Bethel University

BETHEL UNIVERSITY

BETHEL SEMINARY ST. PAUL

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT:

A BIBLICAL APPROACH TO PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING IN A CANADIAN

DISCIPLESHIP ENVIRONMENT

A THESIS PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DOCTOR OF MINISTRY DEGREE

IN GLOBAL AND CONTEXTUAL LEADERSHIP

BRADLEY D. FRIESEN

ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA

MAY 2015

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Above all, I would like to give thanks to the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.

In the process of this research my relationship with you went to a new level. I’m so glad that together we accomplished this work for Your kingdom.

This research was only accomplished due to the support and love of some key individuals. I’m grateful to you all.

I want to give my deepest thanks to my best friend and my biggest support, my

wife Krista. Along with my daughters Tianna and Tiegan, they have helped me and put

up with me through the process of this education. I can’t thank you enough, but I will

never stop trying.

I also wish to express deep gratitude to Dr. Wilbur Stone for believing in me as a

student, but also as a fellow worker in the Kingdom we serve. Without your belief in me,

I could not have accomplished this journey. You are a change agent and I am proof.

My deepest appreciation also goes to Dr. Sam Rima for being one of the greatest

educational facilitators from whom I have had the pleasure to learn. Your deep commitment to innovation has caused me to research this project in order to change the direction of the church globally. You have inspired change in this world.

I also wish to express thanks to some of my dearest friends who supported me practically through this journey. Great thanks go to Paul Benjamin, Wilbur Sargunaraj,

Ken Castor, Ramon Pastrano, Matt Runion, Brad Teigen and Wayne Smele. Without

your belief in me and in my ability to work towards this goal, I truly believe I would not have been able to complete it.

I want to thank the greatest team I have ever worked with in research. Thank you to my advisor Jeanine Parolini, my second reader Katie Friesen and the greatest editor in the world, Andrew Gross. When I was down, you picked me up. When I expressed to the

Lord that I was not good enough to do this work, He assured me I wasn’t, but that He had given me a team that was. I’m so grateful to you all.

Finally, I want to thank Bethel Seminary for creating the greatest program I could have dreamed of. In completing the Doctor of Ministry in Global and Contextual

Leadership, my faith has grown and my global impact has multiplied. Thank you to all of the staff at Bethel who helped me to accomplish this dream.

CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...... 6

ABSTRACT ...... 7

DEDICATION ...... 9

INTRODUCTION: WHO AM I? ...... 10

CHAPTER ONE: FINDING YOURSELF IN A CHANGING WORLD ...... 12

The Problem and Its Context ...... 12

The Setting of the Project ...... 14

The Importance of the Project ...... 15

Research Methodology ...... 20

CHAPTER TWO: REFLECTING THE IMAGO DEI ...... 23

A Biblical Call for Evaluation ...... 26

A Biblical Standard for Evaluation ...... 28

Biblically Measureable Units ...... 43

CHAPTER THREE: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 56

Student Self-Measurement in Canada ...... 56

Canadian Tools and Resources Measured ...... 64

Literature Summary ...... 84

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND CASE STUDY PROJECT DESCRIPTION...... 86

Rational for Qualitative Methodology ...... 86

Case Study Project Overview: The ButterKnife Project ...... 91

CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS ...... 110

Qualitative Findings ...... 111

Quantitative Findings ...... 117

Synthesis and Generalization ...... 124

CHAPTER SIX: THE IDENTITY EDGE ...... 126

The Identity Edge (IE) ...... 126

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Project Design ...... 138

Research Applications and Conclusion of the Project ...... 144

CHAPTER SEVEN: REFLECTIONS ...... 146

The Researcher’s Personal Reflection ...... 146

Areas of Further Research ...... 149

Conclusion ...... 150

APPENDIX A: PERSONAL SELF-AWARENESS PROJECT CONSENT FORM FOR LEVEL THREE RESEARCH ...... 152

APPENDIX B: LOVE LANGUAGE SELF-ASSESSMENT ...... 155

APPENDIX C: CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE SELF-ASSESSMENT ...... 160

APPENDIX D: BUTTERKNIFE PROFILE ...... 162

BIBIOGRAPHY ...... 164

LIST OF FIGURES

TABLE 4.1, CDBCs Used to Externally Validate the ButterKnife Project ...... 95

TABLE 5.1, Axial Coding of Qualitative Data ...... 114

TABLE 5.2, Axial and Selective Codes of Qualitative Data ...... 115

TABLE 5.3a, Identity Development Data at a Glance ...... 118

TABLE 5.3b, Identity Development Data, Question-by-Question ...... 119-120

TABLE 5.4a, Motivation Self-Awareness Data at a Glance ...... 121

TABLE 5.4b, Motivation Self-Awareness Data, Question-by-Question ...... 122-123

FIGURE 6.1, Holistic Individual Map ...... 135

ABSTRACT

The problem this project addressed was the ineffectiveness of self-measurement tools currently used for discipleship by Canadian discipleship and Bible colleges (CDBC) to guide their students toward self-identification for life development and planning. In response to this problem the researcher conducted an in-depth qualitative study of self- measurement tools in which he compared these tools to a biblical gauge for self- measurement. He then led ten undergraduate students through a semester-long discipleship program that centered on the tests that he deemed most appropriate. He measured the students’ growth of self-knowledge and motivation over the duration of the semester.

From this investigation, the researcher developed a holistic model of self- measurement called the Identity Edge. This model uses four psychometric tests to help students evaluate their own capacity to love God and others with all their heart, soul, mind and strength. To measure loving with all the heart, the model uses Gary Chapman’s

Love Language assessment. To measure loving with all the soul, the model uses a

spiritual gifts inventory designed by the location of the research, Rocky Mountain

College. To measure loving with the entire mind, the model uses Gallup’s

StrengthsFinder assessment. To measure loving with all the strength, the model uses a

cultural intelligence instrument derived from the Multi-Rater CQ Assessment.

The Identity Edge is based on the researcher’s “ButterKnife Principle,” which states that something’s “design reveals the will of the designer.” In other words, a

person’s unique identity demonstrates God’s will for his or her life; hence the need to

understand oneself deeply through the assessments. When a person knows oneself, he or

she will know what to do. To uncover this, the Identity Edge model takes its participants through an eight-step program over the course of a semester. The end result is increased

self-knowledge and motivation to embrace God’s will for one’s life.

DEDICATION

While many people are worthy of such a dedication, I dedicate this work to my father. Your dedication to our family and ministry not only encouraged my path, but also inspired my deepest desire to balance care for my home and the church. It is because of your belief in me and your example of loving service that I stand where I am today. I love you, Dad. With this research, your legacy will never end.

INTRODUCTION: WHO AM I?

Perhaps one of the most asked questions throughout history is “who am I?” The most ancient literature available reveals that the search for self-understanding has gone

on across cultures from the earliest ages. In some cultures, identity is defined primarily

with respect to one’s surrounding community. In other words, an individual’s context

mostly determines one’s self-concept. Other cultures, in particular Western ones, expect

the individual to clarify self-concept for him or herself. Yet in every culture there appears

to be a direct connection between identity development and motivation. Motivation for

life emerges when a person knows him or herself. Across the globe and across time,

knowing oneself seems to be the catalyst for moving a person to accomplish what he or

she has been created to accomplish.

Young people in late twentieth and early twenty-first century Western society

traditionally follow a somewhat predictable trajectory into adulthood that involves asking

the important existential questions of identity like “who am I?” and “what am I supposed

to do with my life?” From television shows to the classic discussions of “backpacking

Europe,” Western young adults desire to know who they are in order to find their places

in the world. It is at this stage of development they need to find ownership of their lives.

Christians in particular take seriously this season of identifying the self-concept.

Discovering and living out one’s true self-concept is considered a divinely ordained

obligation by Christians, since Christians believe that God has created everyone for

11 specific purposes. Although this effort to achieve a sense of God-given purpose ought to infuse the Christian young adult with a sense of hope, it can seem impossible or at least impractical for the believer to arrive at a final and unchanging sense of purpose while still so young.

Yet this is exactly what many Bible colleges have attempted to do. Many institutions have implemented self-discovery curriculum and testing to help students define themselves. The noble goal in this effort has been to launch young people into the professional and ministry world more fully motivated to succeed by their more clearly defined self-concept. But in many instances this testing has become a pre-requisite to job or ministry placement. The danger of this approach becomes obvious when young people are placed in a vocational track while much of their self-concept remains unformed. This effort has produced some fruit, but one must ask if there are any methods for increasing the yield and improving the accuracy of the self-discovery curriculum, especially in light of the fact that much of one’s self-identity is still only emerging in early adulthood.

This project attempts to create a better way to help Christian Bible college students understand who they have been created to be. It presumes that there is a more effective way to help young people discover motivation, and thus find and secure their purposed place in society.

CHAPTER ONE: FINDING YOURSELF IN A CHANGING WORLD

The Problem and Its Context

Statement of the Problem

The problem this project addressed was the ineffectiveness of self-measurement

In response to this problem, the researcher investigated Scripture and scholarly theological commentary about the Bible’s messages on self-measurement; reviewed scholarly literature and research relevant to this topic; and conducted a qualitative study of effective self-measurement tools. This study examined what measurement tools are

currently used in CDBCs, ascertained if other appropriate measurement tools exist, compared these tools to a biblical gauge for self-measurement, and developed a holistic model of self-measurement based on how well various tests meet the above gauge.

Delimitations

The research was limited to Canadian Discipleship and Bible colleges (CDBCs).

While Canadian and American education systems have many similarities, this research reflects only the Canadian methodology for student self-measurement. The pool of participating colleges was further limited to CDBCs with fewer than 200 students in order to ensure that the researcher compared institutions most like his own, Rocky

Mountain College (RMC). This small size led directly to two other specific limitations.

First, these smaller Bible colleges attract a specific type of student desiring spiritual

direction over academic proficiency, thus limiting the goals of participating students to those who seek equipping for ministry rather than preparation for secular employment.

Second, these types of institutions usually follow a discipleship model of education similar to that followed by the researcher’s context, Rocky Mountain College (RMC).

This discipleship model means that the purposes of self-measurement are distinct from those used by local church, community or business models. Finally, the research was limited to evaluating self-measurement tools according to the biblical gauge for self-

measurement (BGSM). It did not seek to create new self-measurement tools.

Assumptions

The researcher first assumed that an individual’s sense of self-worth directly

affects his or her motivation. This assumption has led directly to his interest in

discovering the best self-measurement tools available. Secondly, the researcher assumed

that the Bible should be considered the primary measurement tool for the believer and not

the secondary tool. The researcher’s confidence in asserting this claim comes from his

belief that the Bible offers pragmatic advice applicable to human behaviors today. It is

not simply a collection of ancient but inapplicable theological illustrations. This

assumption is closely tied to the researcher’s other assumption, that God’s standard of

measurement for personal effectiveness and worth is different from the world’s. This is

an important distinction because many measurement tools employed have been

systematically developed according to a Western worldview that values material success

and does not necessarily support a theological worldview based on the Bible.

Setting of the Project

The larger setting of this project is the Canadian Bible colleges (CDBC) that

organize their mission and purpose primarily around Christian discipleship rather than

around academics. But much of the project’s more specific setting is Rocky Mountain

College, the immediate ministry context of the researcher. The researcher has used the discipleship model of RMC as a template to ascertain which of Canada’s 40 Christian institutions of higher learning fit into his category of a CDBC of under 200 students.

Rocky Mountain College is “a learning community of Christians committed to developing students who will be effective agents of spiritual, moral and social transformation everywhere for the glory of God.”1 To accomplish this mission, the

college focuses its curriculum on adeptness in handling Scripture, spiritual formation,

responsiveness to God’s call, preparation for service in lay and ministry settings, critical

thinking, and engagement with contemporary urban culture.2 RMC’s “Edge” program, an

additional year-long program that utilizes experiential field ministry and service, is one

example of RMC’s distinctive discipleship emphasis.3 The college also serves as a

resource center for evangelicals in Calgary and western Canada.

The Commission on Accreditation of the Association for Biblical Higher

Education (ABHE) in Orlando, Florida has accredited RMC. The ABHE accredits

colleges that meet their “Conditions of Eligibility” and which they consider to

“substantially achieve their respective missions and the Criteria for Accreditation.” The

1 “Mission Statement,” Rocky Mountain College, Calgary, Alberta, accessed September 18, 2013 http://www.rockymountain college.ca/about-rocky/mission-statement.php.

2 “Mission Statement,” RMC, accessed September 18, 2013.

3 “The Edge,” RMC, accessed September 18, 2013.

ABHE accredits those institutions that have “indicated a demonstrated commitment to ongoing institutional development and maintaining quality instructional standards.”

Accredited colleges “assure other colleges that courses and degrees from RMC are worthy of acceptance and efficient transfer towards applicable programs.”4 In summary,

RMC offers academic as well as spiritual preparation to its students.

Importance of the Project

The Importance of the Project to the Researcher

This project emerges out of the researcher’s life experience of trying to establish

his identity within the traditional expectations of pastoral ministry. With traditional

training, he never felt that he fit into the roles given to him. He followed a traditionally

taught and accepted theological paradigm that if he was available and there was a

ministry opportunity in front of him, he must seize that opportunity to engage in ministry.

The problem, however, was that upon pursuing these ministry opportunities he would run

out of motivation.

During the researcher’s foray into traditional ministry, both lay leadership and

pastoral work, the expectations placed on him varied from what he felt most natural

doing. While it was confirmed on numerous occasions that he had a heart that was driven

for ministry, he was unable to match that heart with his personality and gifts. The effort

always created tension and burnout.

