenient and affordable materials for absorbing menstrual flows that are appropriate in a localised socio-cultural context are needed. There are also challenges around privacy, water, soap and available spaces for changing, washing and drying reusable materials and underwear, and the dignified and environmentally safe disposal of used sanitary materials.

3. PROBLEM STATEMENT Although a biological occurrence, menstruation has been colored by the patriarchal society, often stigmatised and menstruating women, discriminated against. WASH facilities are suggested to be the first line of defense against COVID-19. However, according to the United Nations, globally, over 1.2 billion women do not have regular access to clean water, hygienic lavatories, and period essentials during menstruation. UNICEF (April, 2020) acknowledges that worldwide menstruators who test positive or may be suspected with the COVID-19 infection contained, quarantined or isolated at home may also lack access to piped water supply, on-site sanitation, handwashing facilities, soap and Menstrual Health and Hygiene (MHH) supplies.

Evidently leading to a socio-economic crisis (UNDP, 2019), the pandemic has affected the livelihoods of several low-income households in slums, and of those working in the informal sector. Most of these individuals residing in slums are daily wage workers and for them, regular access to clean water, sanitation and menstrual hygiene facilities may not always be affordable or even worse, a priority. In home isolation and quarantine facilities, COVID-19 testing and protection kits, antibiotics, and pyrigesics are being made available but WASH facilities are not being treated as essentials. Thus, the key challenges identified are

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absence of safe and sufficient water supply and sanitation facilities, worsened access to hygiene during menstruation, amid COVID-19. The lack of recognition of the role women play as decision makers in water security management may also be stated as one of the major reasons for women’s poor access to productive resources.

4. LITERATURE REVIEW In this review of pre-existing literature, I would like to elaborate further on the previously declared background and context of the proposed project along with the declared problem statement. It has been suggested previously that, water compounded with sanitation, and adequate hygiene are suggested to be the first line of defense against COVID-19, by public health experts. However, United Nations reports, globally, over 1.2 billion women do not have regular access to clean water, hygienic lavatories, and period essentials during menstruation. Globally, women make up 70 percent of the health workforce and are more likely to be front-line health workers, especially nurses, midwives, and community health workers. (WHO, 2019). An outbreak of a disease consequently poses certain primary and secondary threats to human health. While the primary threats are being catered to at a global level, COVID-19 will soon have secondary impacts on the health of girls, women, and gender non-binary people who menstruate and are estimated to be 1.8 billion worldwide.

According to the report of the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) titled “Month after Month: Period Poverty” each month nearly 500 million menstruators experience period poverty. Adequate and equitable sanitation, access to safe and affordable, clean water facilities and access to sanitary napkins every month becomes a major constraint for many women across both high and low resource settings. An estimated one in ten young women, all over the world cannot afford essential period products; nearly 12 percent have been forced to manage with ineffective, unhygienic and unsafe devices (FIGO, 22.02.2019). In another cross-sectional study conducted in a resettlement colony of Delhi, researchers found that for over 60% of the women they studied, home-made adsorbents were being made out of waste cloth pieces and they used these during their periods, three-fourth of these women lacked basic awareness that dirty clothing may lead to severe infections and other health hazards. (Baridalyne & Reddaiah, 2004). This is a major problem with regard to period poverty amid COVID-19 because most of these women are deprived of MHH due to the lack of regular, clean water supply in remote settlements.

It is suggested that, and in accordance with WHO’s definition of health, the attainment of the highest standard of complete physical, social and mental well-being of a human being is one of his/her fundamental rights. Health promotion does not ideate necessarily biomedical interventions in public healthcare. Heavily influenced by factors outside the sphere of public health, an individual access to safe living, growth, ameliorated workspace, may ultimately result in inequalities within and between countries. We need to focus on health promotion in order to develop a holistic approach towards intervening at personal, organisational, social and political levels to facilitate adaptations conducive to improving or protecting health at large. This however, may be problematic keeping in mind the population size of India and existing inequalities within the country. Within this discourse, for instance I address that the global

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shame and stigma attached to menstruation, and access to Water, Sanitation & Hygiene (WASH) facilities have worsened ever since the pandemic broke in and this could be one of the issues which requires full- fledged health promotion, in order to safeguard the fundamental right of every individual who menstruates.

While the Govt. of India launched a health promotional campaign in March, this year to contain the spread of novel coronavirus, authorities seem to have neglected the necessity to prioritise the health, safety, dignity, and welfare of all people who menstruate. Considering equitable distribution, community participation, and intersectoral coordination health promotion must be adequately prioritised as compared to clinical care that may or may not be made accessible to all. UNICEF (April, 2020) acknowledges that worldwide girls and women who test positive or may be suspected with the COVID-19 infection contained, quarantined or isolated at home may lack access to piped water supply, on-site sanitation, handwashing facilities, soap and MHH supplies. They may also face challenges in accessing clean water and sanitation services, due to sever disruption or lack of sewerage system maintenance, or due to increased costs driven by scarcity of essential supplies. Globally, women and girls perform the bulk of water fetching work, the pandemic has affected these individuals disproportionally. The research gap thus, lies in t he bigger picture that suggests that in order to curb inequalities in public health and to successfully extend public health care provisions equitably to masses, the need to focus on simple, cost-effective, inventive, culturally and geographically appropriate models of health promotion strengthens all the more amid COVID-19 that triggered adversities across populations, and in doing so it becomes immensely essential to encourage womxn to participate in discourses related to natural resource management and governance.

It thus, becomes essential to survey and discuss in detail the impact of a pandemic on a global issue that affects millions of menstruators worldwide, every year. The inadequacy of knowledge, increased confusion, fear, anxiety related to menstruation may be associated with the overall health of individuals. In such a situation, an active community response becomes essential and must be generated to rescue individuals who have been hit by the pandemic, and this must be done while also creating a gender-sensitive environment.

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5. PROJECT LOCATION Parvati Ghat Bustee, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand. The proposed project location is close to river Kharkai.

6. OBJECTIVES & GOALS In environmental conservation, in this context, water resource management and development policy, women’s participation as allies remains open to recontextualisation . In this light, the broad objectives of the project are: • To increase access to safe, affordable and adequate clean water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities for menstruators experiencing period poverty amid COVID-19. • To enhance participation of women in decision making processes for water security management. • To encourage women to participate actively in existing voluntary community-based organisations and community level institutions for water security management, thereby improving the social capital of women by giving them leadership and networking opportunities and building solidarity among them. • Gender sensitisation of men folk by encouraging them to participate in women-led discussions about period poverty, water security and availability amid COVID-19.

7. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Post lockdown, travel was not possible for conducting extensive interviews and case-studies in person, hence, I undertook a telephonic survey to engage with respondents from a local, informal, peri-urban slum settlement in order to acquire primary data. In the latter half of the fellowship duration, I managed to visit the project location a couple of times to engage in conversation with residents of Parvati Ghat Bustee, who wished to respond to the questionnaire prepared to collect data. Most of the case studies were designed using a telephonic qualitative method of data collection- ‘questionnaire-based inquiry’. Internet and other electronic technologies have the potential of becoming prime survey vehicles due to its convenient,

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verifiable, low-cost delivery and return systems as well as easily accessible, user friendly feedback mechanisms (Kaye & Johnson, 1999) .

Sampling & Recruitment: For the purpose of this study four categories of menstruators were targeted- Females, Transgender males, Gender variant/ Non-conforming individuals, and individuals who prefer not to say. Non-menstruating individuals have been purposely not involved as participants to narrow down the objectives of the study. Pre menarche individuals have also been excluded from the study. Although I could not inquire about individuals in person, I managed to engage with nine menstruators over the telephone. In person, 3 residents of the Parvati Ghat Bustee (in the age group 26-35) agreed to engage in conversation with me, they do not wish to disclose their names. Females (n1) = 10(83.33%) Trans Males (n2) = Gender variant/ Non - Prefer not to say (n4) 1(8.33%) conforming (n3) =0 = 1 (8.33%) Age (in years) n (%) 15-20 5(41.66%) 21-25 3(25%) 26-30 2(16.66%) 30> 2(16.66%)

8. WATER SMART SOLUTION APPROACH PROPOSED PRA is an approach, supported by communication driven tools and methods to facilitate demand-led development in rural areas. It may be defined as, “an approach and method for learning about rural life and conditions from, with and by rural people” . This methodology has been widely accepted by policy planners, it permits the application of a set of tools and techniques used by respondents that allow them to efficiently transform their knowledge and share experiences into actions that are oriented towards economically justifiable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound production system(s). In this project, PRA approach is expected to encourage menstruators to discard taboos associated with menstruation in order to tackle period poverty experienced by them. A template was designed to collect basic information from respondents residing in Parvati Ghat Bustee. In conversation with the residents of Parvati Ghat Bustee, I intended to encourage them to prepare a resource map, as part of PRA to draw information on how people view their locality in terms of natural resources, in this context availability of water amid COVID-19.

