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Regulation of COX Assembly and Function by Twin CX9C Proteins—Implications for Human Disease

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Regulation of COX Assembly and Function by Twin CX9C Proteins—Implications for Human Disease cells Review Regulation of COX Assembly and Function by Twin CX9C Proteins—Implications for Human Disease Stephanie Gladyck 1, Siddhesh Aras 1,2, Maik Hüttemann 1 and Lawrence I. Grossman 1,2,* 1 Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; [email protected] (S.G.); [email protected] (S.A.); [email protected] (M.H.) 2 Perinatology Research Branch, Division of Obstetrics and Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Division of Intramural Research, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland and Detroit, MI 48201, USA * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Oxidative phosphorylation is a tightly regulated process in mammals that takes place in and across the inner mitochondrial membrane and consists of the electron transport chain and ATP synthase. Complex IV, or cytochrome c oxidase (COX), is the terminal enzyme of the electron transport chain, responsible for accepting electrons from cytochrome c, pumping protons to contribute to the gradient utilized by ATP synthase to produce ATP, and reducing oxygen to water. As such, COX is tightly regulated through numerous mechanisms including protein–protein interactions. The twin CX9C family of proteins has recently been shown to be involved in COX regulation by assisting with complex assembly, biogenesis, and activity. The twin CX9C motif allows for the import of these proteins into the intermembrane space of the mitochondria using the redox import machinery of Mia40/CHCHD4. Studies have shown that knockdown of the proteins discussed in this review results in decreased or completely deficient aerobic respiration in experimental models ranging from yeast to human cells, as the proteins are conserved across species. This article highlights and Citation: Gladyck, S.; Aras, S.; Hüttemann, M.; Grossman, L.I. discusses the importance of COX regulation by twin CX9C proteins in the mitochondria via COX Regulation of COX Assembly and assembly and control of its activity through protein–protein interactions, which is further modulated Function by Twin CX9C by cell signaling pathways. Interestingly, select members of the CX9C protein family, including Proteins—Implications for Human MNRR1 and CHCHD10, show a novel feature in that they not only localize to the mitochondria Disease. Cells 2021, 10, 197. https:// but also to the nucleus, where they mediate oxygen- and stress-induced transcriptional regulation, doi.org/10.3390/cells10020197 opening a new view of mitochondrial-nuclear crosstalk and its involvement in human disease. Received: 21 December 2020 Keywords: intermembrane space proteins; ETC complex assembly; mitochondrial regulation Accepted: 12 January 2021 Published: 20 January 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Introduction with regard to jurisdictional claims in Mitochondria are the major source of cellular energy that is required to sustain life. published maps and institutional affil- iations. They are double-membrane organelles in which the process of cellular respiration and ATP production takes place. This process, oxidative phosphorylation, occurs at the electron transport chain (ETC), a series of four protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochon- drial membrane (IM). The complexes create a proton gradient by pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space (IMS), which is coupled with electron transfer down Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. the chain. The electrochemical proton gradient thereby produced is used by ATP synthase Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. (complex V) to generate ATP from ADP and phosphate. This article is an open access article Complex IV, or cytochrome c oxidase (COX), is the terminal enzyme of the ETC and is distributed under the terms and responsible for reducing oxygen to water. Physiologically, the mammalian complex is a conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// dimer, with each monomer composed of 13 tightly bound subunits embedded in the IM, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ an assembly supported by several crystal structures resolved from COX in bovine heart [1,2]. 4.0/). However, more recently, monomeric crystal structures of COX were also published [3,4] Cells 2021, 10, 197. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10020197 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cells Cells 2021, 10, 197 2 of 26 and monomeric COX was also reported in a supercomplex [5]. It is therefore possible that an equilibrium exists between dimeric and monomeric COX, which could be subject to regulation. In addition, a 14th subunit has been proposed—NDUFA4—which was originally believed to be a subunit of complex I [6,7]. A structural study showed that NDUFA4 appears to be a subunit in the COX monomer, likely adding to the stability of the complex [7]. NDUFA4 as part of the COX monomer is located at the interface of the dimeric complex, where it would prevent or interfere with dimer formation and which could be a reason that the protein was never detected in the dimeric crystal structure. The validity of NDUFA40s role as a true subunit has been questioned and it was argued that, because NDUFA4 may bind to both complexes I and IV and is not consistently found in COX preparations, it may function as an assembly factor for the respirasome [8]. The three largest subunits are encoded by the mitochondrial genome whereas the other subunits are encoded by the nuclear genome. Among the mitochondrial-encoded subunits, subunits I and II contain the catalytic centers. The latter consist of metal centers that are involved in the electron acceptance from complex III via cytochrome c and the pathway of the electron through the complex itself: electrons received from cytochrome c first reach the CuA center in subunit II, are then transferred to heme a in subunit I, and finally reach the heme a3-CuB site of subunit I, where oxygen is reduced to water. There are various modes of regulation of COX activity [1], summarized in Table1. The purpose of this review is to explore the regulation of COX through the interaction with proteins of the twin CX9C family. Members of this protein family have been shown to be important in COX complex assembly and function, as well as for direct regulation of the oxidase [9] (Table2). Note that the 13 tightly bound COX subunits are traditionally distinguished by Roman numerals introduced by the Kadenbach lab, whereas auxiliary proteins are designated with Arabic numerals (yeast nomenclature can be found in Table2 ). Table 1. COX regulation. Types of Regulation of COX Expression of tissue-, developmental-, and/or species-specific isoforms of subunits Interaction with small molecules Reversible phosphorylation of subunits Protein–protein interactions Supercomplex formation The twin CX9C family of proteins is characterized by its unique motif of two cysteines separated by usually nine amino acid residues. This motif is found in the coiled-coil-helix- coiled-coil-helix (CHCH) domain, where pairs of cysteines form a helix turn helix fold by forming disulfide bonds with one another [10–12]. Another family of proteins, called the “small Tim” proteins, contains a similar but shorter twin CX3C motif and plays chaperone roles in the TIM22 pathway for insertion of proteins into the IMS-facing side of the inner membrane (IM) [13]. The CHCH domain is important for the import of the proteins into the intermembrane space (IMS) of the mitochondria. IMS import is facilitated through the Mia40/CHCHD4 redox mechanism [14,15]. The first studies of this family of proteins took place in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, where a detailed study found that 13 of the 14 yeast family members were conserved across species [16]. A follow-up study contained a genome-wide analysis to determine family member functions, with six of the CX9C proteins determined to be involved in COX assembly [9]. Recently, more information has become available through further research into the function of twin CX9C family members. Cells 2021, 10, 197 3 of 26 Table 2. Human and yeast proteins, nomenclature, and functions of twin CX9C proteins with COX [9]. Human Protein Yeast Protein Function CX9C Proteins COX17 Cox17p COX copper chaperone COX19 Cox19p COX assembly CMC1 Cmc1p COX assembly CMC2 Cmc2p COX assembly COA5 Pet191p COX assembly COA6 Coa6p COX assembly CHCHD7 Cox23p COX assembly COX/complex III CHCHD8 Coa4p assembly/function MNRR1/CHCHD2 Mix17p Activity regulation CHCHD10 Mix17p Activity regulation CMC4 Cmc4p Unknown COX VIb1 Cox12p Subunit Cytochrome c Oxidase COX I Cox1p COX II Cox2p COX III Cox3p COX IV Cox4p COX Va Cox5Ap COX Vb Cox5Bp Subunit COX VI Cox6p COX VII Cox7p COX VIII COX8p COX IX Cox9p COX XIII Cox13p 2. COX Regulation through Assembly The biogenesis and maturation of COX is critical for its proper function. There are multiple steps in this tightly regulated process: the insertion of metal groups in COX I and COX II, the import and folding of nuclear encoded subunits, and the proper assembly of the subunits into the complex. Over 30 auxiliary proteins are involved in the biogenesis of the core enzyme composed of COX I, COX II, and COX III [17]. The hypothesized assembly pathway favors a modular–linear assembly, where subunits are first assembled into module intermediates and then these modules are assembled into the COX monomer (Figure1)[ 18,19]. The first step of monomer assembly is the synthesis of mitochondrially encoded COX I, including the insertion of heme a, which is followed by its association with the COX IV and COX Va module [18,20]. The COX II module, which requires the insertion of the CuA center into the subunit before assembly can continue [21–24], forms a complex intermediate with COX VIc, COX VIIb, COX VIIc, and COX VIIIa. The COX III module consists of COX III, COX VIa, COX VIb, and COX VIIa. These modules are then assembled in a linear fashion, upon which NDUFA4 interacts to assist in the stabilization of the COX monomer [18].
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