In an attempt to understand himself, the researcher used many different tools to

find a better fit between his identity and ministry. Many of these tools were used in both

his own undergraduate Bible college and seminary training. However, the tools made the

4 “Accreditation and Membership” RMC, accessed August 14, 2012.

researcher feel more trapped than liberated. It appeared to him that the tests labeled him

according to how others perceived he should be rather than how he already understood

himself. The results often left him feeling imprisoned by external expectations as opposed to feeling released to pursue God’s will for himself.

But after years of difficulty in a pastoral role, the researcher finally took two particular tests, The Love Languages Assessment and Strength Finders 2.0. These tests released him to be himself more authentically. They relieved him from feeling ensnared in the expectations placed upon him by others. The test findings increased the researcher’s self-motivation and self-worth. Furthermore, the researcher found that his leadership effectiveness increased. It had helped him refocus his ministry so that now he teaches Global Studies at Rocky Mountain College to prepare young people to lead

God’s people around the world.

How could two tests move the researcher from low motivation and burnout to high leadership effectiveness? Understanding this phenomenon became the researcher’s passionate quest upon entering the Doctor of Ministry program at Bethel University and a great part of the inspiration for this thesis project.

However, even the improved motivation sparked by these tests did not eliminate the need for better self-measurements. The researcher pursued further understanding of the test findings. He found that, although the results accurately described him, the tests

reflected a different theology than that which undergirded many other self-measurement tools that he had taken previously. After many conversations about the new tests with college staff and students over the course of one year, the researcher concluded that these new tests seemed to encourage a legalistic view of one’s actions. In other words, they

made actions seem to be more pivotal to one’s identity than being. They did not attempt

to recognize the identity first. This seemed to promote the theological framework of

works over grace. This potentially encouraged behavior modification only, without heart

change.

The Importance of the Project to the Immediate Context of Ministry

The researcher’s immediate ministry context is Rocky Mountain College, a Bible college developed for leadership discipleship. RMC is a traditional, small, western

Canadian Bible institute. It seeks the best way to disciple its students so that they understand who they are in Christ and how they fit in the world. In an effort to achieve such a high purpose, an intentional discipleship program called “The Edge” was created to ensure that students would recognize their potential in ministry, family and career from a godly perspective.

While RMC has seen much success with this program, it has come with some struggles. The main struggle has been a lack of connection between the traditional academic model used at RMC and the Edge’s intentional discipleship model. In summary, the Edge seeks to develop deeper character for life and ministry, but many students appear to have a hard time applying this to traditional academic and career pursuits. The college had attempted to broaden its academic reach in order to produce more program options for the students. But this increase of programs only seemed to produce students who were afraid of their futures and not driven to pursue success in their field of study. Thus, after students leave RMC, many report difficulties with finding their role in ministry, family and career. Many of the younger students in this post- graduate stage find themselves pursuing paths prescribed for them by parents and persons

of influence. But these very same graduates who dutifully follow this vocational advice

report a tendency to lose motivation.

How can a Bible college close this gap between its curriculum and the post-

graduate experiences of its students? Specifically, how can RMC help its students

discover their God-given purpose, and thus find motivation for their lives, before they

graduate? Jenifer Fox suggests that this problem is not new, nor is it limited to small

Bible colleges. She writes that “despite the efforts of traditional education, growing

numbers of children, across a wide spectrum of abilities, are not engaged in learning and

leave school without a clear sense of direction.”5 This project addresses this concern. Its

findings will prove helpful to RMC and other Bible colleges seeking to prepare young

people for effective ministry and leadership.

The Importance of the Project to the Church at Large.

Leadership development is a major issue within the church at large. While much

has been done to ensure that the church leaders of tomorrow will be developed as leaders

appropriate to their contexts, too many of the leadership measurements are not based on

what the individual’s identity is, but on what the individual is expected to accomplish.

While leadership skills taught in many churches are effective for leadership achievement,

the leaders of today and tomorrow, notes New York Times columnist Paul Vitello, appear

to be burning out more often than in the past due in part to the digital age.6 While these

leaders are godly people, too often it appears that they have been taught the skills of

5 Jenifer Fox, Your Child’s Strengths: A Guide For Parents and Teachers (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2008), 3.

6 Paul Vitello, “Taking a Break from the Lord’s Work,” The New York Times, August 1, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/02/nyregion/02burnout.html?pagewanted=all, (accessed August 31, 2012).

leadership but are unable to connect the skills with who they are as people. This results in

a lack of self-motivation. If there is a subsequent failure of leadership, a deeper lack of

self-worth results from this disconnect.

To assure healthy leadership for the church at large, efforts must be made not only

to develop leaders but to develop these leaders as people created in God’s image for a

specific purpose according to their design as well as according to their context.

Leadership training too often revolves around subjective contextual elements and

disregards the individual’s ability to lead, or not lead, in a variety of leadership contexts.

Leadership principles that are typically taught assume a context closely comparable to the teacher, with little effort to globalize the leadership paradigm for all contexts. This sets up many church leaders to be irrelevant within a variety of contexts, unable to be effective unless their context is within the leadership paradigm prescribed in their training. As the church is globalizing, it is apparent that leadership must be trained at a global level, with the individual developed as a leader in many different contexts. This development can only happen as the leader is able to find identity beyond the immediate context.

This project addressed these concerns of the wider church with its examination of self-measurement tools. The more accurate the self-measurement tools used by an institution, the greater the likelihood is that its graduates will produce leaders who are effective in many contexts because they will have greater connection to their authentic identity.

The Research Methodology

This project was qualitative in nature. Case study research was the primary method used to collect data, mixed with elements of grounded theory. The primary tools used for data collection were testing instruments, surveys, face-to-face and phone interviews, relevant documentation, biblical and secular literature, and field observation

notes.

Data

Primary Data

Primary data was collected from a number of sources. The researcher gathered

and reviewed testing instruments used by the CDBCs. Second, the researcher kept notes

and documentation during interactions with spiritual development staff of the CDBCs to create an experimental model for deployment at RMC. Next, the researcher collected initial test results from students based on the four-part model developed through the

BGSM.

The researcher then sent out three sets of surveys. The first was a pre-semester survey, an open-ended study in which students reflected on their self-awareness. The second survey was closed and taken weekly by students. One week measured perceived identity. The next week’s survey measured perceived motivation and clarity for life

planning, in a Likert-style survey. This bi-weekly survey rhythm continued for the

duration of one semester. The last survey was given two years later. It asked students if they had followed the identity parameters that they had discovered through the self- measurement tools established by this research. Waiting for two years to conduct the follow-up survey increased the validity of the self-measurement tools because the

researcher assumed that if students still adhered to their earlier discoveries after such a long time, it was a sign of the accuracy of the tools. It also gave students the chance to take a greater part in a study that made them its subjects. The researcher compared this

follow-up to the pre-semester survey. The researcher developed these surveys with the

staff members who work with the self-measurement testing at RMC.

Secondary Data

Secondary data included biblical, theological and secular literature that deals with

the issues relevant to the project. It also included relevant CDBC documents sent for clarification of testing strategies. Finally, the researcher used RMC documentation on testing and analysis relevant to this problem and project.

Project Overview and Subproblem Treatment

The first step was to study biblical sources, along with acceptable, scholarly,

theological sources, to discover what insights they would give about self-measurement.

The researcher wanted to see if it was feasible to mine wisdom from Scripture and then

use it to construct a practical gauge for self-measurement. This addressed the first

subproblem. This step was done in conjunction with the researcher’s review of literature

relevant to self-measurement testing. The researcher examined literature about various

self-measurement tests, their history, development, and their effectiveness. Additionally,

he looked at existing literature about self-assessments done at CDBCs. This addressed the

second subproblem.

The next step was to ascertain what testing is currently being employed in the

various CDBCs. This required phone and email conversations with the different schools

that fit the description of a CDBC, especially with their student development offices. This

addressed subproblem three. The fourth step was to develop three sets of instruments to

collect data from the students during the first semester of an RMC year. This was done in consultation with the RMC staff responsible for the discipleship program of the institution. This required the creation of a schedule for completing the instruments within the RMC calendar and affirmation from the director of the Edge program. In this way, the researcher addressed subproblem four.

The fifth step was to employ the testing model and then to collect and correlate

data to either confirm or deny the model’s validity. This step was done with three sets of

self-measurements tests. The first set was the pre-semester survey. The second set was the bi-weekly survey conducted throughout the students’ first semester. The third set was the follow-up survey conducted two years afterwards. This addressed the fifth subproblem. The final step was to analyze the collected data in order to make recommendations for the development of a holistic and pragmatic self-measurement model that RMC could use in future student self-assessments. The goal of this model was to evaluate student readiness for life and work as disciples of Christ, and to release them into their callings. This addressed the sixth and final subproblem.

CHAPTER TWO: REFLECTING THE IMAGO DEI

Introduction

The biblical and theological chapter of this project investigated three primary areas of concern. First, it pursued the question: is there a biblical call to evaluate oneself?

(Biblical Call for Evaluation). Second, this chapter answered the natural follow-up question: if there is a call for self-evaluation, what standard (Biblical Standard for

Evaluation) should be used for it? Third, if this standard exists, what are its measureable units (Biblically Measureable Units)? The point of discovering these specific units is to

effectively measure oneself holistically and according to one’s call and design.

Discerning the correct biblical call, standard, and measurability of self-evaluation

is important in light of the several common conundrums that a Christian faces when

attempting to measure him or herself. The first conundrum comes from the fact that when

asking themselves “who am I?” many people frequently think by default of what they

have accomplished. However, one’s accomplishments do not say who one really is.

Instead, accomplishments generally point toward what one has been told to do. A related

conundrum is the common phenomenon of people listening to the opinions of others to

gain their sense of self, even to the point of twisting Scripture to fit into a preferred point

of view.

A third difficulty faced in the process is that many people, when striving to “be something,” begin with the assumption that they are not already “something.” In other

words, one assumes that he or she is not good enough at the beginning of the process.

Matters are not improved by the widespread tendency of Christians to use a set of self-

measurement guidelines mainly as a basis for comparison to other believers. They follow

the sense that their lives must measure up exactly to those of others. They compare

themselves to others whom God has used before, wondering, “Why don’t I measure up to

them?”

Scripture, when viewed only in parts, increases the mystery of some of these

conundrums. On the one hand it demands holiness from Christians, and it does so against

the backdrop of a holy God (Ps. 113:5, 145:3). This is of course the nature of the Law, to

show people how separated they are from God (Rom.3:20). But when people, perhaps as

part of human nature, try to measure themselves against this gauge of holiness, they find

themselves trapped in a legalistic battle to please God (Rom. 2:17-29). Many a Christian

reasons that, though it may be by grace that one is saved (Eph. 2:8), perhaps after

salvation it is time to work (James 1:22-23). This inevitably leads some to ask if they

must work hard so that God will love them, or does one work hard to show one’s love for

Him? Discerning the nature of a biblical gauge for self-measurement is problematic at best.

The very process of testing oneself potentially compounds this struggle with legalism. It is the nature of testing to limit freedom and possibility. This happens when a test assigns a name to something. That something now becomes limited to the definition of that specific name. Annie Paul Murphy in her book Cult of Personality suggests that, due to the nature and history of almost all psychometric testing, society has

inappropriately managed its use and application.1 She believes that the tests themselves are flawed and at best useful only for assessing psychological deviancy and not for positive identity development. She argues that the tests limit an individual’s ability to develop past an outwardly applied label or stereotype.2 This very effort to understand

oneself can exacerbate the trap of legalism.

But there is a way to accurately measure a life if one begins with the proper perspective in Scripture. This starts with the recognition that God did not create people haphazardly, but according to purpose and design (Gen. 5:1; Ps. 119:73; Eph. 1:9, 3:11).

God has created humankind to live according to specific dimensions (Eccl. 7:29). He has created all His people for specific and varying purposes. God engages people in life for a variety of accomplishments, each different from one another (Isa. 29:16, Rom. 9:20-22).

Therefore, there is no real basis on which Christians may rationally compare themselves to other Christians.

Understanding this perspective removes much of the basis on which legalism is built. Scripture further calls people to a kind of freedom in Christ (Rom. 8:1, 2 Cor.

3:18). This freedom is not limiting, but releases people to live for God’s purpose. Thus, even though the testing of oneself, an essential element of developing self-awareness, contains the real dangers of legalism, it can be done in way that releases people into their destiny if done from the proper viewpoint. The discovery and application of this biblical viewpoint is the purpose of Chapter Two.

1 Annie Paul Murphy, The Cult of Personality: How Personality Tests Are Leading Us to Miseducate Our Children, Mismanage Our Companies, and Misunderstand Ourselves (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), Kindle location 3893.

2 Murphy, Kindle location 5999.

A Biblical Call for Evaluation

In order to correctly determine an effective and biblical gauge against which to

measure oneself, one must first articulate if such a measurement is appropriate according

to the biblical text. Western worldviews have found self-measurement to be a practical

tool for worldly success. But in order to be successful in God’s view, one must be willing to release one’s worldview of success and replace it with a biblical worldview. This is the necessary precursor to conducting a relevant self-evaluation.

This process is of course difficult and risky. Part of what makes it so difficult is doing the hard work of recognizing the subjective nature of one’s own interpretations of

Scripture. This must be done if one hopes to avoid imposing his or her own pre-existing worldview on it, as Craig Ott and Harold Netland suggest in their book Globalizing

Theology.3 This struggle to gain an appropriately biblical worldview is therefore no easy task. Nevertheless, the effort to do so must occur before building an adequate self- measurement test.