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Figure: Proposed Approach is Participatory Rural Appraisal

Figure: Proposed Methodology

9. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT

Timeline Project- List of Tasks 1. Preliminary Meeting: Incorporated knowledge and opinions of the community. Period poverty addressed by menstruators, water security and availability amid COVID-19 addressal. 2. Social Mapping: Understanding the overall

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infrastructure of the slum, identify current status of WASH facilities and consequent contribution to period poverty. 3. Scheme Walk: Gender sensitisation of the community. Formation of voluntary community organisation. 4. Seasonality: Understand seasonal availability of water, WASH facilities, quality and menstrual healthcare trends. 5. Resource Mapping: Mapping already available water resources. 6. Preparation of Water Budget: Find the gap between clean water demand and supply, reasons for lack of access to WASH and potential solutions. 7. Documentation: Consolidating acquired information in official documents by slum facilitation team. 8.Proposal of Water Smart Solutions or Strategies, Selection Meeting and Finalis ation of preferred water smart solutions/strategies through enhanced community participation, active participation of menstruators. 9. Approval by Community Organis ations: Water smart solutions/strategies to ensure water security in order to address period poverty amid COVID-19 finalised and approved. 10. FINAL REPORT PREPARATION

10. KEY FINDINGS In conversation with 12 menstruators, it was found that most of them envied men due to the invisible advantage they were born with.

“If men could menstruate...menstruation would be an enviable, boast-worthy, masculine event: Men would brag about how long and how much. Boys would mark the onset of menses, that longed-for proof of manhood, with religious ritual and stag parties. Congress would fund a National Institute of Dysmenorrhea to help stamp out monthly discomforts. Sanitary supplies would be federally funded and free.” (Source: World Toilet Day Advocacy Report, 2013 )

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Rashika Kerketta is a 15-year-old girl and she lives right next to my place in Jamshedpur in an informal slum settlement, called Shivnagar basti . It is seldom surprising that inhabitants of the Shivnagar basti cross the road to fetch water from the river Kharkai that is then used for cooking, washing, and for sanitation, and hygiene practices. The Shivnagar basti is a fairly populated urban informal slum settlement consisting mostly of closely packed, dilapidated housing units, the houses lack planned infrastructure and are inhabited primarily by individuals working in the informal sector, some are rag pickers, some are daily wage workers.

“I think the reason why we do not talk about menstruation in public is because it is related to the private parts of the female body. Also, most girls, as I do, only feel confident with other girls. So, it becomes impossible to even imagine that they will discuss it with their male friends openly. I have some friends who talk to me about the menstrual problems they face and how the related hormonal changes can affect their cycle and cause several other health complications. Most of my friends just don’t talk much and keep their heads down, when asked about menstruation.”- Rashika Kerketta, respondent.

Rashika dropped out of school two years back because her mother doesn’t keep well and consequently, she is responsible for a particularly grueling daily ritual- fetch water, several times a day. She has a younger sibling; he is an eight-year-old boy. As she opened up, she went on to explain that she had to drop out of school because there is no one at home to look after her mother and brother when her father goes out for work. When she menstruates, no one is available to give her personal care, sanitation and hygiene facilities. Rashika confessed that she is not allowed to talk to male members in her household and is barred from much human contact while she has her periods. She also confessed that due to inadequate menstrual hygiene and lack of awareness regarding menstrual health hygiene her mother has, in past suffered from reproductive and urinary tract infections and she fears that she might too fall ill due to disrupted water, sanitation and hygiene supply during the pandemic.

Ever since she dropped out of school, she has been visiting the nearby gaushala to fetch cattle feed and water from a common water source. In the past few months, the COVID-19 induced lockdown has significantly disrupted water supply in the locality. Compelled, Rashika and her family have been fetching water from the river Kharkai. The water from the river is extremely unclean and thereby unfit for human use, but Rashika and her family have been using the river water for household purposes except consumption. There are many like Rashika who have had to, due to the disruption of public or private facilities as part of the pandemic response, face the brunt of gendered implications of COVID-19, and exacerbated key challenges in WASH facilities. All the individuals responded that since menstruation is still a taboo in our society, they do not wish to create an uncomfortable situation in public wherein their menstrual needs will not be considered important by other people.

In order to understand in-depth, the cultural and traditional barriers associated with menstrual practices, respondents were asked to explain briefly whether or not they were instructed to practice menstrual traditions such as exclusion from daily chores, engaging in physical distancing with the non-menstruating

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members of the family, not touching or washing genitalia while menstruating, etc. To this, almost every menstruator replied that they were not allowed to come in contact with their family members during menstruation. One of the key findings in this project is the fact that all three respondents of the Parvati Ghat Bustee replied that they were not allowed to use the toilet facility at their houses during menstruation, they used the common water taps to fetch water, the water supply to which remained disrupted during the COVID-19 imposed lockdown. Two young girls, over a telephonic conversation replied that they have never been compelled to follow any such tradition associated with menstruation. Some of them replied that they are instructed not to visit places of worship and other prayer spaces during these days, not allowed to touch pickles, not allowed to cook food, or enter into the kitchen while they are menstruating. As already established initially, access to clean and regular water supply has been mandated by the WHO to ensure proper menstrual health and hygiene. Majority of these women faced disruption in WASH during the lockdown.

In conversation with Supriya (name changed), it was found that the under the Rotary club, Jamshedpur the Parvati Ghat Bustee Kalyan Samiti worked immensely on resolving the water problem that existed. Women however, are not outspoken and women’s participation is water resource management is sparse and the voices are not taken into consideration. In context, menstruation still remains one of the least discussed topics among residents of Parvati Ghat Bustee. The organisation works in the location to ensure quality education, efficient supply of water and electricity, cremation, healthcare facilities, cancer care, septic toilet tank construction, infrastructure development etc.

Figure: Water taps at the Bustee set up by Parvati Ghat Bustee Kalyan Samiti (Photo source: pgbkalyansamiti.org)

As proposed in the list of activities undertaken, I did encourage respondents to address period poverty in context of water security and availability amid COVID- 19. All the respondents clearly mentioned that they do not wish to talk about menstruation in public, even though they did face adverse situations

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during the lockdown due to disrupted WASH facilities. They are comfortable with female members of the community-based organisation, they did agree to share their problems with females of the organisations but do not wish to voice their opinion themselves, as they are ‘ afraid their husbands wouldn’t approve of their demands of WASH ’.

Figure: Women representatives of community-based organisation (Photo source: pgbkalyansamiti.org)

11. INNOVATIVE WATER SMART SOLUTIONS AND STRATEGIES There are many reasons why lack of access to water, sanitation and hygiene is largely a women’s issue. Partly as a result of women’s biology, particularly given that women menstruate for a large part of their lives, partly as a result of their frequently subordinate position in society, which can mean that they are at higher risk of violence, and partly due to the fact that, again and again, we see that the disadvantaged in society are the ones least likely to have access to good hygiene and sanitation, and often that means women . Encouraging women to actively participate in voluntary community-based organisations or community-level institutions would help promote gender-balanced local-community based water resource management and governance. The opportunities provided to them would help them improve their living condition and self-esteem, while also allowing them to manage their menses better. This would also encourage sensitisation of men folk.

As part of the timeline of the project, a water budget preparation would provide a means for evaluating availability and sustainability of a water supply, in the proposed project location. The project location lies next to river Kharkai, a water budget would help understand underlying hydrological processes that consequently would provide a foundation for effective water-resource and environmental planning and management, to assess water security and availability amid COVID-19.

12. WAY FORWARD WITH REPLICABILITY AND SCALABILITY FOCUS

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Provisions may be made and implemented to provide the needed sustainable, basic urban infrastructures and services to all residents of the target slums and settlements to strengthen their capacities to plan and manage urban water supply and sanitation systems, effectively. Rapid gender assessment may help identify priorities. Menstruating members of the community may be capable of identifying all civil and small-scale community infrastructure activities that may be then incorporated to improve WASH facilities. A gender- inclusive approach must be integrated to ensure that interventions will be made to address gender inequalities and women’s lack of access to WASH facilities. Social mobilisation must also be adopted as a core strategy. Voluntary community group committees must be formed to respond to community concerns regarding water and sanitation and women must be encouraged to actively participate in decision-making processes, in the construction, maintenance, and oversight of community toilets in these informal settlements to ensure effective natural resource management.

Encouraging women to form voluntary community-based organisations would help promote gender- balanced, local-community based water resource management and governance. The opportunities provided to them would help them improve their living condition and self-esteem, while also allowing them to manage their menses better. This would also encourage sensitisation of men folk.