Therefore, constructing a biblical self-measurement theology begins by acknowledging that there is a sharp distinction between a worldly standard of success and a godly standard. The Apostle Paul rebukes those in the church who would use the worldly standard over the godly one. He commands believers to stop deceiving themselves: “If you think you are wise by this world’s standards, you need to become a fool to be truly wise. For the wisdom of this world is foolishness to God”(1 Cor. 3:18-

19). Christians must measure themselves according to whom they have been made in

Christ, rather than according to whom they want to be in the world.

3 Craig Ott and Harold A. Netland, Globalizing Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2006), 27.

The Apostle Paul is a prominent advocate for self-measurement in the Bible. In

his letter to the Romans, Paul encourages an honest and serious examination of oneself.

His statement in Romans 12:3, that Christians are to “think of [themselves] with sober

judgment,” emphasizes this concept. James Dunn suggests that “sober judgment”

(sōphronismos) in this text means the kind of sound wisdom that should be employed to

gain an appropriate understanding of oneself.4 While Dunn admits that this term could

represent a negative enforcement of such an understanding, it is clear here that Paul is

arguing for self-measurement.

In 2 Corinthians 13:5, Paul prescribes self-evaluation for believers. Here he explains that the self-measurement of one’s faith is to be demonstrated in one’s practice of the faith. Paul promises to visit the people of Corinth soon, so his letter suggests that it is important to have a grasp of their faith’s practical application, as he will inevitably bring his own judgment upon the believers. He expects to see the application of their faith. Ralph Martin comments on this passage that Paul’s evaluation was based on a standard of obedience. So, self-measurement is not only an examination of one’s beliefs but also of one’s practice.5 Obedience suggests that there is a way to measure one’s

morals as a way of disclosing the nature of one’s faith.

Andrew Lincoln writes that this measurement is not only a measurement for individual evaluation, but also for corporate evaluation. He suggests that there is a need to measure the efficacy of the whole church in order to reach the standard prescribed in

4 James D. G. Dunn, Word Biblical Commentary: Romans 9-16 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1988), 72.

5 Ralph P. Martin, Word Biblical Commentary: 2 Corinthians (Waco: Word Books, 1986), 477- 479.

Scripture.6 Thus, self-measurement must in some degree incorporate one’s relationship to the larger Christian community.

Paul’s writing is joined by Peter’s, whose first letter contains an explicit call to be holy. Peters defines holiness in practical terms. He writes:

Therefore, with minds that are alert and fully sober, set your hope on the grace to be brought to you when Jesus Christ is revealed at his coming. As obedient children, do not conform to the evil desires you had when you lived in ignorance. But just as he who called you is holy, so be holy in all you do; for it is written: “Be holy, because I am holy” (1 Pet. 1:13-16).

Peter’s request for “alert and fully sober” minds echo’s Paul request for “sober judgment” in the self-evaluation. This theme of mental sobriety in both the Apostles’ writings argues clearly that a self-aware self-measurement was expected to be an intimate part of the believer’s life. Peter’s exhortation to “not conform to the evil desires when you lived in ignorance” reiterates Paul’s demand for a standard that sharply contrasts to the world’s. Peter’s demand to be holy “as obedient children,” in imitation of God’s holiness, reinforces Paul’s demand for practical obedience.

The fact that two key leaders in the early church and contributors to the New

Testament makes such overt calls to practical holiness establishes that the Bible does contain a call to self-measurement or a biblical call for evaluation. This self-measurement is to be distinct from worldly self-measurement, grounded in sound wisdom, expressed in practical application of faith and corporate in nature.

A Biblical Standard for Evaluation

Along with supporting a call to self-measurement, Scripture also defines the standards for evaluation and the standards for this process. Again, Paul most clearly

6 Andrew Lincoln, Word Biblical Commentary 42: Ephesians (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1990), 255.

articulates these standards. He writes that believers are required to “live a life worthy of

the calling that [they] have received” (Eph. 4:1). Paul had the standards of this

“worthiness” in mind, outlining their contours in several of his letters. He bases his standards on two assumptions. First, he believed in the Old Testament assertion that humanity is created in the image of God. Second, he believed that Jesus Christ is the baseline for these standards.

Humanity in the Image of God, the Imago Dei

Christian theologians tend to agree that human beings are defined “in the image of

God.” William Power writes that understanding one’s own nature and identity and life with others is bound up with understanding God’s nature and identity and life with others.7 In order to understand oneself, then, one must recognize how God created

humankind in His image and likeness. There are only a few biblical texts that discuss this

matter and the detail to which they discuss it is minimal, even though Paul’s standards of

self-measurement are squarely based on this assumption.

Genesis 1:26-27 is the primary text used for the discussion of the Imago Dei. In it,

God claims that He has made humankind in His image and likeness. The Mosaic-priestly

language tselem, “image,” and demut, “likeness,” are repeated only minimally. The words are used in Genesis 5:3 as a representation of the creation story that refers to Adam and his sons. It is used again in Genesis 9:6 when humanity is commanded not to shed the blood of people because they were made in God’s image. It is clear that the key terms,

“image” and “likeness” have significance. But their infrequent use would indicate that

their terms are not essential to the concept of being made in God’s image, for as D. A.

7 William L. Power, “Imago Dei: Imitatio Dei,” International Journal for Philosophy of Religion vol. 42 (1997): 131.

Clines points out, the terms do not need to be repeated again as they are in Genesis 1:27

(“in his own image, in the image of God he created them”).8

The New Testament, and especially Paul, substantially add to this doctrine, referring to the image of God and to humanity made in His image on several occasions.

Paul uses eikon (image) in reference to humanity’s reflection of God’s image in

Colossians 3:10, Romans 8:29, and 1 Corinthians 15:49.9 Paul’s application of this

assumption to self-measurement will be made clear in the subsequent section on Christ as

baseline of self-measurement.

The Nature of the Imago Dei in Humanity

While many theologians agree with the conceptual necessity of the Imago Dei, the agreement can lose its import when theologians try to explore and defend their view of that image. Thus, there inevitably exists a wide variation of and lively debate over descriptions of the Imago Dei in humankind.10 Theologians have employed a myriad of

models to explain the complexity of the issue. Clines shows how various theologians

have used these different models:

to Ambrose, the soul was the image; for Athanasius, rationality, in the light of the Logos doctrine; for Augustine, under the influence of Trinitarian dogma, the image is to be seen as the triune faculties of the soul, memoria, intellectus, amor. For the Reformers it was the state of original righteousness enjoyed by Adam before the Fall, the “entire excellence of human nature,” including “everything in which the nature of man surpasses that of all other species of animals,” which since the Fall is “vitiated and almost destroyed, nothing remaining but a ruin, confused, mutilated, and tainted with impurity.” For the time of the Enlightenment, the seat of the image is the soul.11

8 D. A. Clines, “The Image of God in Man,” Tyndale Bulletin no. 19 (1968): 73.

9 Clines, 73 and 102.

10 Paul Sands, “The Imago Dei as Vocation,” Evangelical Quarterly vol. 82, no. 1 (2010): 28-41.

11 Clines, 54-55.

Each of these theologians, and the eras and schools of thought that they represent, used a different approach to the topic. Some of these views vary only in nuance. Others vary drastically. Not surprisingly, each reflects his context. For example, Clines quotes an

Enlightenment theologian who said:

The soul … is the image of the Godhead and seeks to stamp this image upon everything around it; it makes the manifold one, seeks truth in falsehood, radiant activity and operation in unstable peace, and is always present and wills and rules as though it looks at itself and says: “Let us,” with the exalted feeling of being the daughter and image of God.12

The Enlightenment’s highly positive view of human nature is strongly reflected in its

interpretation of Scripture. Clines quotes Karl Barth, who comments on this doctrine’s

wide range of understanding: “One could indeed discuss which of all these and similar

explanations of the term is the most beautiful or the most deep or the most serious.”13

This sarcastic remark of Barth’s demonstrates the way in which these nuances have at

times reached a point of excess.

Clearly there are many possible approaches of the very nature of this doctrine. In

an attempt to more systematically recover the meaning of the Imago Dei, Claudia Welz explains the four prominent models that are in regular use today among theologians.14

Welz first explains the “Functional Model.” This model emphasizes representation. In other words, humans act as God’s representatives on earth. It is mainly a model that makes exegesis simpler and rarely engages discussions of philosophical issues. Next,

Welz presents the “Mimetic Model,” in which the emphasis is “resemblance.” Humanity

12 Clines, 54-55

13 Clines, 54-55

14 Claudia Welz, “Imago Dei: References to the Invisible,” Studia Theologica no. 65 (2011): 74- 91.

bears a resemblance of God. Human nature is similar to God’s nature in certain ways.

Augustine, Luther and Bonheoffer all subscribed to this view. Augustine wrote that this

image of God in humanity is indestructible, but that it needs to be renewed.

Welz’s third model is the “Relationship Model.” In this model, the emphasis is on

how humans reflect God’s image by their relation to Him. Humans do not “have” the

image of God; rather, they “image” God. This use of the word image as a verb shifts the

emphasis to an active reflecting of God. Thielicke, Barth, and Ebeling were some adherents to this view. Finally, Welz presents the “Dynamic Model.” Here the emphasis is on how God shows His image through humankind. He does this to the degree of accuracy with which humans conform themselves to His image, reminiscent of Plato’s ideal forms. Picadella, Mirandola, Meister Lechard and Kierkegaard are among the promoters of this model.

Welz does not believe that any of these four models fully represent all the issues needed to understand the pure image of God.15 The researcher presents all four to show

how carefully theologians have wrestled with this doctrine. This care is warranted, given

the fact that it is at the heart of human self-understanding, and thus at the heart of self-

measurement.

Paul Sands developed a contemporary model in which he describes the Imago Dei

within humans as “vocation.” Humans bear God’s image in the sense that they are called

to serve and represent Him. This call is what confers the dignity of God upon humankind.

He writes:

A vocation arises out of a summons—a divine call to a task that confers dignity and imposes obligation. Failure to fulfill one’s vocation incurs guilt, but it does

15 Welz, 86-87.

not remove the obligation. Nor does it blot out the dignity of the summoned individual. A personally dishonorable ambassador retains the dignity of his post; likewise, a sinful human being retains the dignity of his or her God-given vocation.16

In other words, because humans are called, they bear the image of God, whether or not

they comply with the obligation of the call. In this way, even the disobedient retain the

dignity of God’s image.

The Dual Nature of Human Identity

One way in which humanity retains the Imago Dei is its dual nature, divine and earthly. Within theological dialogue, it is generally agreed that there is this dual nature to an individual’s identity. It has been common for most of church history for Christians to discuss both the divine and earthly elements of humanity. For example, Augustine felt the dual nature was crucial to the understanding of one’s identity in Christ: “Drawing from the typical Greek anthropological division of the human into soul and body, … Augustine viewed the journey inward both as an odyssey of the soul and as a pilgrimage into the soul that marked the quest for God.”17 In other words, Augustine’s construction of the

inward journey was based on the older Greek understanding of human nature, which was

a duality of soul and body. Despite the Greek origins of this viewpoint, it has proven to

be important to understanding the Christian view of identity. The researcher’s

construction of a self-measurement standard is built on this view that humans have both a

divine and earthly nature.

The divine nature. Scripture reveals the existence of the Christian’s dual divine

and earthly nature. The divine self then can be illustrated by Scripture’s many

16 Paul Sands, “The Imago Dei as Vocation,” Evangelical Quarterly vol. 82, no. 1 (2010): 36.

17 Stanley J. Grenz, The Social God and the Relational Self: A Trinitarian Theology of the Imago Dei (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 61.

descriptions of the believer’s status before God. This is a status that exists independent

from the believer’s experience of God. For example, John calls believers “children of

God” (John 1:12). He writes that they are friends of Jesus Christ (John 15:15). John adds

later that they “are born of God and the evil one cannot touch them” (1 John 5:18).

Paul explains that believers are just before God (Rom. 5:1). He says they are free

from condemnation (Rom. 8:1-2) and assured that God works for their good in all

circumstances (Rom. 8:28). All this makes them free from any condemnation brought

against them and guarantees that they cannot be separated from the love of God (Rom.

8:31-39).

Paul uses similar language when he says to the Corinthians that believers are united with the Lord and one with Him in spirit (1 Cor. 6:17). He goes on to say that they have been bought with a price and belong to God (1 Cor. 6:19-20). Later in the same letter Paul calls believers members of Christ’s body (1 Cor. 12:27). In his second letter to

them, Paul writes that they have been established, anointed and sealed by God (2 Cor.

1:21-22).

To the Ephesians Paul writes that believers have been chosen by God and adopted

as His children (Eph. 1:3-8). To the Colossians he writes that they have been redeemed

and forgiven of all sins (Col. 1:13-14), are complete in Christ (2:9-10) and are hidden

with Christ in God (3:1-4). Paul tells the Philippians that they can be confident that God

will complete the good work He started in them (Phil. 1:6) and that they are citizens of heaven (3:20). He explains to Timothy that believers have not been given a spirit of fear

but of power, love and a sound mind (2 Tim. 1:7). Other New Testament authors add to

this list, as in the example of the letter to the Hebrews, which states that believers have

direct access to the throne of grace through Jesus Christ (Heb. 4:14-16). All these

Scripture passages illustrate the Christian’s status before God, independent of his or her

experience as a Christian.

The Jungian school of modern psychology has detected this existence of an identity that transcends direct experience. Murray Stein and Thun Goldiwil comment that

Karl Jung thought human nature stretched into the mysterious unknown, beyond what secular psychology permitted to be “knowable.” They write: “With the notion of self,

moreover, Jung was reaching intuitively and theoretically for a psychological dimension

that far exceeds the limits of individuals’ usual conscious self-awareness, identity, sense

of self, and experience of psychic reality.”18 Jung recognized an element of humanity that

far surpasses what is measurable in the human psyche. James Heisig notes this stretch

into the immeasurable by pointing out how Jung theorized about the “God image.” Heisig

writes:

We frequently see Jung suggesting that God images express an individual’s ‘highest concern’ or ‘supreme value’ at a given time, so that certain imaginary data (whether or not they exhibit mythical qualities of the deity) may properly be named images of God.19

Even though Jung attempted to disqualify the divine from scientific inquiry, his attempt was futile because he could not get away from this “God image,” however much he tried to secularize it. Jung admits that the self is expressed in religious faith:

The self is more than conscious identity and location (i.e., the ego) because it includes and expresses the full range of the psyche, all conscious and unconscious elements included, and it is responsible for the unity of the psyche as a whole. Beyond this, the self concept sets up the basis for the linkage between analytical

18 Murray Stein and Thun Goldiwil, “Divinity Expresses the Self: An Investigation,” Journal of Analytical Psychology vol. 53, no. 3 (2008): 307.

19 James W. Heisig, “Jung and the 'Imago Dei: The Future of an Idea” The Journal of Religion vol. 56 (1976): 93.

psychology and religious doctrines of transcendence.20

Thus, the Jungian concept of the self is parallel to, or at least allows for, the Christian

concept of the “divine” or spiritual side of human nature.

The earthly nature. Christian theology is cognizant of the other side of humanity,

the earthly side. This side of human nature is bounded and defined and therefore

measureable. Paul frequently made reference to the “the flesh” to indicate the embodied

human being (Rom. 1:3, 2:28, 3:20, 4:1, 6:19, 7:18, 9:3, 11:14; 1 Cor. 1:26-29, 7:28,

25:29; 2 Cor. 4:11, 7:5, 10:3; Gal. 1:16, 2:20 4:13-14; Eph. 2:11). While sometimes Paul

uses this word in reference to the tendency to sin (Rom. 7:8, 8:1-13, 13:14; 2 Cor. 7:1;

Gal 5:13, 5:16-19, 6:8; Eph. 2:3), the first meaning is more common. In this case, the

“flesh” refers to the physical body, along with natural human mental and emotional

capacities. This is humankind’s “earthly nature.”

Stein and Goldiwil again demonstrate the compatibility of Jung’s thought with the

Christian view of duality. The concept of Jung’s ego parallels the Christian “earthly

nature.” This is in contrast to Jung’s “self,” which parallel’s the human divine nature.

Stein and Goldiwil describe this ego as self-aware and definable. They write:

Within the ego complex we are focused, defined, and somewhat cognizant of our thoughts, feelings, and the grounds for our emotional conditions; we claim an identity more or less unified and singular, a sense of self that is bounded and unique.21

They show how Jung made a distinction between the “ego” and the “self.”

20 Stein and Goldiwil, 305.

21 Stein and Goldiwil, 307.

As the self, on the contrary, we are utterly indeterminate, infinitely potential, never fully realized, and linked to (even fused with) the Divine. The self links the ego complex to ultimate wholeness.22

According to Jung, the self is larger and more enduring than the ego. He writes:

Self is what we are above, beneath, and beyond all identities, identifications, and part-personalities—personal, cultural, historical, engendered, and moral. It is what we are when all that we know or suspect that we are is added together, plus what we are when all that is stripped away—a surplus of psyche. We can extinguish the ego, but it is doubtful that we can kill the self.23

This view parallels the Augustinian view of the dual nature of man in which the spiritual

soul can transcend the material world and reach the divine. Jung makes this parallel even

more obvious when he writes: “we are utterly indeterminate, infinitely potential, never

fully realized, and linked to (even fused with) the Divine. The self links the ego complex

to ultimate wholeness.”24

Both Augustinian and Jungian thought assume the dual nature of humanity

Therefore, given psychology’s openness to the dual nature of humanity, Christian theology’s affirmation of it, and their compatibility, it should be recognized as an influence in the baseline of modern assessments, particularly in the context of the psychological testing being considered for student measurement. While duality is both relevant and evaluated in modern psychological testing, the divine nature is not evaluated, let alone considered relevant.

Recognizing the existence of both the divine (self) and earthly (ego) sides of identity is crucial for self-measurement and later, self-development. However, simply recognizing the existence of the self and the ego will not guarantee that the individual

22 Stein and Goldiwil, 307.

23 Stein and Goldiwil, 307.

24 Stein and Goldiwil, 307.

will pursue the right standard of measurement. There needs to be continual adjustment to

the measuring standard of the Imago Dei, the Image of God Himself, who is Christ.

Jesus Christ is the Baseline

Self-measurement, as with all measurement, must begin with a baseline. Baseline

information is gathered before a measurement begins and is later used for comparison to

new data. The baseline, or standard, must be according to an original design. This

baseline needs to reflect God’s initial intention at the time of His creation. Jesus Christ is

the biblical baseline for self-measurement.

Paul’s Call to See Jesus as the Baseline

Paul uses nothing less than Christ Himself as the standard for the self-

measurement. Paul refers to a “full and complete standard of Christ” (Eph. 4:13) as the

standard to which God’s people may eventually attain. It is this standard that defines the

believer’s “maturity in the Lord” (Eph. 4:13). In this way, Paul points to Jesus as the

ultimate measure against whom the Christian is to assess him or herself.

Paul hoped that his own example pointed directly to Christ instead of drawing

attention to himself. Even though he was an apostle, he did not trust his own judgment to

measure humankind accurately. He felt so inadequate that, even with the sanctification he

had experienced, he strove not to consider his success as the standard by which to judge

others. Rather, he used what he had already attained to point directly to Christ (1 Cor.

4:3). Paul wanted Christians to look to Christ as the baseline against which to judge themselves.

Paul further railed against the human tendency to use one another as a baseline.

He states that Christians are not to compare themselves to others as a standard of

measurement, even to those men and woman who are considered great (2 Cor. 10:12).

Rather, Christians are not to look at each other as the world does but to look at their own

hearts as God looks at the heart (1 Sam. 16:7). Paul concludes that it is in fact foolish to

do such a comparison. For Paul, such human standards based on comparison are

foolishness (1 Cor. 3:18-19). Comparison is foolish because if one attempts to model

oneself against the images of other believers, one is in essence using a third-hand image

of Christ. In other words, by mirroring oneself against an image of person who mirrors

the image Christ, one removes him or herself an extra degree away from Christ’s original

image. This extra degree of separation distorts and diminishes the reflection of Christ.

The greater the degrees of separation from the original, the greater the distortion

becomes. Paul argued that it is preferable to mirror Christ’s image directly, and thus gain

a model that is pure and undiminished. He calls for an end to the use of human standards

of judgment when measuring oneself (1 Cor. 3:18-19).

After denouncing his own example and the example of others as possible baselines for self-measurement, Paul argues that the ability to evaluate oneself correctly

comes from first looking to Christ and evaluating Him correctly. Notice the progression

of his logic: “So we have stopped evaluating others from a human point of view. At one

time we thought of Christ merely from a human point of view. How differently we know

him now!” (2 Cor. 5:16, NLT). Ceasing to evaluate others “merely from a human point”

of view flows out of ceasing to evaluate Christ by such a standard. According to Paul,

this new ability to now think about Christ correctly comes from a Christian being made

into a “new person.” He says: “This means that anyone who belongs to Christ has

become a new person. The old life is gone; a new life has begun!” (2 Cor. 5:17, NLT).

The new person is able to perceive the image of Christ correctly.

Jesus is the baseline for two reasons. First, He is the true image of God. Second,

He is the true image of humankind. In this way, Jesus incarnates the dual nature of

humanity, both its divine and earthly natures, self and ego. This makes Jesus the perfect

baseline for self-measurement.

Scripture on Jesus’ Dual Nature

Jesus’ divine nature. The Old Testament looked forward to the coming Messiah

as God in His full nature (Isa. 9:6). It also looked forward to Him being God in human

form (Isa. 7:14). The prophet Micah assures the people that the one coming will have His

origin in ancient times, making Him beyond time, and therefore in nature God (Mic. 5:2)

The Gospels cohere with the doctrine of Jesus’ divine nature. Jesus was worshiped as God (Matt. 2:2-11 and 14:33). He was called God (John 20:28 and Heb.

1:8). He was God before and during creation and all things were created in Him (John

1:1-5) He was called the Son of God (Mark 1:1). Jesus was prayed to (Acts 7:59). He was sinless (1 Pet. 2:22 and Heb. 4:15). He demonstrated that He knew all things (John

21:17). Finally, Jesus proclaimed Himself to be the giver of eternal life (John 10:28).

Paul writes to the Colossians that “all the fullness of deity” is in Christ. (Col 2:9).

In the same letter, Paul had said that Christ “is the image of the invisible God” (Col

1:15). Paul also uses the word “image” in reference to Christ as the mirror of God in 2

Corinthians 4:4, in which he explains that “the light of the knowledge of the glory of God”

is “displayed in the face of Christ” (vs. 5). These claims by Paul make sense out of Jesus’

claim, reported by John, that whoever has seen Him has seen the Father (John 12:45 and

14:9). In other words, Jesus is the revelation of God.

Hebrews 1:1-2 contrasts Jesus to other means by which God spoke to humankind.

God had first spoken through many means, but now He speaks through His own offspring, Jesus. This reveals the divine nature of Jesus, who is superior to the other means of God’s self-revelation. The author of Hebrews continues to lift Jesus above the

supernatural powers of the angels by highlighting His divine nature and calling (Heb. 1:3-

4). The author even shows how God Himself calls Jesus “Son” (Heb. 1:8).

Jesus’ human nature. But Jesus not only perfectly imaged God, He also perfectly

imaged humankind. He perfectly models human wholeness and holiness. Paul conceived

of Christ as the “second man” (1 Cor. 15:47), who correctly “imaged” God to replace the

“first man” (Adam), who had failed to image God correctly. On this basis Paul believed

that the example of Jesus Christ is the standard of self-measurement. Paul’s view coheres

with John’s, who recorded Jesus as saying: “I have set you an example that you should do

as I have done for you” (John 13:15). Jesus, the Second Man, intended His behavior to be

a model for others to follow.

Other Scripture from the Gospel accounts coheres with Paul’s belief that Jesus

was fully human. He worshiped God (John 17). He was called “man” (Mark 15:39 and

John 19:5). He was called “Son of Man” (John 9:35-37). Jesus prayed to the Father (John

17). He was tempted (Matt. 4:1). He grew in wisdom (Luke 2:52). He died (Mark 15:37,

Luke 23:46, John 19:30, Rom. 5:8). Furthermore, Jesus had a body of flesh and bones

(Luke 24:39).

Synthesis of Scripture and Jungian Thought

Jesus’ dual nature again parallels Jungian thought. Jung’s concept of “self”

corresponds to Jesus’ divine nature (“utterly indeterminate, infinitely potential, never

fully realized, and linked to [even fused with] the Divine”), and his concept of “ego”

(focused, defined, … unified and singular, … bounded and unique.”) corresponds to

Jesus’ human, earthly nature. Jesus’ incarnation represents the dual nature of humanity,

both its divine and earthly natures, self and ego. In His nature as God, Christ’s self is

preserved in eternity and unchangeable. In His humanity, Jesus forms the standard of human praxis.

Application

This synthesis of the Scriptural doctrine of Christ’s dual nature with Jungian theory of identity provides the researcher’s foundation for self-measurement. Because

Jesus expresses both natures perfectly, He is the baseline. In His person, He combines the

perfect revelation of God’s image with the purely untarnished image of God in

humankind, the very image God had intended to be expressed through Adam and his

descendants. As the “second man,” Jesus perfectly images both the Imago Dei and

images the standard of a whole and holy human being. Therefore, believers should

attempt to image Him in order to regain the intended status of imaging the Imago Dei.

The dual image of Christ forces believers to wrestle through their self-

measurement. Clines quotes K. H. Bernhardt, who wrote: “the function of the image is

not to depict but to express. It is not to be preserved but to be practiced.”25 This is because

25 Clines, 160.

Christ as God demands a response of obedience from His observers, and Christ as human

shows humans exactly how they must obey.

Biblically Measurable Units

Since Jesus is the baseline, He determines the standards of measurement. While it

has been established that one must measure one’s self against the standard of Christ, it is

with the caution to not become overly legalistic in one’s approach. It is clear again that

Christ does not measure people according to their ability to live holy lives, for all have

fallen short of that standard (Rom. 3:23). In order to understand Christ’s standard, one

must look at His primary standard of measurement, and not at all of the subcategories of

holiness, which can lead to a weakened and overly subjective approach to measurement.

Christ’s primary standard of measurement is what He claims is the most important part of

the Law. He quotes Deuteronomy 6:5 when he says: “Love God with all of your heart,

soul, mind and strength.” He then stated the second most important is like the first: “love your neighbor as yourself” (Matt. 22:37-40, Mark 12:29-33, Luke 10:27). Loving God

and loving others is Christ’s standard by which He measures His followers. As the Imago

Dei He perfectly reveals and models this love. Christians know that they are to be rooted

in love (Eph. 3:17-19), filled with love (Rom. 5:5), expressive of love (John 13:34),

united in love (Phil 2:2) and growing in love (Phil. 1:9). It is the summary of all holiness

(Romans 13:9).

The definition of love can be rendered subjective and difficult to navigate by how

modern Western globalized cultures use the word. Jesus then clarifies this difficulty by

talking about this love in four manageable and measurable parts: “heart, soul, mind, and

strength.”