13. BIBLIOGRAPHY • Baridalyne N, Reddaiah V. 2004. Menstruation Knowledge, Beliefs and Practices of Women in the Reproductive age Group Residing in an Urban Resettlement Colony of Delhi. Health and Population ; Perspectives and Issues 27(1): 9–16. • Kaye, B. K., & Johnson, T. J. (1999). Research methodology: Taming the cyber frontier: Techniques for improving online surveys. Social Science Computer Review , 17 (3), 323–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/089443939901700307 • Das P, Baker KK, Dutta A, Swain T, Sahoo S, Das BS, et al. Menstrual hygiene practices, WASH access and the risk of urogenital infection in women from Odisha , India. PLoS One. 2015;10: e0130777. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130777. • International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (2019) “Month after month: Period Poverty” • Pacha.A.(2018) Is India suffering from ‘period poverty’? The Hindu ( https://www.thehindu.com/sci- tech/health/is-india-suffering-from-period-poverty/article24011206.ece • https://www.unicef.org/sites/default/files/2020-05/UNICEF-Brief-Mitigating-the-impacts-of-COVID-19- on-menstrual-health-and-hygiene.pdf • https://www.unicef.org/wash/files/UNICEF-Guide-menstrual-hygiene-materials-2019.pdf • https://www.forbes.com/sites/alicebroster/2020/05/28/period-poverty-is-getting-worse-during- coronavirus-warns-charity/#4833e3123f73 • https://plan-international.org/news/2020-05-28-coronavirus-making-periods-worse-girls-and-women • https://www.unicef.org/wash/3942_4456.html

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• PROGRESS ON DRINKING WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE IN SCHOOLS-SPECIAL FOCUS ON COVID- 19. (n.d.). https://washdata.org/reports . https://washdata.org/sites/default/files/2020-09/JMP-2020- WASH-schools.pdf • Unilever, WaterAid. (2013). TOILET DAY ADVOCACY REPORT -We Can’t Wait: A report on sanitation and hygiene for women and girls . worldtoilet.org. https://www.unilever.com/Images/we-can-t-wait---a- report-on-sanitation-and-hygiene-for-women-and-girls--november-2013_tcm244-425178_1_en.pdf

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WATER SMART SOLUTION REPORTS

by Fellows Placed with WaterAid India

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11.0 PROJECT: INCLUDING THE EXCLUDED: PROVIDING WATER ACCESS TO PERSON WITH DISABILITIES BY AJAY KUMAR Fellowship Theme: Access to Safe Drinking Water

AJAY KUMAR MSc Environmental Studies Department of Environmental Studies University of Delhi

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

PWD : Persons with Disability CPWD : Central Public Works Department COVID-19 : Coronavirus Disease 2019 G.P : Gram Panchayat OVM : Odisha Viklang Mancha PJS : Pragati Jubaka Sangha UN : United Nations O&M : Operations and Maintenance

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Wateraid India in its journey of more than 3 decades of providing clean water, decent toilets and good hygiene to the people of India have reached to millions of people. WaterAid India is committed to provide these three basic facilities to the last citizen of India and make clean water, decent toilets and good hygiene a normal part of everyday life for everyone, everywhere. In many parts of India WaterAid India partners with local organisation to reach to last mile communities. So, WaterAid India has a huge experience of community engagement, involvement and empowerment in WASH facilities. WaterAid India has enhanced the skills of local people and provided them with solutions that are sustainable and can be managed by the communities themselves.

In India there are 2,19,06,769 (2.1% of total population according to 2011 census) disabled people. These people feel excluded from our society and one of the reasons for this feeling of exclusion is deprivation of basic human water and sanitation rights. In Bhadrak district, WaterAid India has partnered with Pragati Jubaka Sangha to implement its project of providing accessible WASH facilities to the PWDs. WaterAid India is working in Bhardrak district for PWDs for more than 5-6 years. They have provided accessible toilets to hundreds of PWDs and constructed ramps and railings to different WASH related facilities. The major intervention has been the formation of PWD at different levels such as panchayat level, block level, district level and state level. The PWD forums with the support from WaterAid India and PJS have provided different kind of benefits to the PWDs in the region, for example, helping the PWD in registration for Unique Disability ID card.

But even after providing sanitation rights, ensuring water rights of PWD is a task that has to be done. Water rights and hand washing facilities becomes more important than ever in the time of COVID-19 pandemic, where frequent hand-washing is advised to every citizen. So, to overcome this problem, installation of accessible water fountains and hand-washing facilities has been proposed. The expected benefits of the project are huge. It will make PWDs feel integrated with the other general public and it will help in doing away with the social stigma against the PWDs that is prevalent in the society. The inclusion of women in operation and maintenance (O&M) can empower the women of the area too. Further, involvement of PWD forum member in a committee which looks after the O&M will ensure the accountability and sustainability of the installed facilities. This approach of ensuring basic rights of PWD has a potential to be replicated at all India level with local changes if necessary. It can make the 2.1% population of India empowered and live a life with dignity.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT Access to safe and clean water and sanitation facilities is a basic right of all people, including people with disabilities, the denial of which can have serious implications on their well-being. For example, inaccessible water and toilet facilities are major contributing factors for school dropout among children with disabilities. The access to clean water and basic sanitation is a right guaranteed under the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (PWDs). Even, Article14, ‘Right to Equality’ and Article 21 ‘Right to Life’ of Indian constitution has guaranteed these rights for every citizen of India. There are 1028 PwDs in 20 G.P of 3 blocks Tihidi, Chandabali & Dhamnagar of Bhadrak district of Odisha state. Facilities of drinking water for them are highly neglected in the public infrastructure. Furthermore, at school level, the facilities of drinking water and washing hands are not all inclusive.

Installation of water fountains at major public places and public institutions for drinking water and PWD friendly basins for hand washing can provide access to safe water to the citizens who are deprived of their basic human rights. Also, installing same facilities in school will add on to the overall development and health of the students with PWDs.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT In spite of the enabling policies and guidelines at national and state level, there have been challenges faced by implementers and service providers because of a lack of appropriate and cost effective technology options which are PWD friendly. There are different challenges faced by the disabled people and disabled students while accessing the water as listed below: • The available water source might not be available or if it is available then it is available too far to reach out from the public place. • The hand washing basins are not PWD friendly or of inappropriate height. Hand washing has never been as important as it is now during the time of COVID-19. • Lack of PWD friendly drinking water facilities in public places, public institutions and even in schools. • Lack of PWD friendly drinking water facilities can lead the PWDs to opt for unhealthy drinking water options. • Lack of PWD friendly hand washing facilities can increase the risk of spread various diseases including COVID-19 among community. • Inadequate basic facilities for the PWDs increase the social discrimination and obstacles in the environment. • To do away with the social discrimination and obstacles in the environment which are bigger problems for people with disabilities than the impairment itself.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW In the Year 2018-19 Pragati Jubaka Sangha (PJS) has started initiative to empower the PWD person directly in 20 G.P of 3 blocks Tihidi, Chandabali & Dhamnagar of Bhadrak Dist and empower the PWD to ensure

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their rights [1]. They have done a one village wise house hold survey conducted in 20 gram panchayts of 3 Blocks. PWD baseline findings were collected according to the survey where demography of PWD, 21 category of PWD, name list in Baseline and other related information was included. UNICEF has provided the different ways through which the PWD can be ensured with basic needs and opportunities to contribute to their families and community [2]. WaterAid has provided a compendium of WASH technologies [3]. Central Public Works Department (CPWD) has also released a Handbook on Barrier Free & Accessibility [4]. These documents have mentioned the ways in which water for drinking and hand washing can be made accessible to the PWDs. Eliminating water-borne/water-washed diseases within communities and breaking the links between poverty, poor water and sanitation is likely to be impossible unless persons with disabilities are included in all WASH-related efforts [5]. WaterAid India is has partnered with Odisha Viklang Manch (OVM) and Pragati Jubak Sangh (PJS) to provide accessible toilets to the PWD in the of 3 blocks Tihidi, Chandabali and Dhamnagar of Bhadrak district. This has led to increased enthusiasm and dignity of the PWDs living in the area [6].

4. PROPOSED PROJECT LOCATION INCLUDING GOOGLE MAP The project is proposed to be implemented in 3 blocks Tihidi, Chandabali & Dhamnagar of Bhadrak district. Following map shows location of district Bhadrak and its block level map.

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(Source: www.veethi.com; sericulturecouncil.com; https://www.google.com/maps/place/Bhadrak)

5. OBJECTIVES & GOALS To provide access to safe water and hand wash facilities to the PWDs at public places and thereby, providing them the basic human rights of access to safe water. Also, to work on sustainability of installed facilities with making general public sensitive about the problems faced by the PWDs. This is to be done by-  Installing water fountains and thereby making drinking water accessible to PWDs at selected public places and public institutions.  Installing accessible hand washing facilities at public places and public institutions  Involving local women for operation and maintenance by providing them adequate training  General public to be made aware about the hardship PWD face accessing the basic facilities and thereby creating an atmosphere where rights of PWD are respected.  Awareness campaigns for general public and special sessions at different schools.  Wall paintings to be painted in public places to spread awareness

6. DETAILED APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY WaterAid India is already working with PJS and OVM to provide PWDs disable-friendly toilets. In the year 2018-19 WaterAid and PJS has started an initiative to empower the PWD person directly in 20 G.P of 3 blocks Tihidi, Chandabali & Dhamnagar of Bhadrak Dist and empower the PWD to ensure their rights. The activities are carried out through the help of PWD forum at panchayat levels and block level. The major focus of activities that have been completed till now is towards providing accessible toilets and installation of ramps and handrails. But providing equal water rights at public places is yet to be ensured.

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To provide basic rights of water to PWDs, first, the PWD forums at village level will do regular meetings with the PWDs and share the knowledge about the proposed ideas. PWDs will be made aware about their equal water rights at public places and the need of accessible water and hand washing facilities which has become more important in the time of COVID-19 pandemic. They will be told about the proposed solution of installing water fountains and accessible hand washing facilities. In these meetings, views of the PWD will also be taken and discussed accordingly. After that, we will interview the PWDs and data will be collected for the public places they visit most frequently. The top 3 choices of PWD for the public places where the water fountains and accessible hand washing facility must be installed will be noted down. According to the data collected, the most frequently visited public places will be selected for survey. The sites will be surveyed; pictures will be taken of sites and a location for installing water fountain and accessible hand washing facility at the site surveyed.

After collection of pictures and survey, meetings with PWD forums of village level and block level will be conducted to discuss about the sites surveyed for the installation of water fountains and accessible hand washing facilities. Also, the experts from partner organisations will be asked to attend the meetings at block level and provide their inputs. In these meetings, the sites for installation of water fountains and accessible hand washing facilities will also be decided. Once the sites are finalised, a rough draft of the project will be prepared by the experts from WaterAid India and partner organisations.

7. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT

WEEK Task 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Introductory Meetings & knowledge sharing Data collection & interviews Surveying PWD forum Meeting with organisations involved Rough Project Draft Consultation with all Stakeholders Incorporation of suggestions & Finalising memorandum of demands Submission of project to District Head

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8. KEY FINDINGS While working on development of project report, it was noticed that till even after 73 years of independence the basic rights of PWDs have been neglected at public places. The citizens are also not sensitive towards this issue. Due to this the PWDs have felt side-lined and deprived.

When the PWDs experienced that they can make a forum and through it they can raise their demands and also make their voices heard to the administration, they have started feeling empowered and enthusiastic. It is expected that ensuring their water rights at public places will make them feel integrated with the other general public and it will help in doing away with the social stigma against the PWDs that is prevalent in the society. Also, including women in operation and maintenance (O&M) can empower the women of the area too.

9. INNOVATIVE WATER SMART SOLUTIONS AND STRATEGIES • Installation of water fountains at various public places, institutions and school. • To install barrier free and accessible hand washing facilities at same places. • Strengthening accessibility to these facilities and existing facilities. • Raising these demands from the forums that are already established can empower PwDs and ensure the rights of PwDs in the three blocks. • Involvement of women in O&M will empower them and will act as a source of employment for them.

Once, the structures are installed, the operation and maintenance of the installed facilities to be done by a team of Blue Ambassadors. This team will include local women trained in operation and maintenance, and a couple of members of PWD forum. The inclusion of PWD forum member in the operation & maintenance team will ensure efficiency and sustainability of the project infrastructure.

10. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The PWD Forum members have pointed out the discrimination they face at public places. The implementation of proposed project is expected to result in • Accessible water and hand washing facilities for PWDS at selected public spaces. • Increased social respect of PWDs • Improved health of PWDs and reduced spread of COVID-19 among the PWDs and general public. • A local population more aware about the rights of PWDs and which also respects the individuality of PWDs. • Empowered women of the Panchayats.

11. ACHIEVEMENTS, LEARNINGS AND OUTCOMES

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The project implementation and studying the outcomes of the project is expected to develop an understanding that to what extent providing water rights at public places can reduce the social stigma present in the society against the PWDs. It will also help to understand the change in attitude and feelings of PWDs before and after they are provided with water rights at public places. These learnings from this project can provide a way forward to learn from the shortfalls and then replicate the project in other blocks.

13. CONCLUSION The WaterAid India and its partner organisation’s program of making toilets accessible under the SBM by state government’s support have raised a lot of enthusiasm among the PWDs. PWDs are getting empowered and now they are raising their voices through PWD forums. The PWD forums at different levels of administration have the potential to play an important role in providing a range of basic rights to PWD. Once the project of installation of water fountains and accessible hand washing facilities is completed, PWDs will feel themselves included in the mainstream society. They would be able to experience and enjoy the rights that are available to every citizen of India. Even the general public will also be aware and sensitive towards the PWDs. Inclusion of PWD members in Blue Ambassador team will provide part/full time employment to the PWD.

14. CONSTRAINTS OR CHALLENGES • Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, gatherings or meetings are not allowed of more than 50-100 persons. This has hindered the first step of the project i.e., introductory meetings with PWDs. • Working remotely from homes for developing the project was also a challenge. Conversing over phone calls and gathering information was a challenge for the team but dedication and will power to bring positive change made the team to overcome from this challenge. • Frequent hand-washing is a recommended way to be safe from COVID-19 pandemic [7]. But as this facility is not accessible to PWDs, they face a challenge of being at higher risk of contracting with virus and also spread of the virus to others. • As Bhadrak is a coastal district, development of low pressures has few times resulted in electricity cuts and hence the flow of information and documents got hindered.

15. WAY FORWARD WITH REPLICABILITY AND SCALABILITY FOCUS After the project has been implemented, a survey will be done where the positive impacts and short comings of the project will be studied and examined. Then, the similar project will be undertaken in the other gram panchayats of the Bhadrak district. Once the positive outcomes are well recognised, similar project can be undertaken in whole of the state.

There are 12,44,402 disabled people in Odisha and 2,19,06,769 (2.1% of total population according to 2011 census) disabled people in India. A significant portion of these crores of people are deprived of their basic human rights such as availability and barrier free accessibility of water and sanitation facilities. In the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector we usually use the term ‘universal access’ very casually, not always

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reflecting the fact that achieving universal access to any service is not a simple thing to do in practice. The term ‘universal’ also sometimes poses a contradiction because when we talk about scale and reach we tend to want to develop ‘Universal design/ models’ and forget that universal design may be suitable for a majority, but not for all. Universal models can make people already excluded even more invisible. So, the modal of establishing PWD at different levels and carrying out projects for PWDs through it has a potential to benefit crores of PWDs of India. It will lead to overall development, engagement and empowerment of PWDs in India. PWDs will get a suitable platform to raise their demands and share their grievances. Furthermore, it will be PWD members only who will be listening to their demands. The modal of including PWD members in team of Blue Ambassadors has the potential to generate employment opportunities for PWD.

17. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Das, D. [No Date]. PWD Process Documentation and Report. Unpublished.

[2] UNICEF. 2019. Disabilities in Programme: Water, Sanitation and Hygiene. [Online]. [Accessed on: 27 August 2020]. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/disabilities/index_65839.html

[3] Jones, H. And Wilbur, J. 2014. Compendium of Accessible WASH Technologies. [Online]. WaterAid. [Accessed on 25 August 2020]. Available from: https://washmatters.wateraid.org/publications/compendium-of-accessible-wash- technologies?id=aff6d098-00f2-42e5-b9a0-22ec2b264a5e

[4] Central Public Works Department [CPWD]. 2014. Handbook of Barrier free and Accessibility. New Delhi: Directorate General CPWD.

[5] Nora, G., Maria, K. And Jean-Francois, T. 2011. Water and sanitation issues for persons with disabilities in low- and middle-income countries. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication. (Accessed on: 01 October 2020)

[6] Bishakha, B. (2017 ). ‘A journey towards making inclusive toilets for persons with disabilities a reality ’. WaterAid India , 1 December. Available at: https://washmatters.wateraid.org/blog/a-journey-towards- making-inclusive-toilets-for-persons-with-disabilities-a-reality. (Accessed: 30 September 2020)

[7] World Health Organisation (2020). WHO saves lives: Clean your hands in the context of COVID-19. Available at: https://www.who.int/infection-prevention/campaigns/clean-hands/WHO_HH-Community- Campaign_finalv3.pdf?ua=1 ( Accessed on: 17 October, 2020).

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12.0 PROJECT: DUG-WELL BASED MINI PIPE WATER SUPPLY IN NUAPADA, ODISHA BY SHWETA CHOUBEY Fellowship Theme: Access to Safe Drinking Water

SHWETA CHOUBEY MSc Environmental Sciences Department of Environmental Sciences JC Bose University of Science and Technology, YMCA

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS PWS : Pipe Water Supply GP : Gram Panchayat KBK : Kalahandi Balangir Koraput Region SC : Scheduled Caste ST : Scheduled Tribe MPWS : Mini Pipe Water Supply O&M : Operation & Management RCDC : Regional Centre for Development Cooperation

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Safe and acceptable water for human consumption that is available in sufficient quantity, physically accessible and affordable is a crucial prerequisite for human wellbeing. Nuapada is the most fluoride endemic district of Odisha. As per government information, 905 habitations of a total of 2,784 habitations, in the district have already been identified as affected by fluoride contaminated water sources. Among these, Nuapada block has 159 habitations, Komna block has 254 habitations, Khariar block has 69 habitations, Boden block has 221 habitations and Sinapali block has 202 habitations affected by fluoride. Nuapada district throws greater challenge as this district receives lowest rainfall among all Odisha districts and last five-year average rainfall in the district has been less than 1,000 mm (State average in nearly 1,500 mm).

Though Pipe Water Supply (PWS) are recommended, a balanced and integrated approach to fluoride mitigation is necessary. Therefore, the feasibility of the intervention in terms of technology, its value addition and scope of replication has to be approached. As most of the tube wells have fluoride level beyond the limit of rejection, finding relatively safe sources is a tough task. Through constant water quality testing, it’s found that shallow aquifer (sub-surface aquifer) is safer in many areas of the district.

From the past experiences of the organisation’s project, it has been found out that mini pipe water supply have been hugely successful in immediately addressing the water quality woes of the people and are being extensively used. Safe and acceptable water for human consumption that is available in sufficient quantity, physically accessible and affordable is a crucial prerequisite for human wellbeing. Access to safe water is not only fundamental to good health but also to satisfactory livelihoods, dignity and prospects for economic growth and education. The lack of access to sufficient amounts of safe water leads to human suffering and to loss of human potential which is ethically indefensible as well as economically wasteful.