While there is some disagreement among theologians as to the nature of these four parts, William Hendriksen suggests that there is no need to fight over the meaning of the individual faculties.26 Keeping in line with this general agreement, this research is not intended to defend the tendency of some to overly parse out the meaning of the word

“love.” Some theologians do this based on the fact that Jesus and the deuteronomic

Shema use four separate words to describe it. Instead, the researcher asserts that the existence of four words demonstrates that Jesus wanted people to love with all the faculties of human ability. The exact dimensions of these biblically measurable unit are not as vital as the notion that they represent an area of motivation for love. For example, to love God with all one’s “mind” encourages one to employ all of the intellectual powers toward loving God.

The purpose of this project was not to create a separate theology of the heart, or of the soul, and so on. Rather, the project was intended to give direction for self- measurement according to the definition of love that Christ articulated. This sort of practice in psychometrics regarding the interaction of two, three, or four preferences is known as “type dynamics” and is standard practice in baseline development. Due to the need for biblically measurable units, it seems prudent that each of the four concepts should be addressed individually to establish a more recognizable and bounded unit of measurement.

26 William Hendriksen, New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1975), 611.

The Heart

The first of the biblically measureable units that Christ references when reciting the Shema is the heart, or kardia in Koine Greek. Jesus revealed in the Gospels how this word is used throughout Scripture.

Jesus in the Gospels

Jesus primarily uses the term “heart” to express different levels of one’s motivation and how it creates action.

At times, Jesus’ uses the word “heart” to means the seat of human motivation

(Matt. 5:8, 5:28, 9:4; Mark 7:21; Luke 2:35, 16:15; and John 13:2). In these references,

Jesus uses kardia to describe the central location in which people find motivation. This is where motivation happens, even outside of human reason. For example, in Matthew 5:28, when Jesus says “that anyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart,” the heart is the place where motivation occurs.

Jesus also used kardia to refer to the way in which motivation defines a person. In other words, the motives of a person’s heart define the righteousness or wickedness of that person. For example, in Matthew 6:21, (“where your treasure is, there your heart is also,”) Jesus is saying that whatever treasure motivates a person defines that person. If it is admirable treasure (“treasure in heaven”), then the person is good. If it is evil treasure

(“treasure on earth”), then the person is bad. The person is defined by his or her motivation. Other passages confirm this use of the word kardia, like Matthew 15:18-19,

Luke 9:47 and 12:34.

Jesus’ use of kardia also conveys the idea of one’s secret, inner understanding, apart from the action one takes. For example, Mark 2:8 says “Immediately, Jesus knew in

his spirit that this was what they were thinking in their hearts, and he said to them, ‘Why

are you thinking these things?’” Many passages confirm this use of kardia, such as Mark

7:6, 8:17; Luke 2:19, 3:15, 8:15, 24:38; John 14:1, 14:27, 16:6 and 16:22.

Kardia is used by Jesus to refer to the place of inner understanding. But in some

passages, Jesus also means the way in which that understanding is translated into action.

For instance, when Jesus told the Pharisees in Matthew 12:34, “You brood of vipers, how

can you who are evil say anything good? For the mouth speaks what the heart is full of,”

He was referring to the actions that emerge from heart. Matthew. 13:15-19, 18:35, and

Luke 6:45 all use kardia in this way.

New Testament Epistles

There were seventeen distinct terms in the New Testament that refer to the heart.

The word kardia is used to refer to the heart 97 times in the New Testament outside of

the Gospels. Whenever it is used the word falls into three of the categories that Jesus

Himself used. Acts 2:46, 4:32, along with 15:9, Romans 1:24, Ephesians 3:17.

Philippians 4:7 and Heb. 4:12, all use kardia to mean the seat of one’s motivation. Paul

uses it Romans 10:10 to mean the secret, inner understanding apart from action. In Acts

28:27 and Romans 1:24, it means understanding with action.

Old Testament

The Old Testament word for heart lebab, follows the same pattern as that Jesus

used. However its definition was sometimes more vague. In the Old Testament, the heart

appears to be the seat of mental or spiritual powers and capacities. From the heart comes

planning and volition.27 The primary use is found in the Shema (Deut. 6:5). Often it is

27 Francis Brown, S. R. Driver and Charles Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2000).

coupled with the word for “soul,” and is preceded by the modifier “all,” as in “all one’s

heart and all one’s soul” (Deut. 4:29, 26:16, 30:6, 30:10; Jos. 22:5, 23:14; 1 Kings 2:4; 2

Kings 23:3, 23:25; 2 Chron. 15:12, and 34:31). In these instances, “heart” seems to be

speaking of the entirety of a person’s inner life. Thus, when a person is extolled for

seeking God with “all of” his or her “heart,” the biblical authors are describing a holistic

embrace of God that consumes every part of that person.

The author of Deuteronomy used lebab often as a reference to one’s intentions and motivations. It is further used to describe a variety of motivating forces. In Genesis

20:5, it is used to describe “integrity.” When Moses commands the Israelites in Numbers

15:39 to “not prostitute yourselves by chasing after the lusts of your heart,” the word refers to the location of selfish desires that can define a person. The idea is echoed in passages like Proverbs 6:25. This same meaning can have a positive connotation, as in 1

Samuel 2:35, when the heart refers to God’s desires, or in 2 Samuel 7:3, when Nathan

tells David to do as he pleases, for the Lord is with him. In 1 Kings 9:4, the word’s

association with “integrity” refers to a deep purity and correctness of one’s being. In Job

10:13 it is used to mean a God-given intention. Psalm 62:8 uses heart to mean allowing

God to see into the depths of one’s being.

The biblical language refers to the heart as being the core of one’s personality,

intellect, memory, emotions and will. The seat of all emotion is the heart. It is “what

28 makes you tick.” Kittel suggests that the heart is the center of the inner life of man and

the source or seat of all the forces and functions of soul and spirit.29 This suggests that

28 Lelan Ryken, James C. Wilhoit and Tremper Longman III, eds., Dictionary of Biblical Imagery (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 1998), 368-369.

29 Kittel, Friedrich and Bromiley, 3:611.

48 what comes from the heart is the core of all that a person expresses. Therefore, the heart is relevant to test in a project addressing self-measurement. The great call of all believers to love further necessitates evaluating the heart.

In the project, the researcher defined the heart as the foundational element of one’s capacity to ascribe worth on the deepest level of intention and motivation.

Therefore, it is an expression of love. This capacity has been placed in one’s being by virtue of the image of God in that person. This definition created a practical tool by which to construct the self-measurement grid.

The Soul

The soul, or psyche in Koine, is the second unit of measure that Christ references in His application of the Shema. Again, the Gospels, the New Testament Epistles, and the

Old Testament clarify Scripture’s use of this word.

Jesus in the Gospels

Jesus’ first use of the term psyche establishes how He uses it at other times. In

Matthew 10:28 and then echoed in Mark 8:36, Jesus claims that one should fear Him who can destroy the body and soul. This identifies Jesus’ understanding of the word as a part of the person that is beyond physical expression. It is clear that Jesus saw it as distinct from the body. This idea is confirmed in Matthew 16:26, when Jesus says that it is possible to lose one’s soul when one pursues the world. Again, it is something distinct from the physical world.

In Matthew 11:29, Jesus commits Himself to giving rest to the “soul” of the person who comes to Him. Here He seems to use the word as some essential part of a person. In Matthew 12:18 (KJV), the author quotes from Isaiah, in which God the Father

refers to Himself as having a “soul.” Again, it seems to refer to an essential part of God’s

nature, apparently that part that “delights” in God the Son. Jesus uses the word again in

Luke 12:20 (KJV) to indicate an eternal part of a person. Like most of the above

instances of the word, Jesus seems again to be using it as a synonym for a person’s life.

New Testament Epistles

The New Testament Epistles frequently use the word “soul” to indicate a part of a person’s life that is beyond this world’s physical nature. For instance, Acts 2:27 (KJV) speaks of it as the eternal part of the person that endures beyond death. James confirms this idea, using “soul” to mean the part of the person that is saved from death after turning from sin (Jas. 5:20, KJV). Peter uses it similarly (1 Pet. 1:9, KJV), as does John in Revelation 6:9 and 20:4.

Alternatively, Luke (Acts 2:41, 3:23, KJV) and Peter (2 Pet. 2:14) use the word elsewhere to be a replacement for “life” or simply “person,” in a way similar to Jesus’ frequent use . The word is used more mysteriously in other places, like in Acts 4:32,

14:22, 1 Thess. 5:23, Heb. 4:12, 13:17, and 1 Pet. 1:22. In these instances, the psyche seems to be used as an essential element of the human person. But it is somehow distinct from the body, mind and spirit. These final passages do not make it clear exactly what is unique about the soul, other than that it is essential to the human being.

Old Testament

The Old Testament word for soul is nephesh. As in the New Testament, it is at times used to mean the part of the person that survives death (Gen. 35:18). Most frequently, it is coupled with the word for “heart,” and is preceded by the modifier “all,” as in “seek God with all one’s heart and all one’s soul” (Deut. 4:29, 26:16, 30:6, 30:10;

Jos. 22:5, 23:14; 1 Kings 2:4; 2 Kings 23:3, 23:25; 2 Chron. 15:12, and 34:31). In these instances, “soul” seems to be speaking of the entirety of a person’s inner life. The exhortation to follow or seek God with “all one’s soul” seems to be an exhortation to do it with one’s whole being. In some instances, the soul is earthly (Gen. 27:4). In other instances, the soul is part of the whole person (Exod. 31:14). According to Leviticus

26:11, God has a soul but not an earthly body. The soul is manageable (Deut. 4:9). It appears to live in the same realm as God (1 Sam. 20:3). It has desires (1 Kings 11:37) and feelings. For example it can be bitter (Job 7:11, 21:25) and it can thirst (Ps. 42:2).

Extra-biblical Sources

Stein and Goldiwil call the soul “the vessel firmly in the mirror of consciousness

[that] must be counted an experience of the self. This is what remains when all the

specific contents and personal structures of one’s psychic identity are erased. It is the

surplus factor, the soul itself.”30 They suggest that the soul itself transcends one’s context,

and lives in a metaphysical, or supernatural reality.

To make sense of this, the researcher drew heavily on Paul Heibert’s

understanding of the soul. Hiebert articulated the concept of the excluded middle, by

which he meant the mysterious part of human experience that is in between, or in the

“middle” of, the physical and spiritual worlds.31 In his missiological and anthropological

studies, Hiebert tried to explain the religious and faith phenomena, like animism,

shamanism and magic that did not fit neatly into the categories created by science or the

world religions. Neither can easily explain this phenomena, and therefore they are often

30 Stein and Goldiwil Thun, 324.

31 Paul Hiebert, Understanding Folk Religion (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1999), 15-31.

“excluded” because they are in the “middle” of measurable human existence and transcendent religious theory. Hiebert wanted to explain how physical people could access the spiritual world through their own means. The researcher drew on this concept to explain the soul, a part of human identity that seems to exist somewhere in between the physical and purely spiritual realms.

The researcher asserts that the soul is parallel to Paul’s reference to “the amount of faith God has given to you” (Rom. 12:3). It is his or her spiritual allocation of identity from God, as part of God’s contextual design for humankind. The soul takes power when it informs the earthly nature of one’s life. While the core of the man’s design appears to be the heart, the soul seems that the core of one’s physical and spiritual context.

The Old Testament “soul” and the New Testament “soul” have similar usage.

They both refer to an aspect of human nature that goes beyond cognitive reasoning and perhaps beyond physical nature. The words refer to one’s spiritual or metaphysical expression of existence.

In the project, the researcher used the term soul to refer to the expression of love

coming from the spiritual allocation God has entrusted to him or her (Rom. 12:3). In other words, the researcher used the term to mean the metaphysical part of identity directly given from God for one’s context.

The Mind

The “mind” is the third unit of measurement that Christ references in His application of the Shema.

Jesus and the Gospels

The Greek term for mind that Jesus uses was dianoia in the recitation of the

greatest commandment (Matt. 22:37, Mark 12:30, Luke 10:27). These are the only three

times that Jesus used this term. In context with the other words used for mind in the

Gospels, dianoia denotes a predisposition to thinking as opposed to a belief system.

New Testament Epistles

The New Testament Epistles use dianoia to denote one’s reasoning,

understanding, and thinking.32 The word is often used to describe the location in which thinking takes place (Eph. 2:3, Col. 1:21, Heb. 8:10, 10:16, and 2 Pet. 3:1). While the

New Testament uses other terms for one’s mind, these other words tend to describe one’s belief systems over one’s mental processing.

Old Testament

The Old Testament’s primary word for mind is leb. It is used to describe the abilities and efforts of one’s mindset (Exod. 36:2, 1 Kings 3:9, 1 Chron. 12:38, 2 Chron.

9:23, Neh. 6:8, Isa. 46:8, Jer. 11:20; Jer. 30:24; Lam. 3:21). The word is used to describe the function of one’s mind with skills and the use of one’s mind with wisdom.

The Old Testament word for mind and the New Testament word for mind are used in similar ways. They both reference an aspect of the human that includes but also goes beyond simple decision-making. “The mind usually is used in reference to the cognitive, rational, and purposive aspects of a person as well as the less concrete aspects such as heart, soul, opinion and understanding or reflection.”33 Human reason can also be

flawed, leading many into sin: “All humans are endowed with reason, but fallen beings

32 Swanson, J. (1997). Dictionary of Biblical Languages with Semantic Domains: Greek (New Testament) (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1997), loc 1379.