Hence, promotion of drinking water sources popularly known as “dug-well based Mini Pipe Water Supply Scheme” fed by shallow aquifer is recommended along with the potential of being replicated to provide maximum beneficiaries to the community. [1] The project involves studying of the intervening region at Nuapada district, Odisha where WaterAid has already been working since past times assuring safe drinking water to be accessed by the community members in backward regions and developing document consisting of the project carried out along with innovative solutions proposed at my side for the project.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT Nuapada is one of the western districts of Odisha, bordering to Chhattisgarh and a part of the KBK region – infamous for gross underdevelopment and deprivation in India. It lies between 20 degree N and 21 degree 5’ latitude and 82 degree 40’ E longitude. The boundaries of Nuapada extends in the north, west and south to Raipur District of Chattishgarh and in the east to Bargarh, Balangir and Kalahandi Districts of Odisha. This district is spread over in an area of 3,852sq. Km. Nuapada District was created on 1st April 1993 by carving out of undivided Kalahandi District with an area of 3,852 Sq. Kms. Nuapada District comprises one sub- division (Nuapada), five Tahsils (Nuapada ,Khariar, Komna, Boden and Sinapali) and five Blocks (Khariar, Sinapalli, Boden, Nuapada and Komna).

It consists of 670 nos. of Revenue villages having population of 6, 10,382 as per 2011 census. The total no. of rural households in the District is 1, 44,299 as per the 2011 census. Total no. of BPL families is 99,465 in the District, which is 78% of the total population. As per the administrative is concerned there are 131 G.Ps, 3 N.A.Cs and 10 Police Stations. The total Scheduled Caste (SC) population of the District is 82,159 and Scheduled Tribe (ST) population is 2, 06,327, which comprise 13.46 % and 33.80 % respectively of the total population. WaterAid has been working in Nuapada district of Odisha that is the most fluoride endemic district of the state. Nuapada district throws even greater challenge as this district receives lowest rainfall among all Odisha districts and last five-year average rainfall in the district has been less than 1,000 mm (State average in nearly 1,500 mm). Many studies have confirmed a direct relationship between rainfall and ground water level with extent of chemical contamination of ground water. Nuapada district is a perfect example of that.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT The lack of access to sufficient amounts of safe water leading to human suffering and to loss of human potential is ethically indefensible as well as economically wasteful. People have already been affected with skeletal fluorosis, some at very advanced stage of affect. Almost all other residents of the habitation clearly show other symptoms of fluorosis. Ironically, although Nuapada district has already been identified as one of the most fluoride affected district of the Odisha state, till late 2013 nobody of the habitation were aware about the reason that caused their physical abnormalities. The resident of these poor tribal habitation are affected with fluorosis but were ignorant of the reason. The villagers’ dependence on ground water is high, these tube wells, and even the sanitary well had fluoride levels beyond the permissible limit.

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Figure 1: Problems suffered by Fluorosis contamination

The State Government has shown resolve to tackle water quality problems, particularly fluoride. A significant focus of the government has been to provide piped water supply in the fluoride affected areas. However, the piped water supply schemes have their own issues of sustainability. In case of failure of schemes, the situation will only worsen. Technological failures, want of operation and maintenance, lack of community management of the schemes and ground water depletion/ contamination are major reasons for failure of the schemes. Though PWS are welcome, but a balanced and integrated approach to fluoride mitigation is necessary. Many studies have already found that multiple sources, multiple supply mechanisms supplemented by adequate rainwater harvesting are essential for water security.

This has led to community demanding dug wells as alternative and/or supplementary sources. As a result it is necessary to give importance to construction of sanitary well in Nuapada district, where sub-surface water have been found as relatively safer. Therefore, solution to the contamination problem for making safe water access to people would be suggested based on the past activities done by WaterAid involving few technological interventions to enhance the beneficiaries resulting from this.

3. PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

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Endemic fluorosis in India is considered to be a major public health related problem. In India approximately more than 60 million people drink water having more than optimal required concentration of fluoride. More than 15 States in India are endemic for fluorosis (fluoride level in drinking water >1.5 mg/l), and more than 60 million people in India suffer from fluorosis as per the available literature. Badly affected states includes Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra. The excessive consumption of fluorides for a long period in various forms results in deleterious effects on different tissues of the body such as teeth (dental fluorosis), bone (skeletal fluorosis) and soft tissues (non-skeletal fluorosis).

The Government authorities and community-based organizations have sponsored a variety of development programmes so as to improve the standard of living of the residents of this area.[5] A significant focus of the government has been to provide piped water supply in the fluoride affected areas. [4]

In 2005, People Science Institute along with Sahbhagi Vikash Abhiyan at Nuapada, Odisha worked on fluorosis mitigation providing 6995 beneficiaries by conversion of dug wells into safe sanitary wells, construction of sand wells in ponds with low fluoride concentration, domestic defluoridation kits and rainwater harvesting. [3]

In 2013, WaterAid India along with local partner Regional Centre for Development Cooperation (RCDC) intervened into the district and conducted a baseline assessment. It was found that tube-well contained fluoride of 5 parts per million, which is way beyond the permissible limit. In the small habitation of around 60 people, around 21 were already suffering from skeletal fluorosis and rest showed clear symptoms of fluorosis. Unfortunately, the community was completely unaware of the reasons behind their physical abnormalities and never questioned their only existent water source. The project, which is being implemented in Nuapada since April 2013, has already pilot tested models of sanitary well and roof-top water harvesting. From the past experiences of the project conducted by WaterAid it has been found out that sanitary wells have been hugely successful in immediately addressing the water quality woes of the people and are being extensively used. [1]

4. PROJECT LOCATION WaterAid has been working across various regions and one such intervening region is Nuapada, one of the western districts of Odisha, bordering to Chhattisgarh and a part of the KBK (Kalahandi Balangir Koraput) region – infamous for gross underdevelopment and deprivation in India. Nuapada block has 159 habitations. The suggested place for intervention is Dohelpada of Kreswar GP of Komna block & Belgaon village of Rajana GP og Komna Block.

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5. GOAL & OBJECTIVES Goal: To render community to safe access to water without fluoride contamination so that they do not suffer from water borne diseases thus potential leading to less human suffering. Objectives: With the review conducted above, the present study has been undertaken to further enhance the process of access to safe drinking water to the community people at Naupada, Odisha. It would be done by:  Focusing on sub-surface water source based drinking water in an improved version  Evaluating the Scope of Replication at nearby places  Documentation of the Project carried out

6. APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY The project involves studying of the intervening region at Nuapada district, Odisha where WaterAid has already been working since past times assuring safe drinking water to be accessed by the community members in backward regions. In this year WaterAid looking forward to take focus on sub-surface water source based drinking water in an improved version. Here proposing to further add and integrated water extraction, filtering and tap discharge systems besides development of sanitary wells. Apart from the hardware part, this pilot demonstration will also involve a more complex demonstration of software requirements, such as community management system for O&M of the system and further improvements.

In the current financial year of the project, there are provision for two units of ‘Pilot demonstration of community water harvesting, management, monitoring and drinking water source development’ and has a total budget of Rs. 1,50,00.00. The project team along with Jalabandhu members made lot of efforts to identify such source. Criteria for selecting the village and site: • Extent of fluoride hazard is very high and people are already exposed to the hazard. • The demand and willingness for such demonstration has come from the community and the Jalabandhu; and the community will agree for O&M of the water source. • The water source shall be, preferably, a public water source.

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• The water source shall be free from any bacteriological or chemical contamination or in a treatable condition. • The water source shall be able to cater to the needs of dependant population. • The well shall be able to provide water year round • The water source shall be accessible to all the dependent households. • The water source shall not be vulnerable to any contamination from flood, water logging or seepage of polluted water. • There shall not be any garbage disposal place/ dump yard near the water source.

The development of document consisting of the project implementation was carried out along with innovative solutions proposed at my side.  Preliminary meeting with the member at regional office would be carried out to understand the process of intervention.  Following that, documents relating to the intervening region would be studied as a means of literature review for getting the detailed insight.  Planning of a schedule  Primary and Secondary data would be collected for documentation part.  Interviews would be fixed with the WaterAid officials and community member.  Preparation of a rough draft including the already existing intervention by WaterAid along with the new inputs and suggestions which may or maynot be considered by organisation based on its feasibility. ( as per our Mentor)  Handover of the document to be reviewed by mentor at WaterAid at the end.  Follow-up

7. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT WEEK Task 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Introductory Meetings+ Documents Sharing Literature Review of Intervening region Data Collection Interviews Rough Draft Draft for Reviewing Incorporation of Changes & Final document making

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Submission of Document

8. KEY FINDINGS After getting in connection with WaterAid team members in east region at Nuapada district it was found that people were completely dependent on the groundwater and tubewell sources to access water for their utilisation. But the main problem was that villagers were completely unaware of the fact that the diseases they have been suffering since long is due the contamination of water with exteremly high fluoride content. When they become aware by this fact people themselves came forward to join hands with the organisation or themselves found a way out by constructing a sanitary well when governemnt failed to notice their problem. Community members have showed immense support and interest to become active participant in the initiate and also to lend contribution in different forms. This shows that no initiatives is successful without communal participation and efforts.

9. INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS The documentation of the intervening region involves the concept of Dug well based mini pipe water supply for mitigating the fluoride contamination. During this phase, additional inputs as innovative solution or strategies were supposed to be proposed to the project. • A hybrid technology including sanitary well for a clean water drinking source connected with Pipe Water Supply for easy access by community members at their door steps with sustainability aspect that would render people to have contaminated free water is proposed to be implemented. • Capacity building of the community people by conducting workshop on Operation & Management can make them self- reliant and could also generate income source. • If feasibility is approved, it can be looked over for replication to further clusters of blocks by increasing the distance of the PWS and digging of sanitary well in critically affected location.

10. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS The intervening region of Nuapada has been extended help by WaterAid organisation by developing the concept of Dugwell based MPWS scheme that will not only ensure safe access to water but would also enable people to cutshort the need of travelling distances to get water and would be benefitted by getting access at their doorsteps. The involvement of Panchayat will remain a core-intervened for the project. Hence, there will be opportunity to engage with the community and stakeholders to study the efficacy of such intervention in close details and improve mechanisms, if needed. In this process Jalababdhu will play the most vital role. Hence the overall effort will enable to overcome the problem for ensuring safe access to water.

11. ACHIEVEMENTS, LEARNINGS AND OUTCOMES The project implementation and studying the outcomes of the project is expected to develop an understanding that how sustainability can be accounted for developing a water smart solution while also considering scope of technological intervention and economic feasibility which will decide the success of

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any project. The budget itself is a limiting factor if it is not calculated prior to initation of the water solution and focus is always towards cuting the expenses without compromising with the quality of the work. The organisation is doing commendable job by providing safe water access to communities which are not able to find help from anywhere else.

The project has taught how a minor concept turns into reality by a workforce dedicated towards their responsibiliities. It also teaches how people sometimes are unaware of the problems lying out there and consistently prevail under sych circumstances until and unless an awareness is created. The role of community is the most crucial part in any intervention. The intervention will enable people to get rid from risks that pose threat to their health and would ensure an upliftment of their behaviour and attitude towards their role and responsibilites.

12. CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES • Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, gatherings or meetings are not allowed as such for persons. This has hindered the first step of the project i.e., introductory meetings and personal interviews. • Working remotely from homes for developing the project was also a challenge. Conversing over phone calls and gathering information was a challenge for the team but dedication and will power to bring positive change made the team to overcome from this challenge. • While the project is being implemented it is very crucial to develop the alternatives for system failures and technological problems which could otherwise lead to failure of the scheme. • Community Participation is one such important parameter to decide the success criteria as in the beginning they were not seemingly interested and in an understanding position when they were approached by team members. • Maintenance should also be prioritised and given full attention on a regular interval.

13. WAY FORWARD WITH REPLICABILITY AND SCALABILITY FOCUS

After the project has been implemented, a survey will be done where the positive impacts and short comings of the project will be studied and examined. Then, the similar project will be undertaken in the other gram panchayats of the Nuapada district. Once the positive outcomes are well recognised, similar project can be undertaken in nearby hamlets. The scheme replicability would be determined by the involvemnt of stakeholders and GP whose significant efforts will enable the intervention to be scaled up. Further, if people from villages are trained and so as to conduct the scheme on their own if helped financially could also support the replication process since communal participation is the strongest point one can look for. This will lead to enhanced participation of the community in O&M and further development.

Improvement in government sanitary well programme by influencing: State government is currently energising existing tube wells as micro drinking water supply projects. They are not having such plans for sanitary wells. In fact, in many sanitary wells constructed by government, even simple mechanisms for

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hand/manual water lifting have not been provisioned. The proposed model will show the way for inclusion of energised supply and low cost filtration in sanitary well programme of the government.

14. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] Das, D. [No Date], Concept Note for Demonstrating dug-well based mini pipe water supply. Unpublished [2] WaterAid India (No Year), “Themes of our Work”. Available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-28632223 [3] Prasad, J. (2014) National Programme for Prevention and Control of Fluorosis (NPPCF) Revised Guidelines (2014). Available at http://cghealth.nic.in/ehealth/2017/Instructions/NPPCFnewguidelinebyGOI.pdf (Accessed: 27 August 2020) [3] [4] International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (2017), “A STUDY ON INTEGRATED FLUOROSIS MITIGATION PLAN FOR ENDEMIC FLUOROSIS REGION – AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE”. Available at http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=8&IType=4 [5] Mahesh R. Khairna (2015), “Mitigation of Fluorosis - A Review”. Available at Dentistry Section DOI : 10.7860/JCDR/2015/13261.6085

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13.0 PROJECT: WATER SECURITY IN SLUMS AMID COVID-19 BY ANUBHAV Fellowship Theme: Water Security and Availability amid Covid-19

ANUBHAV MSc Environmental Studies Department of Environmental Studies University of Delhi

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SDG : Sustainable development goal FAO : Food and Agriculture organisation COVID-19 : Coronavirus Disease 2019 WASH : Water, Sanitation and Hygiene WHO : World Health Organisation NGO : Non-Government Organisation UN : United Nations O&M : Operations and Maintenance ULB : Urban Local Body OHOT : One Home One Toilet

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY WaterAid India in its journey of more than 3 decades of providing clean water, decent toilets and good hygiene to the people of India have reached to millions of people. WaterAid India is committed to provide these three basic facilities to the last citizen of India and make clean water, decent toilets and good hygiene a normal part of everyday life for everyone, everywhere. In many parts of India WaterAid India partners with local organisation to reach to last mile communities. So, WaterAid India has a huge experience of community engagement, involvement and empowerment in WASH facilities. WaterAid India has enhanced the skills of local people and provided them with solutions that are sustainable and can be managed by the communities themselves.

In India over 65 million people live in slums (CENSUS 2011). These people regularly face water security issue as they do not have access to piped water supply. Furthermore, the pandemic has enhanced their woes as using community water supply is not safe. Negligence by governments and stoppage of private tankers and due to job loss made water availability out of reach for this population. They are deprived of basic human water and sanitation rights. In Dharavi, WaterAid India aims to partner with local organisations to implement its project of providing accessible WASH facilities to the slums as they are doing this in other slums also. Safe water, hygienic condition and sanitation is essential to protecting human health during COVID-19 pandemic. Lack of access to clean and safe water is providing to be a major challenge in India’s efforts to combat the coronavirus. According to WaterAid-India, about 163 million people in India lack access to clean and safe water and 140,000 children succumb to diarrhoea every year.

The urban poor have no or poor access to adequate water and basic handwashing remains their out of reach further increasing the risk of COVID-19. Nearly 67% of households do not have access to water within their homes, and 8 % of households need to fetch water from more than 100 metres away from their households. Urban poor often cede their access to clean water to the wealthy residents who can pay the premiums for water. In Dharavi, slum dwellers pay 25 rupees for a gallon of water and frequent handwashing is luxury that they could ill afford.

Water rights and hand washing facilities becomes more important than ever in the time of COVID-19 pandemic, where frequent hand-washing is advised to every citizen. So, to overcome this problem, installation of accessible water fountains and hand-washing facilities has been proposed.

The expected benefits of the project are huge. It will make slum population feel integrated with the society. The inclusion of women in operation and maintenance (O&M) can empower the women of the area too. Further, involvement of “Jal Gaon” member in a committee which looks after the O&M will ensure the accountability and sustainability of the installed facilities.

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1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT Safe drinking water and sanitation are important indicators of human health and well-being. The goal of the United Nations SDGs and 6 is to ensure universal access to water and sanitation (FAO). The COVID-19 epidemic has shown that universal access to water is essential for public health, sustainable development, and economic growth. By Article 64/292 (with India signing), the UN General Assembly recognises the right to water and sanitation as essential to the realisation of all human rights. In India, where the right to water and sanitation is not listed as a fundamental right, state and local courts have interpreted Article 21 of the Constitution, the right to life, as the right to safe and adequate water and sanitation. In 1990, Kerala High Court in Attakoya Thangal vs. The Union of India recognised the fundamental importance of the right to water and in its judgment, recognised the human right to clean water as a right to life as enshrined in Article 21. As we face this deadly virus, it is important that we look at WASH access from a human rights perspective. Particularly amidst the environmental closure targeted at the poor in a country like India, where the top 10% of the population owns 77% of the national wealth and 73% of the wealth created in 2017 to the richest 1% (Oxfam, 2020).

The lack of special bathrooms and toilets for the high population also poses a challenge to good hygiene. Furthermore, researchers have warned that the virus can spread not only by oral transmission (Hindson, 2020) but also by aerosolized feces, which cause infections after inhalation. This puts a large portion of the population at greater risk of infection. Clean and clean water is a necessity for strong public health systems. If there are no treatments or vaccines available - as with Covid-19 - public health and WASH responses need to be complied with. When we also overcome this epidemic, it would be good for us to use our energy to significantly improve these areas.

In our project, we ensured immediate access to water by providing a water tank on all routes of the Dharavi shack in both morning and evening areas with placards and video messaging for making SMS e.g. S- Use of Sanitiser, M- Mask, S- Community distance. In the next phase, we will supply water to pipelines in all households. With the help of Anganwadi staff, we can ensure the delivery of clean plumbing and water bottles to further reduce communication between slum members. Dabbawala's contribution will improve the performance of this project. Awareness campaigns will help this work.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT The key problem that Dharavi faces more than 95% people uses community toilets and community stand posts as they do not have 24*7 supply of water (Census 2011). Both of these have contributed to exposure of virus and further compounded the issue of water security. In Dharavi, slum dwellers have to pay 25 rupees for a gallon of water which they can ill-afford due to job loss during COVID (ACORN Foundation). So, practice of frequent handwashing comes at an unaffordable cost in slums. Even, available community water supply is contaminated due to leakage and unhygienic treatment. A union inter- ministerial team had visited Dharavi in April 2020 found that many residents have to step out of their houses in violation of lockdown restrictions as most of them have to use community toilets. (Indiaspend).

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3. LITERATURE REVIEW Slums or scattered settlements which are not recognised by urban local bodies do not have a piped water connection. Furthermore, there is no data on seasonal variation in the supply of water services, underlining how drinking water availability is unreliable even within household premises.

CENSUS:2011

State has failed to adopt a legal, political and institutional frame work that does not tie the provision of water to property rights. (WHO,2015). People living in slums must step out even to use the toilet. Census 2011 recorded that one-third or 46,73,575 slum household do not have toilet with their premise. “While using toilet facilities, one is afraid even to touch a tap” says a resident of Dharavi. A majority of household in Dharavi paid a monthly base fee to water vendors of Indian rupees (INR) 200 to 400 per month which is more than 100 times of area with legal water access. The BNA (Baseline needs assessment provides data on water-related hardships. It reports more than 99 % households report having to regularly purchase water. More than 55 % are only able to access water every three or four days. Data from seasonal water assessment (SWA) reports that 80-90 % households do not meet the WHO recommendation to use 50 litres water per capita per day for each human being. (Subbaraman et al,2013). Mumbai’s main concern is with regard to the water supply that is astutely dealt with through rainwater harvesting by middle class cannot be emulated by the poor in dearth of space (Button,2017). Mumbai has one of the highest waiting times and carrying distance of water to the household premise in India (Graham et al, 2013). As a consequence, many of the residents openly defaecate (Desai et al,2015) in Mumbai. The Covid-19 induced mandatory precautions gets defeated as and when a person goes out for getting water or avail latrine facilities as the inter-mutual distancing is reduced to zero.

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4. PROJECT LOCATION INCLUDING GOOGLE MAP The proposed project location is considered to be Asia’s largest slum. Dharavi is a large area situated near Mahim and Bandra. To the north of it lies the Mithi river. It is spread over 2.1 square km and is home to over 7 lakh people.

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(Source: maphill.com, maps.google.com) 5. OBJECTIVES AND GOALS Our project objectives are to support government and service providers to identify and prioritise poorly served areas through provision of service level data. Making resource available for rapid rehabilitation of easy-to-fix non-functional water sources. Promoting ways to social distancing at communal water facilities. Promoting regular disinfection of services. Supporting partners to provide additional temporary water supplies in poorly served areas in the form of tanks topped up by water tankers. Advocating that utilities and service providers maintain water supplies for household suffering from loss of income and provide water to low income, poorly served areas. The project seeks to overcome these hurdles by developing and demonstrating integrated solutions for smart management of water distribution networks. The demonstration theme concerns: 1. Water quality management 2. Leakage management 3. User interaction 4. Smart water supply management

Each set of solutions will include everything needed to obtain potable water of an appropriate quality including monitoring techniques, treatment equipment’s and harvesting and reuse solutions when applicable. Reaching out to civil society organisation partners to report back on real life impacts on the ground. Working with service providers and utility partners to develop service continuity and equity plans to ensure critical operations are covered during and after the pandemic. Promoting water safety and household water treatment and safe storage to mitigate against contraction of diseases. Promoting collection of water, cleanliness of water and sanitation facilities and practising of hygiene as the responsibility of all- not just women. Pushing for strong WASH systems to ensure the right leadership, governance, coordination, Integration, financing, accountability and capacity are in place to deliver sustained, inclusive services to all in the longer term. Overall goal is to provide best practice guidelines to existing water security issue due to COVID-19 in Dharavi. Best practice guidelines will also allow policy makers to develop new regulations which make water access easier for all slum population amid pandemic.

6. DETAILED APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY Our approach is to recognise obligation and responsibility of government and sector actors to respond, collect and disaggregating data to understand differing impacts on all parts of the population. Develop crisis responses alongside the affected communities to ensure solutions meet cultural, social and religious challenges. Tackle and confront any discrimination and stigmatisation.

Preliminary meeting would be carried out with community members to discuss the problems. Following that documentation process will take place that how and what approach will be taken to resolve water security problem in slum. Primary and secondary data will be collected. Interviews of community members

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will be taken. Then a rough draft will be prepared with project cost estimation and works to be done. Then the document will be handed over for analysis of feasibility by our Head of Programmes.

To involve community people’s institution will be built like “Jal Gaon”. Sustainable water management practices including reuse and recharge structures will be built. Harnessing of existing system like aanganwadi workers and dabbawalas will be done. Surveying will be done to implement project to provide piped water supply to each household.

7. DETAILED LIST OF TASK AND TIMELINE FOR THE PROJECT WEEK Task 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Introductory Meetings+ Documents Sharing Literature Review of Intervening region Data Collection Interviews Rough Draft Draft for Reviewing Incorporation of Changes & Final document making Submission of Document

8. KEY FINDINGS While working on the project what we found that due to negligence of government authorities and civic official the most populous and diverse urban slums lacks even basic water and sanitation facilities. During COVID-19 this negligence has further increased at first. Even people were not aware about their basic rights. Involvement of women and youth members gave the slum population a new and united voice for their basic rights. Accessibility of piped water supply further strengthened the water security.

9. INNOVATIVE WATER SMART SOLUTIONS AND STRATEGIES Strengthening of the fleets for tanker-based water supply in all towns- by a combination of both government and added fleets of private tankers, ensuring that no charges are levied from the slum populations in lieu of the water supply. Rostering and mapping of tankers going to different locations may be done both for ensuring daily water supply and for tracing purposes in cases if disease outbreaks. Ensure

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provision of a minimum per capita per day quota for all families, with added quantity during the pandemic period.

A session with the communities could be done for planning the needs. Constitution of a special task force in the area headed by senior officials and having representation from non-government organisations (NGOs) and urban local body (ULB) to oversee and ensure adequate water supply. A water supply helpline dedicated to informal settlements and slums, for grievances redressal within a few hours.

Ensuring physical distancing while forming queues for water collection and not letting anyone be in proximity to the vehicle unless their turns come. Team of young volunteers from the community can be formed for ensuring physical distancing during the water supply hours, while priority in queues could be given to persons with disabilities, old aged, pregnant women and so on. Arranging temporary hand washing facilities in adequate numbers across the slum area. Ensuring enhanced upkeep and water availability in community toilet facilities, with an adequate supply of water, soap and cleaning material.

Ensuring COVID-19 curfew pass to all tanker staff engaged in the process. Daily sanitisation of all the water tankers. Special approvals for repair and maintenance of the fleets and water systems in order to avoid delays in the supply chain. Availability of PPE kits like masks, gloves, coats for all water supply providers.

Ensuring proper awareness and de-stigmatisation about the COVID-19 situation amongst the community towards the service providers, and building a safe environment for them for delivering their services. Covering tanker-based water service providers in slum under insurance and compensation schemes in case of infection or causalities. Mobile Water ATMs will be provided for door to door access of water. With the help of BMC officials and technical expertise on ground survey will be done for feasibility of one home one toilet (OHOT). Digital literacy about water security through various social media platforms will be promoted. (GSMA).

10. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS The “JAL GAON” Forum members have pointed out the discrimination they face. The implementation of proposed project is expected to result in: • Accessible water and hand washing facilities for Slum residents • Affordable water tankers • Improved health of slum residents and reduced spread of COVID-19 among the slum population and general public • Empowered and aware women and youth members of the slum

11. ACHIEVEMENTS, LEARNINGS AND OUTCOMES The project implementation and studying the outcomes of the project is expected to develop an understanding that to what extent providing water rights to slum residents can reduce the spread of COVID-19. It will also help to understand the change in attitude and feelings of slum before and after they

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are provided with water rights at household. These learnings from this project can provide a way forward to learn from the shortfalls and then replicate the project in other slums of India and across world.

12. CONCLUSION In order to realise the human right to water and sanitation in the slums of Mumbai, the government needs to separate questions of basic service provision from underlying questions of water security. By definition, slums have poor access to water and sanitation services and are considered unfit for human habitation. Yet not all slums in Mumbai are equal. Slum dwellers living on state or municipal land who meet the requirements of the 1995 cut-off rule have the greatest security, while those living in non-notified slums on central government land generally have the least. This in turn impacts their access to water and sanitation services. Non-notified slums on central government land are in the worst position with respect to water and sanitation. The central government’s reluctance to improve conditions of these slums contradicts the goals of their own poverty alleviation schemes. By often refusing to allow the state and municipal governments to provide basic services to slum communities located on central government land, India is arguably in violation of its obligations to progressively realise the human right to water and sanitation under international human rights law, as well as its obligations under the right to life provisions of the Indian constitution. In effect, realising the human right to water and sanitation in Mumbai slums requires disentangling the provision of these vital basic services from the more complex questions of land security and land ownership.