33 Ryken, et al, 554.

inevitably use their rational capacities in sinful ways.”34 Believers are called to recognize that they are to have the mind of Christ (1 Cor. 2:16) in order to measure themselves properly. Evaluating the mind is a necessary part of evaluating whether or not one is living out this calling.

So, while the core of a human is the heart, and the core of one’s context is the soul,

the mind is the core of self-cognition. In this project, the researcher used the word mind

to refer to the capacity to express love through self-cognition.

The Strength

Strength is the final unit of measurement that Christ references in His application

of the Shema.

Jesus in the Gospels

It is important to note that Jesus is not recorded saying “strength” in his recitation of the greatest commandment in the Book of Matthew. This was most likely due to the nature of Matthews’s audience. It was composed of a stricter sect of Judaism. If Jesus actually used the word “strength” as recorded in Mark and Luke, Matthew most likely

negated it as it was assumed in the deuteronomic version of the command.

Jesus used the term “strength” only 3 times. These instance are in His recitation of

the Greatest Commandment in Mark 12:30 and in verse 33 and then again in Luke 10:27.

In these instances, He used the Koine word ischys, from the verb to be able. His lack of

use of this term could suggest that strength is an assumed aspect of one’s functions.

However, the fact that the word was an addition to these texts and not to Matthew’s

version suggests that the word should not be simply assumed, but pursued.

34 Sands, 32.

New Testament Epistles

There are seven different Koine terms used for the word “strength” in the Greek

New Testament. Ischys is used by Jesus, as mentioned above, and in 1 Peter 4:11, to describe the service that is done by the “strength” that God supplies. In total, the concept of strength is only used nine times in the Epistles. This does not include the use of the word “power”(dynamos), which often has other connotations than “strength.”

Old Testament

As in the Matthew version, the original commandment to love God with all of one’s faculties in Deuteronomy makes no mention of the faculty of strength. While there are 150 references of one kind or another regarding strength in the Old Testament, there is no correlation between the Shema and these other biblical references. The faculty of strength should then be assumed as one’s efficacy to fulfill the requirements of the

Shema.

The Old Testament word “strength,” (meod), and the New Testament word are used similarly. They both reference an aspect of the human that includes but goes beyond physical stature. “Strength” is used to explain one’s ability to carry out what one decides to accomplish. Strength is one’s efficacy for completing an assignment. While the core of humankind’s design is the heart, the core of one’s context is the soul, and the core of one’s self-awareness is the mind, one’s strength is one’s efficacy.

In the project, the researcher used the word strength to refer to the one’s expression of love and capacity to communicate that love in a variety of contexts.

Summary

The biblical and theological chapter of this project investigated three primary areas of concern. It pursued the biblical call to evaluate oneself (Biblical Call for

Evaluation), the standards of this call (Biblical Standard for Evaluation), and its measureable units (Biblical Measurable Units). It has been shown that there is in fact a call to evaluate oneself. The standards of measurement are based on the Imago Dei and

His greatest commandments of loving God and loving others. The units of measurement are the four parts of human identity that Jesus quotes from the Shema: the heart (the source of one’s love), the soul (the core of one’s spiritual or metaphysical context), the mind (one’s self-cognition), and the strength (the ability or efficacy to express love).

CHAPTER THREE: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

The researcher investigated student self-measurement in Canada and the psychometric tools implemented within Canadian Discipleship/Bible colleges. It became evident at the onset of the research that a massive void of literature in a Canadian context existed. Most literature used in the CDBC environment has been American in content and implementation requiring an American contextual hermeneutic for literature. The following literature review reflects this deficit in the Canadian context.

Student Self-Measurement in Canada

In 1987, Ray Easley studied student outcomes assessments in US and Canadian

Bible Schools.1 He surveyed academic deans for the instruments most used in student

outcomes and found that in developing student outcomes assessments, the institutions he

studied used alumni surveys, Bible content tests, the Taylor-Johnson Temperament

Analysis, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory and the College Level

Examination Program. Easley’s study produced a measurement matrix for understanding what students’ abilities were in readiness for the workplace. While there was accuracy in student outcomes, this type of measurement is based on behavior modification and expectation as opposed to self-initiative or intrinsic motivation. It assumes that behavior

1 Ray R. Easley, Assessment of Student Outcomes in the Bible College: Identification of Important Outcomes and Current Practices (Ed.D. thesis, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, 1987).

expectations can be created with extrinsic motivators. This research project was in search

of tests that evaluated more intrinsic motivations.

The 1990s saw more research conducted on Canadian Bible colleges. However,

no direct studies on student self-improvement or measurement were conducted. Jim

Schneider studied how autonomous Bible college students behaved in making moral

judgments. While his research did not specifically study the intrinsic motivators of the

students, the autonomous colleges tended to force specific moral viewpoints upon their

students, thus producing behavior modification as opposed to intrinsic motivators.2

Also in 1991, Gary Bredfeldt completed a sociological study of the beliefs,

attitudes, and values of students entering Canadian Bible colleges.3 This study attempted

to see what identifying patterns of belief came with students as they entered college. His

findings were similar to that of this researcher in that many students entered Bible college with specific ideological understandings that were simply behavior modifiers.

In 1992, Barrie Palfreyman studied the extent to which key leaders of colleges affiliated with the ACBC were mentoring other leaders.4 This was some of the first research accomplished with the specific intention to understand leadership as a student outcome. This research, however, did not link self-motivators as part of leadership development other than to say that one should be motivated to lead. Again, this research adds little to the literature regarding student self-measurement and identity development.

2 Jim D Schneider Autonomy in Moral Kudgment Among Bible College Students (M.Ed. thesis, University of Alberta, 1991).

3 Gary J. Bredfeldt, The Values and Attitudes of Incoming BibleCollege Students Compared with the Expectations of Faculty (Ed.D. thesis, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, 1991).

4 Barrie J. Palfreyman, Mentoring Among Aey Administrators in Undergraduate Theological Colleges in Canada. (Ed.D. thesis, Seattle University, 1992).

This same year, Dennis Hiebert wrote on the impact of enrollment in Canadian

Bible colleges.5 This was accomplished to understand the faith development of students

in Canadian Bible colleges, as opposed to public universities. Hiebert’s work contributed

to the discipleship literature in that it valued the faith journey of students and the

contribution of the college staff. It did not however aid in the development of tools for

student self measurement, leaving student identity development at the discretion of the

acting staff.

In 1994, Lynn Wallace studied the impact of various learning strategies for first

year students on academic attainment.6 Wallace’s work, much like Ray Easley’s, encouraged and inspired Christopher Elford’s 1996 doctoral study on student outcomes assessment (SOA) in Canadian Bible Colleges.7 Elford surveyed Canadian Bible colleges in an effort to help clarify the need for a more standard SOA practice. Both Wallace and

Elford evaluated the models and tools used for student academic achievement and development. Both sets of research dealt exclusively with a measurement of academic standard that has softened in the CDBCs of 2015.

At the turn of the millennium, there was a small break in the literature regarding

Canadian Bible Colleges in their attempt to intentionally disciple their students. In 2005,

Charles Cook did work assessing the long-term impact of intercultural sojourns in

5 Dennis W. Hiebert, Schools of Faith: The Effect of Liberal Arts, Professional and Religious Education on Faith Development (PhD. thesis, University of Manitoba, 1993).

6 Lynn H Wallace and Gary J Conti, Learning Strategies of Bible College Freshmen: A Case Study of Prairie Bible College (Ed.D. thesis, Montana State University, 1994).

7 Christopher Elford, Student Outcomes Assessment in Canadian Bible Colleges (Ph.D. thesis, University of Alberta, 1996), 21.

developing global awareness.8 He was interested in understanding how short-term

missions work was done and its lasting impact on the international communities. Cook

attempted to address the nature of the discipleship for the travelling student. However, he

never developed that argument as his concern was for the receiving communities of the

short-term workers. Cook’s work influenced many CDBCs on how short-term discipleship trips were planned and implemented. But no effort was made to develop the students’ intrinsic motivation. So again, this study was only marginally helpful in advancing an understanding of self-measurement tools.

In 2008, Janet Starks examined the academic advising program at Bethany Bible

College.9 Her intention was to bring recommendations to that college for implementation

in that program. While her work followed the academic influence of the college on the

student, her primary focus was on college longevity and not the student. It was believed

that if students were better prepared for life, the efficacy of the college would solicit

greater enrolment. This focus on the benefit to the institution rather than to the students

makes Stark’s study only somewhat applicable to this thesis project.

In 2008, Arch Wong studied the tension between formal theological preparation

and the professional practice of Bible college graduates.10 He worked to develop a pattern

to consult that same tension.11

8 Charles A. Cook, Assessing the Long-Term Impact of Intercultural Sojourns: Contributions of Canadian Bible College Intercultural Sojourns in Developing Global Awareness (Ph.D. thesis, Trinity International University, 2005), 2-15.

9 Janet M. Starks, An Examination of and Recommendations for the Academic Advising Program at Bethany Bible College (D.Min. thesis, Acadia Divinity College, 2008).

10 Arch Chee Keen Wong, Negotiating the Tension Between Formal Theological Preparation and Professional Practice of Bible College Graduates (Ph.D. thesis, University of Regina, 2007).

11 Information obtained in conversation with Arch Chee Keen Wong. October 14, 2014.

Canadian Bible/Discipleship College Methods for Discipleship

While most of the literature used regarding the methods of discipleship in

Canadian Bible colleges was simply discipleship material found in common Christian literature (most of which was American in publishing and content and adopted for use in

Canada), some work was done regarding the particular Canadian differences from their

American counterparts. In 1987, Charlotte Kinvig explored methods used by Canadian

Bible college instructors to integrate life experiences of students with classroom-based learning.12 This was done in specific detail to integrate a deeper discipleship model into

the classroom.

Worried about how students deal with morality and its impact on one’s ministry and life, Jim Schneider13 and Charles Cook14 worked on themes similar to Wong’s

research.15 All of them studied the discipleship element found with the Canadian Bible

college landscape. They all found that students were able to deepen in their discipleship

experiences, but that this was dependent on student involvement and staff investments.

This proves that one must be actively involved in his or her own discipleship process.

However, the researchers found that this involvement does not cause students to know on

an ongoing basis how to adjust themselves to deepen their own intrinsic motivations. It

was the intent of these researchers to create discipleship values in the students that would

12 Charlotte A. Kinvig, Relating Experiential and Classroom Learning: A Study in Bible College Curriculum (Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1987).

13 Jim D. Schneider, Autonomy in Moral Judgment among Bible College Students (M.Ed. thesis, University of Alberta, 1991).

14 Charles A Cook Assessing the Long-term Impact of Intercultural Sojourns: Contributions of Canadian Bible College Intercultural Sojourns in Developing Global Awareness (Ph.D. thesis, Trinity International University, 2005).

15 In conversation with Arch Chee Keen Wong, October 14, 2014.

last beyond their college experience. In this the researchers were successful. However, no

tools were given to help students’ disciple those with whom they would come into

contact post-college, so that a second generation of discipled young people would find

their own intrinsic motivations through self-measurement.

While not specific to Canadian Bible colleges, there was other work done

regarding discipleship within the Bible college movement in North America. In 1993,

Peter DeBoer’s Educating Christian Teachers for Responsive Discipleship16 led the

dialogue on intentional educational models for discipleship. Tony Johnson’s 1995

Discipleship or Pilgrimage: The Educator’s Quest for Philosophy,17 contributed to this dialogue and these works became part of a conversation regarding the nature of discipleship in formalized educational systems.

In 2002, Bruce Main wrote a book If Jesus Were a Sophomore.18 It specifically

addressed the concept of discipleship for college students. However, it did not place

emphasis on the discipleship element that could take place within a closed community

such as is found in the typical Canadian Bible college. Therefore, its applicability has

proven to be inadequate.

Another well-intentioned but inadequate work was Jonathan Morrow’s 2008

practitioner’s guide for discipleship in college, Welcome to College: A Christ-Follower’s

16 Peter P. DeBoer. Educating Christian Teachers for Responsive Discipleship (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993).

17 Tony W. Johnson, Discipleship Or Pilgrimage? : The Educator’s Quest for Philosophy (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), 1.

18 Bruce Main, If Jesus Were a Sophomore: Discipleship for College Students (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002), 3.

Guide for the Journey.19 Again, the intention was to help students find adequate tools for

discipleship in college. However, the book’s principles have proven to be less applicable

to the small sizes of Canadian Bible colleges. Morrow’s main principle is to develop a

trusting small group for fellowship. The very large size of many American colleges

means that students who desire to attain the level of intimacy prescribed by Morrow

spend the majority of their time cultivating such a group. Morrow recommends that

achieving a group that is small enough and that has a deep enough level of mutual trust is

worth all the time and attention. But, this assumption about size excludes most CDBCs.

Canadian Discipleship and Bible colleges are already mostly small and intimate, and

students do not need to spend much time creating such groups from scratch like they

might need to do in large US universities.

In 2010, Dean Blevin and Mark Maddix’s book, Discovering Discipleship:

Dynamics of Christian Education,20 and John Aukermans’s Discipleship That

Transforms21 of 2011, rounded out the specific literature regarding discipleship within

the circles of formal theological training. These works all contributed to the already growing literature regarding intentional discipleship in a college setting, but again assumed a different college setting and size than what exists in most CDBCs. These

19 Jonathan Morrow, Welcome to College: A Christ-Follower’s Guide for the Journey (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 2008), 16.

20 Dean Blevins, and Mark A. Maddix, Discovering Discipleship: Dynamics of Christian Education (Kansas City, MO: Beacon Hill Press, 2010).