13. CONSTRAINTS OR CHALLENGES Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, gatherings or meetings are not allowed of more than 50-100 persons. This has hindered the first step of the project i.e., introductory meetings with community members. Working remotely from homes for developing the project was also a challenge. Conversing over phone calls and gathering information was a challenge for the team but dedication and will power to bring positive change made the team to overcome from this challenge.

Frequent hand-washing is a recommended way to be safe from COVID-19 pandemic [WHO,2020]. But as this facility is not accessible to slum residents, they face a challenge of being at higher risk of contracting with virus and also spread of the virus to others. As Mumbai is a coastal district, humidity and dense population hinders the physical distancing concept.

14. WAY FORWARD WITH REPLICABILITY AND SCALABILITY FOCUS After the project has been implemented, a survey will be done where the positive impacts and short comings of the project will be studied and examined. Then, the similar project will be undertaken in the other slum across India. Once the positive outcomes are well recognised, similar project can be undertaken elsewhere. There are over 9 million slum population in Greater Mumbai and 104 million in India (according to 2011 census). A significant portion of these crores of people are deprived of their basic human rights such as availability and barrier free accessibility of water and sanitation facilities. In the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector we usually use the term ‘universal access’ very casually, not always

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reflecting the fact that achieving universal access to any service is not a simple thing to do in practice. The term ‘universal’ also sometimes poses a contradiction because when we talk about scale and reach, we tend to want to develop ‘Universal design/ models’ and forget that universal design may be suitable for a majority, but not for all.

So, the model of establishing “JAL GAON” at different levels and carrying out projects for slum population through it has a potential to benefit crores of slum residents of India. It will lead to overall development, engagement and empowerment of slum population of India. Slum population will get a forum where they can raise their grievance and seek solution at grassroot level. The model of including Youth members, women, AASHA and Aanganwadi workers will provide them work during this pandemic and that can help in maintaining social order too.

15. BIBLIOGRAPHY • Button C. Domesticating water supplies through rainwater harvesting in Mumbai. Gender and Development. 2017;25(2):269–282. doi: 10.1080/13552074.2017.1339944 • Desai R., McFarlane C., Graham S. The politics of open defecation: Informality, body, and infrastructure in Mumbai. Antipode. 2015;47(1):98–120. doi: 10.1111/anti.12117. • Subbaraman et al (2013), http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0277-9536(14)00538-3/sref26 • Graham S., Desai R., McFarlane C. Water wars in Mumbai. Public Culture. 2013;25(69):115–141. doi: 10.1215/08992363-1890486. 1. • Desai R., McFarlane C., Graham S. The politics of open defecation: Informality, body, and infrastructure in Mumbai. Antipode. 2015;47(1):98–120. doi: 10.1111 • World Health Organisation (2020). WHO saves lives: Clean your hands in the context of COVID-19. Available at: https://www.who.int/infection-prevention/campaigns/clean-hands/WHO_HH- Community-Campaign_finalv3.pdf?ua=1 ( Accessed on: 17 October, 2020). • https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/93/11/15-155473/en/ • https://www.indiaspend.com/as-india-fights-covid-50-households-share-a-water-source-41-share- toilets/ • GSMA. (2020). Digital Solutions for the Urban Poor. GSMA. https://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Mobile-for- Development-Utilities-Digital-Solutions-for-the-Urban-Poor.pdf • https://www.thethirdpole.net/2020/04/14/will-covid-19-force-india-to-face-up-to-its-water-crisis/ • https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/pes/Pesreport.pdf

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14.0 ABOUT PARTNERS ORGANISATION MINISTRY OF JAL SHAKTI, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA Ministry of Jal Shakti was recently instituted by the Government of India by merging

of two ministries; the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation and the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation. The formation of this ministry reflects India’s seriousness towards the mounting water challenges the country has been facing over the past few decades. A special project “Namami Gange” project has been launched to clean Ganga and its tributaries to provide safe drinking water to people of the country. The ministry has also launched its special campaigns so that citizens of the country become aware of water conservation. WAPCOS LIMITED WAPCOS Limited is a “MINI RATNA-I” and “ISO 9001:2015” accredited Public Sector Enterprise under the aegis of the Union Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India. WAPCOS provides consultancy services in all facets of Water Resources, Power and Infrastructure sectors in India and Abroad. Their services include infrastructure development, water resources and power generation. As a consultancy, some of its activities include pre-feasibility studies and feasibility studies, master plans and regional development plans, detailed engineering reports, commissioning and testing, operations and maintenance and capacity building and human resource development in its areas of competence. WAPCOS also provides commissioning services for developmental projects in India and abroad. CENTRE FOR YOUTH (C4Y) Centre for Youth is a self-sustaining and not-for-profit organisation working for the welfare of the rural and urban youth. C4Y facilitates the participation and civic

engagement of youth at all levels of governance by providing them sustainable avenues and the right platforms to further their growth and encourage their participation for social and financial inclusion. We implement our vision under our nine thematic programmes: Healthy Youth, Gender Empowerment and Sensitisation, Sports and Youth, Sustainable Development, Skill Development, Encouraging Entrepreneurship, Financial Inclusion, Preserving India’s Tradition and Information and Communication Technology. INDIA WATER PARTNERSHIP (IWP) IWP is a non-profit organisation, accredited with the Global Water Partnership (GWP), Stockholm. India Water Partnership is a country water partnership of GWP.

IWP works towards water security in India by following the concept of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). It engages in a dispassionate analysis of various water related issues and steers the policy discourse on social, economic, and ecological issues on a scientific basis. Thorough research, focused advocacy, and effective implementation on the ground inform the achievement of our goals. Towards this, our wide network of partners in multiple sectors supports us.

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CENTRE FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT (CSE) The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) is a public interest research and advocacy organisation based in New Delhi, India. Established in 1980, CSE works as a think tank on issues related to environmental development, environmental planning, climate shifts devastating India's Sundarbans and advocates for policy changes and better implementation of the already existing policies. CSE researches into, lobbies for and communicates the urgency of development that is both sustainable and equitable. CSE aims to raise these concerns, participate in seeking answers and – more importantly – in pushing for answers and transforming these into policy and so, practice. CSE’s efforts are built around five broad programmes - Communication for Awareness, Research and Advocacy, Education and Training, Knowledge Portal and Pollution Monitoring. COUNCIL ON ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND WATER (CEEW) The Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) is one of South Asia’s leading not-

for-profit policy research institutions. The Council uses data, integrated analysis, and strategic outreach to explain – and change – the use, reuse, and misuse of resources. It prides itself on the independence of its high-quality research, develops partnerships with public and private institutions, and engages with wider public. In 2020, CEEW once again featured extensively across nine categories in the 2019 Global Go to Think Tank Index Report. The Council has also been consistently ranked among the world’s top climate change think tanks. DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES (DA) Development Alternatives (DA), the world's first social enterprise dedicated to sustainable

development, is a research and action organisation striving to deliver socially equitable, environmentally sound and economically scalable development outcomes. DA’s green technology innovations for habitat, water, energy and waste management, which deliver basic needs and generate sustainable livelihoods, have reduced poverty and rejuvenated natural ecosystems in the most backward regions of India.

The organisation activities broadly cover three primary areas: the design and large-scale dissemination of appropriate technologies, rational environmental management systems, and equitable people-oriented institutions and policies. DA innovate eco-solutions to meet the basic needs of all and work with partners, including government bodies, local entrepreneurs and civil society to market these in a commercially viable and an environmentally friendly manner. JS WATER ENERGY LIFE COMPANY JS Water Energy Life Company is engaged in bioremediation, agriculture and aquaculture.

They manufacture advanced nano-technology products under the brand name Aquaritin. They undertake projects for remediation of large bodies for example, urban river segments, drains discharging into rivers, large lakes and temple ponds. They also undertake cleaning of weeds, bio-dredging of sludge and water quality improvement. They also work on Lake and kind beautification using floating fountains. Aquaritin: It enhances diatom growth by providing phyco-nutrients. For this, no infrastructure is involved as it's an in-situ treatment. It works in both lentic and lotic water bodies and works in varied environments.

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TARU LEADING EDGE The Taru Leading Edge is a leading development advisory and think tank delivering

innovative transformative solutions and insights in the development space. Incorporated as a private limited company, Taru's mission is to `bridge the Science-Institutions-Society interface with a core agenda of providing transformative solutions to the development challenges'. Established in 1996 by eminent development professionals, it caters to a diverse range of bilateral and multi-lateral agencies, government departments, corporate and development organisations through research, technology, solution innovations and implementation support. The organisation primarily works in three practices: Risk and Resilience, Policy and Public Services and Social Transformation.

WATERAID INDIA The WaterAid India is part of the global WaterAid network which seeks to improve access to

clean water, decent toilets and good hygiene for everyone, everywhere. We started in 1986 because no non-profit like us existed. We are determined to make clean water, decent toilets and good hygiene normal for everyone, everywhere within a generation. Only by tackling these three essentials, in ways that last, can people change their lives for good. In India, WaterAid works with communities in rural and urban areas through partners. Thanks to our amazing supporters, we have reached millions of people with these three essentials – clean water, decent toilets, and good hygiene – enabling communities to unlock their potential to break free from the cycle of poverty and to change lives for good. We will not stop. Not until clean water, decent toilets and good hygiene are a normal part of everyday life for everyone, everywhere.

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Centre for Youth New Delhi, India www.c4yindia.org

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