21 John Aukerman, Discipleship That Transforms: An Introduction to Christian Education From a Wesleyan Holiness Perspective (Anderson, IN: Warner Press, 2011), 41.

books were referenced in CDBC settings over the past years, but the leaders using them found they had to work hard at contextualizing them to fit the CDBC value systems.22

Within the Canadian Bible college world, discipleship has traditionally been

accomplished by retrofitting discipleship tools from other settings. But these tools were

not developed for the specific needs of Canadian Bible colleges. The researcher has

found that, in 15 years of his efforts to secure discipleship material and to minister at

Canadian Bible colleges, he was consistently driven to utilize American resources and

attempt to fit them into the Canadian context. American books and resources are readily

used for formal training in Canada. However, many of the worldviews behind the literature are different than those present in the Canadian expression of Christianity. For

example, the American emphasis on capitalism is not valued in the same light in Canada.

This is reflected in many other areas, like the Canadian health care system. Within

Canada, a collective mentality can be a valued over the individual accomplishment. This can change how discipleship is interpreted and accomplished. As a result, many fine US discipleship resources for college-aged students fail to be as helpful as they would be in the United States.

Canadian Bible and Discipleship College Student Measurement

There is no literature or resource specific to student measurement in Canadian

Bible and Discipleship colleges. Ray Easley’s work in 1987 came close. His recognition of the instruments used for student outcome assessments (SOA) were at least an attempt to understand the dynamic of student measurement, but the SOA’s are not used for student preparedness in the same way that this research is hopes to use them.

22 Conversation with Brad Teigen, Professor of Student Development, Rocky Mountain College, September 14, 2012.

The only specific work dealing with any student measurement was a 2009 study by Mark Boughan entitled “Emotional Intelligence, Religiosity, and Authoritarianism in

Canadian Bible College Students.”23 He interacted with the concept of “Emotional

Intelligence” (EQ) as a precursor and product of the Canadian Bible college experience.

While his work is groundbreaking in terms of an initial step into student self-

measurement in Canadian Bible colleges, it only addressed one specific instrument, a test

of EQ. Furthermore, this is not an instrument that is heavily used in Canadian Bible

colleges. It has also been discarded by many CDBCs for not being cross-cultural in nature, an element highly valued in the Canadian context.24

Canadian Tools and Resources Measured for an Appropriate Fit with BGSM

This research project sought to understand the psychometric tests currently employed by the CDBCs. The following survey of the tools did not attempt to evaluate their validity and reliability as tests. Instead, it measured them against the biblical gauge for self-measurement (BGSM) established in Chapter Two. It did this by first evaluating what the tools attempt to measure, then deciphering their efficacy to test one of the four biblically measureable unites (biblical measurement tools), and finally by determining their effectiveness in the Canadian context.

The Love Languages

Understanding the Instrument

Gary Chapman is the creator and developer of the globally-known Love

Languages tool. While practicing as a clinical psychologist in the area of marriage

23 Mark Arthur Boughan Emotional Intelligence, Religiosity, and Authoritarianism in Canadian Bible College Students (Ed.D. thesis, Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2009).

24 Data gathered from numerous conversations between the researcher, pastors and CDBC educational colleagues from 2009-2014.

counseling, Chapman found a pattern among those with whom he was working. This was

a pattern of how his clients expressed love to others and how they themselves desired to be loved. In 1992, he wrote his first work on the subject simply entitled The Five Love

Languages.25 The five patterns of love described by Chapman are: “words of

affirmation,” “acts of service,” “giving and receiving gifts,” “physical touch,” and

“quality time.”

While Chapman never pursued validating the instrument as a psychometric, he

found great results whenever he used the concepts in his therapy practice. He now works

with thousands of couples per year in this area.26 After speaking on the subject, he wrote a second book that was built on his original work. It attempted to legitimize the love language tool within the church and help readers understand their own complexity. He specifically targeted the concept of “heartfelt commitment” in order to illustrate the depth of the love language in the individual.27 He followed that work by illustrating how

children search for meaning in the same way adults do in his 1997 book entitled The Five

Love Languages of Children.28 In 2000, Chapman wrote a handbook that has enabled couples to work through their love languages together.29

25 Gary D. Chapman, The Five Love Languages (Chicago: Northfield Publishers, 1992), 15.

26 “About Gary Chapman” accessed Oct. 30, 2012, http://www.5lovelanguages.com/about-gary- chapman/.

27 Chapman, The Five Love Languages: How to Express Heartfelt Commitment to Your Mate (Chicago: Northfield Publishers, 1995), 36

28 Chapman and Ross Campbell, The 5 Love Languages of Children (Chicago: Northfield Publishers, 1997), 17.

29 Chapman, Your Gift of Love: Selections From the Five Love Languages (Chicago: Moody Press, 2000)

In 2002, Ronald Waters wrote on the concept of love languages with his book

Love Languages Spoken Silently from the Heart of a Man. While his work was well-

received at first, Chapman’s following dominated the market and Waters’s book soon

went out of print.30 Chapman noticed that individuals were finding success with the concept of love languages not only within marriage but in other applications as well. So

Chapman further diversified his audience by addressing the love languages of individuals. Later in 2004 he wrote specifically to singles.31

In 2006, Chapman recognized the need for people to understand how the love languages expressed something beyond a simple psychometric analysis. He found people referring to God in terms of how He loves them according to their love language. This was clearly a deviation from a simple psychometric analysis since it is not possible to test

God with an instrument of measure. While he recognized that it was impossible to measure God, he found story after story about how God would communicate love and worth to individuals according to their own love language. In order to address this issue, he wrote God Speaks Your Love Language.32

The concept of the love languages has continued to gain momentum. With people attributing the love languages to God, Chapman became aware of the need to validate the testing if it were at all possible. In 2006, the same year that Chapman produced the Love

Languages of God, Nichole Egbert and Denise Polk reviewed and analyzed the concept of love languages according to some psychometric test types. They found that while the

30 Ronald P. Waters, Love Languages Spoken Silently From the Heart of a Man (Bowie, MD: Strebor Books International, 2002).

31 Chapman, The Five Love Languages for Singles (Chicago: Northfield Publishers, 2004).

32 Chapman, God Speaks Your Love Language (Chicago: Northfield Publishers, 2009), 29.

test had gained popularity in the public eye, they suggested that it was not a valid

psychometric tool.33 They suggested that further work needed to be completed in order to specify behaviors according to the five categories of love developed by the work. The same year, Scott Veale wrote his Ph.D. thesis investigating the same topic.34

Over the next few years, Chapman attempted to diversify his audience, hoping to

reach every individual at a heart level. In 2010, he wrote about the how teenagers give

and receive love.35 With Paul White in the following year he wrote to address the

relevance of the subject within the workplace, showing how even there people desire to

be appreciated and found to have worth.36

The Love Languages Fit with BGSM

The researcher has determined that Chapman’s Love Language assessment is

appropriate to include in his project as a way to measure the biblically measureable unit

of “heart.” While this instrument might not be clinically accepted as valid according to

the standards of psychometrics, it’s content matches the researcher’s category of heart.

The Love Languages instrument attempts to measure an individual’s sense of self-worth

and his or her appreciation of the worth of others. It also attempts to measure one’s

emotional affirmation of oneself as being worthy of life and love. As discussed in

Chapter Two of this research, the researcher’s biblically measurable unit of “heart”

33 Nichole Egbert and Denise Polk, “Speaking the Language of Relational Maintenance: A Validity Test of Chapman’s (1992) Five Love Languages,” Communication Research Reports 23, no. 1 (2006), 25.

34 Scotti L. Veale, “How Do I Love Thee?: An Investigation of Chapman’s Five Love Languages” (Ph.D. thesis, Capella University, 2006).

35 Chapman, The Five Love Languages of Teenagers (Chicago: Northfield Publishing, 2010).

36 Chapman and Paul E. White, The 5 Languages of Appreciation in the Workplace (Chicago, IL, Northfield Publishing, 2011), 18.

68 expresses this very same sense of worth. So, while the topic of love is understandably complicated by its subjectivity, the researcher believes that it is still a valid unit for measurement.

Spiritual Gifts Testing

Understanding the Instruments

Spiritual gifts have been an area of debate throughout the history of the church.

Their expression is tied into a variety of theological approaches to the spiritual nature of humanity and church. Different branches of theology and ecclesiology disagree over the nature and use of spiritual gifts, and various epistemological approaches within the church have arrived at conflicting interpretations of the gifts. The picture is further complicated by the fact that people throughout church history have experienced and expressed the spiritual gifts in a subjective way that defies simple measurement. This research does not intend to validate the appropriate interpretation of spiritual gifts. But the researcher still asserts that this is an important area in which to develop self- awareness in college students.

The researcher acknowledges that this topic, and thus it’s testing, is the most subjective area to be reviewed. There appear to be no tools that can scientifically measure spiritual abilities and gifts that by definition transcend the physical world. Therefore, the researcher has compared most of the testing to the Scripture passages that relate to spiritual gifts, such as Romans 12:6-8, 1 Corinthians 12, Ephesians 4:11, and 1 Peter

4:11.

In 1976, Rick Yohn wrote that the use of spiritual gifts ought to be preceded by an understanding of their nature.37 This book opened up the discussion of whether or not the use of spiritual gifts could be tested. This was a groundbreaking moment in the literature.

In 1981, Barry Keiser published his Spiritual Growth Inventory,38 an effort to analyze

spiritual gift use. It raised the possibility of individuals being tested for their spiritual

maturity and their gifting. This was somewhat revolutionary at its time and caused a

surge of testing approaches for spirituality.

In 1986, Susan Fredrickson followed Keiser’s work with her research entitled

“The Construction and Preliminary Validation of the Spiritual Gift Inventory: Research

Version.”39 She was seeking to establish a scientifically valid way to inventory spiritual

gifts. But many reported that it only added to the growing mystery of the topic. Following

Fredrickson, Larry Gilbert developed a guide for spiritual gifts and lay involvement in the

local church.40 But an academically valid attempt at tool development did not emerge until 1991 when Kenneth Stones bridged the gap between subjective testing of spiritual gifts and the pragmatics of the growing MBTI and other personality type testing. He researched the relationship between personality and the spiritual giftedness of individuals. Stones found correlation between personality types and patterns in their

37 Rick Yohn, Beyond Spiritual Gifts (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1976).

38 Barry K. Keiser, “Spiritual Growth Inventory” (D.Min. thesis, Western Conservative Baptist Seminary, 1981).

39 Susan E. Fredrickson, “The Construction and Preliminary Validation of the Spiritual Gift Inventory: Research Version” (PhD. thesis, Western Conservative Baptist Seminary, 1986).

40 Larry Gilbert, Team Ministry: A Guide to Spiritual Gifts and Lay Involvement (Lynchburg, VA: Church Growth Institute, 1987).

spiritual giftedness.41 All of this research reflected a growing awareness within the

church of the practicality of defining one’s spiritual gifts. In this context, Bruce Black

wrote his benchmark text in 1995, The Spiritual Gifts Handbook: The Complete Guide to

Discovering and Using Your Spiritual Gifts.42 This text is now used in schools and colleges around Canada and has been used for formal and informal testing in many settings.

In response to this movement of spiritual gifts testing, Todd Hall and Keith

Edwards conducted a study of 193 undergraduates and a second study of 470 undergraduates.43 They identified five factors that were measureable in one’s spiritual

maturity and gifts inventory. Through this research, they created the Spiritual Assessment

Inventory (SAI). This inventory was created not only to address the need for spiritual

gifting, but also to increase a student’s awareness of spirituality in general. It was

assumed that if people were unable to recognize spiritual patterns in their life, they would

not be able to recognize and maximize their own spiritual nature and gifting. Hall and

Edwards later continued their research to validate their Spiritual Assessment inventory in

2002.44

41 Kenneth Stones, “Relationship between Personality and Spiritual Gifts” (Psy.D. dissertation, George Fox College, 1991).

42 Bruce W. Black, The Spiritual Gifts Handbook: The Complete Guide to Discovering and Using Your Spiritual Gifts (Neptune, NJ: Loizeaux, 1995).

43 Todd W. Hall and Keith J. Edwards, “The Initial Development and Factor Analysis of the Spiritual Assessment Inventory,” Journal of Psychology and Theology vol. 24, no. 3, (1996): 233-246.

44 Hall and Edwards, Review of “The Spiritual Assessment Inventory: A Theistic Model and Measure for Assessing Spiritual Development,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion vol. 41 (June, 2002): 341-357.

In 2005, C. Peter Wagner wrote Discover Your Spiritual Gifts,45 a self-help book

for understanding one’s spiritual gifting. This was not presented as a psychometric

measurement, but was written to develop the reader’s awareness of his or her own

spirituality and gifting for service and identity. He followed this work by writing to the

church in general with his book encouraging individuals to recognize their spiritual

gifting in order to grow their church.46

In 2007, Hall worked with Steven Reise and Mark Haviland to review his earlier

work on the SAI.47 He was committed to continually engaging with his earlier assessment

in order to validate and upgrade it as necessary. The following year, in 2008, Jim Burns

and Doug Fields, leaders in the Christian high school and college movement across North

America, wrote Spiritual Gifts.48 They addressed how young people could recognize their spiritual gifting and use those gifts to love God and love people in their schools. This work could find momentum in the CDBC movement as youth at large tend to be discipled in the same framework and model as used in the Canadian Christian College movement. In 2010 Kay Arthur, David Lawson, and B. J. Lawson penned Understanding

Spiritual Gifts.49 They also wrote to address the growing need for an understanding of spiritual gifts within the larger North American church.

45 C. Peter Wagner, Discover Your Spiritual Gifts, (Ventura, CA: Regal, 2005), 5-7.

46 Wagner, Your Spiritual Gifts Can Help Your Church Grow (Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 2005), 7-8.

47 Steven P. Hall, Reise and Mark G. Haviland, Review of “Research: An Item Response Theory Analysis of the Spiritual Assessment Inventory,” The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion vol. 17, no. 2 (November, 2007): 157-178.

48 Jim Burns and Doug Fields, Spiritual Gifts, (Ventura, CA: Gospel Light, 2008), 12.

49 Kay Arthur, David Lawson and B. J. Lawson, Understanding Spiritual Gifts (Colorado Springs: Waterbrook Press, 2010).

While seemingly endless volumes have been written in regard to spiritual gifts, all reflect the common concept that those created in God’s image are designed to express a spiritual aspect of their being in this world. However, measuring spiritual gifts according to any validated tools is still limited to the general literature research rather than recognized psychometric testing.

The Spiritual Gifts Fit with BGSM

The researcher recommends that the inventorying of spiritual gifts be used as part of his project’s self-measurement program. It is true that a spiritual gifts inventory does not yet exist that is considered valid according to current psychometric testing standards.

However, the researcher believes that several of the existing inventories are applicable to the biblically measureable unit of “soul” in the BGSM. The category of soul relates to the spiritual portion that God has allocated to a person. In other words, when people use their spiritual gifts, they are expressing the spiritual wealth that God has graciously given them. Spiritual gifts inventories, for all their shortcomings as psychometric tools, helpfully identify this spiritual wealth of the soul. Therefore, their use is appropriate for the researcher’s BGSM.

The researcher believes that any CDBC wishing to implement his model for identity development should first consider the theological framework of its institution.

Those who will implement the spiritual testing before it is employed should agree upon this framework. This is important for many reasons, not least of which is the institution’s need to clarify if it wants to follow a more charismatic interpretation of gifts or a more cessationist one. That said, both Spiritual Gifts by Burns and Fields50 and the SAI by

50 Burns and Fields.

Todd Hall and colleagues51 fit well with many CDBC environments. However, other

instruments can be just as useful, and each individual institution ought to determine

which is best suited to its own needs and goals.

Gallup StrengthsFinder 2.0

Understanding the Instrument

Donald O. Clifton (1924-2003), a professional psychologist, was known as “the father of Strengths Psychology.” He and a team of researchers created the Clifton

StrengthsFinder online psychometric test to address a need that he saw in psychological testing. He advocated for the wider acceptance of a branch of psychology called positive psychology, which is an approach that develops individuals based on their preferences as opposed to their limits. Clifton’s goal was to focus on what was right with people as opposed to simply revealing their weaknesses in order to fix them. The assessment measures the occurrence of the 34 signature themes or strengths that individuals may exhibit. In 2001, Clifton and Marcus Buckingham wrote Now, Discover Your Strengths,

the first book about this strength-assessment tool.52 This was the work that started to validate the tool in mainstream literature.

In 2003, Clifton joined with Albert Winseman and Curt Liesveld to write Living

Your Strengths: Discover Your God-Given Talents, and Inspire Your Congregation and

Community,53 to address a need that they saw within the church of North America. This

51 Hall, Reise and Haviland.

52 Marcus Buckingham and Donald O. Clifton, Now, Discover Your Strengths, (New York: Free Press, 2001), 5-13.

53 Albert L. Winseman, Donald O. Clifton, and Curt Liesveld, Living Your Strengths: Discover Your God-Given Talents, and Inspire Your Congregation and Community, (Washington, D.C.: Gallup Organization, 2003), 147-150.

was the first work pairing the idea of one’s God-given strengths with how they affect the dynamic of the church community. It was pivotal in the development of associating faith

with strengths. It is now found in churches across North America.

In 2004, Tom Rath and Clifton released How Full is Your Bucket?54 This work addressed one’s ability to build up others according to their strengths. This was a helpful start to the effort of investing in students. It accordingly showed potential efficacy in the

Canadian philosophical framework. In 2006, James Swanson and Andrea Beach studied the success of using StrengthsFinder at liberal arts colleges.55 This triggered a movement among colleges and universities to consider the legitimacy of such testing among their student populations. At the same time, Jessica O’Brian-Pruitt Tyler wrote “Impact of

Strengths-Based Development on Student Engagement”56 to measure the instrument’s

effectiveness with college students. This added to the evidence that universities were

favoring strength-based instruments over the MBTI and recognizing the value of student

potential over only student placement. This was a vital differentiation.

In 2007, Marcus Buckingham’s Go Put Your Strengths to Work: 6 Powerful Steps

to Achieve Outstanding Performance57 became a success. This was one of the first works that was used to create teams out of the individual strengths of their members.

Buckingham desired to see teamwork built upon the strongest members of the work

54 Tom Rath and Donald O. Clifton, How Full is Your Bucket?: Positive Strategies for Work and Life, (New York: Gallup Press, 2004), 7-15.

55 James Eric Swanson and Andrea L Beach, “Success in the First Year: Impact of Alternative Advising on Students at a Liberal Arts College” (PhD. diss., Western Michigan University, 2006).

56Jessica O’Brien-Pruitt Tyler, “The Impact of Strengths-Based Development on Student Engagement,” Texas Christian University (October 7 2006).

57 Marcus Buckingham, Go Put Your Strengths to Work: 6 Powerful Steps to Achieve Outstanding Performance, (New York: Free Press, 2007), 33-40.

environment. He did believe that all members of teams are strong, but that they were not always strong together. Rath and Barry Conchie built on Buckingham’s work to their

2008 work Strengths Based Leadership: Great Leaders, Teams, and Why People

Follow.58 This work is most known for its assertion that there are no well-rounded

leaders, only well rounded teams.

Following Buckingham’s work with strengths and teamwork, in 2007 David

Zovak wrote his dissertation “Harnessing the Power of the Clifton StrengthsFinder for

Guiding People Toward Their Divine Purposes.”59 Zovak believed that God had created people with a specific design on an individual basis and community basis. He delivered an option for the individual within the church to connect their StrengthsFinder signature themes with their roles in the body of Christ. This work was based upon the already solidified faith and strengths work of Winsemen. Zovak’s research developed a guiding principle for this researcher’s current study; the belief that one’s identity is based upon not only God’s view of oneself but also on a practical, earthly, and measureable ability.

In 2008, Jennifer Fox became perhaps the most prominent author and speaker in the area of strengths as it pertains to children. She is best known for her work promoting strength-based educational approaches in schools from K-12. Her book, Your Child’s

Strengths: A Guide For Parents and Teachers,60 became a standard in schools desiring to

focus on children’s areas of performance instead of weakness. While it was a hard battle

58 Tom Rath and Barry Conchie, Strengths Based Leadership: Great Leaders, Teams, and Why People Follow (New York: Gallup Press, 2008), 19-27

59 David Zovak, “Harnessing the Power of the Clifton StrengthsFinder for Guiding People Toward Their Divine Purposes” (D.Min. thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary, 2008).

60 Jennifer Fox, Your Child’s Strengths: A Guide For Parents and Teachers (London: Penguin Books, 2008), ix-xi.

for Fox to gain widespread acceptance in the field of education, her successful delivery of

curriculum ideas, partnered with her education from Harvard, served her well and she has

since become an internationally accepted speaker on the subject.

While initially marketing their works to the worlds of business and self-help, both

Buckingham and Rath wrote new books in 2009, but targeted to different audiences.

Buckingham wrote Find Your Strongest Life: What the Happiest and Most Successful

Women Do Differently.61 This contextualization of the subject to woman appeared to

some to be a marketing scam created by the Oprah Winfrey Show. While some received

it well, others felt misled by its subjective message of happiness. Overall, it was not well received compared to his other works. On the other hand, Rath’s new book, How Full Is

Your Bucket? For Kids,62 written with Maurie Manning, made a strong impact and is still

found in school systems in the U.S. and Canada.

In 2009 Paulette Schenck published her analysis of the relationship of strengths to

personality preferences and vocational interests. She used Clifton’s StrengthsFinder, the

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and the Strong Interest Inventory.63 She analyzed 162

students from two universities in the U.S. and attempted to see connections between the

different testing methods.64 Her work was groundbreaking in that she was able to find connections regarding one’s personality traits and their apparent strengths. But Schenck

61 Marcus Buckingham, Find Your Strongest Life: What the Happiest and Most Successful Women Do Differently (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2009), xv-xxi.

62 Rath and Maurie Manning, How Full is Your Bucket?: For Kids (New York: Gallup Press, 2009).

63 Paulette Schenck, “Analyzing the Relationship of Strengths to Personality Preferences and Vocational Interests Utilizing Clifton Strengthsfinder, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and Strong Interest Inventory” (PhD. diss., Colorado State University, 2009), 2-20.

64 Schenck, 116.

chose not to follow her research to the next step of helping students. She discovered the

connections, but she did not create a model that could harness the effectiveness of this connection and make it of practical application to student identity development.

Most recently, in 2011, Drew Agnus wrote his thesis “Increasing Effectiveness of

Team Strengths Utilization: An Evaluation of the Benefit of Adding Gospel-Centered

Life Discipleship Curriculum to StrengthsFinder Assessment in Church Leadership.”65

Again, Agnus recognized the validity of the StrengthsFinder assessment tool in a faith-

based environment. But he did not make any connection to an intentional discipleship

environment. This made his research less applicable to environments like the CDBCs. In

the same year, Marie Wisner researched strengths as predictors of effective student

leadership.66 Both of these works come from a Christian perspective and found direct

implications for learning student strengths to effectively cultivate their leadership.

StrengthsFinder’s Fit with BGSM

The researcher has determined that StrengthsFinder is appropriate to use with his

BGSM. It has the added benefit of being already used in many Canadian Bible Colleges.

The Gallup StrengthsFinder instrument attempts to measure what they call an individual’s normal patterns of his or her strengths. After an initial analysis of the literature, the patterns this instrument seems to be measuring most is actually more closely related to one’s cognitive reasoning abilities. So, in particular, it is helpful when used with the biblically measurable unit labeled “Mind.” Overall, it appears to be valid as

65 Drew R. Agnus, “Increasing Effectiveness of Team Strengths Utilization: An Evaluation of the Benefit of Adding Gospel-Centered Life Discipleship Curriculum to StrengthsFinder Assessment in Church Leadership,”(PhD. diss., Biblical Seminary, 2011).

66 Marie D. Wisner, Review of “Psychological Strengths as Predictors of Effective Student Leadership,” Christian Higher Education, no. 10, (2011): 353.

an instrument and produces reasonable results for those who have taken it for measuring

one’s cognitive patterns and expressions.

Cultural Intelligence (CQ)

Understanding the Instrument

The concept of cultural intelligence (CQ) came from work in cross-cultural training. In 1993, R. Brislin identified three areas as critical in developmental cross- cultural effectiveness: thinking, emotions and behaviors. 67 In other words, if people hope to effectively work with others from a different culture, they must understand how culture impacts these three areas. These three areas would later become the basis for the four pillars of CQ. Thinking and emotions remained two of the pillars, and behavior was divided up into strategic behavior and the ability to change in reaction to culture.

Emma Zevik borrowed this conceptual framework in 2001 when she wrote

“Cultural Intelligence: What It Is, Why It Matters.”68 But her thesis did not support the

idea of CQ as it developed later. She had proposed that one’s cultural intelligence could

be measured as an awareness of a cultural difference within one’s own context. This

would be proved to be a fallacy by the later development of the idea. This is distinct for

CQ’s current definition, which heavily emphasizes it as an ability to operate well in

cross-cultural circumstances.

P. Christopher Earley and Soon Ang were the ones who introduced the world to

the formal definition of CQ in their 2003 work Cultural Intelligence: Individual

67 R. Brislin, Understanding Culture’s Influence on Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace,1993).

68 Emma Zevik, Cultural Intelligence: What it is, Why it Matters (Framingham, MA: Maypole Arts Studio, 2001), 1-7.

Interactions Across Cultures.69 They defined CQ as “an individual’s capability to

function effectively in situations characterized by cultural diversity.”70 While cultural awareness is a part of their concept, it is only considered one of the four major components and is connected to the concept of Cognitive CQ. This refers to an individual’s knowledge of cultural norms, practices and conventions. The first of the other three components are an individual’s “metacognitive CQ.” This is an individual’s conscious cultural awareness during cross-cultural interaction. The second is

“motivational CQ,” which refers to an individual’s ability to direct energy towards learning about or functioning in a cross-cultural situation. Finally, the last component is

“behavioral CQ.” This means an individual’s capacity to exhibit appropriate verbal and nonverbal actions while interacting with others from a variety of cultures and one’s ability to react and re-engage in the studied culture.

Earley and Ang continued to develop their thesis of CQ as they created massive amounts of CQ training. In 2006, Earley and Ang teamed up with Tan Joo-Seng to write

CQ: Developing Cultural Intelligence At Work.71 In order to develop team success in

environments that had become more ethnically diverse, this type of tool has become a

necessary assessment tool in Canada. It has helped Canadians pursue their high value of allowing various cultures to express themselves over the expression of their Canadian citizenship.

69 P. Christopher Earley and Soon Ang, Cultural Intelligence: Individual Interactions Across Cultures (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003), 25-59.

70 Soon Ang and Linn Van Dyne, Handbook of Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measurement, and Applications (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008), xv.

71 Earley, Ang and Tan Joo-Seng, Tan, CQ: Developing Cultural Intelligence at Work (Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books, 2006).

In 2006, David Livermore wrote his first book involving the concept of CQ. He

integrated the necessity of CQ with doing missions work and especially with a particular

emphasis on youth ministry.72 He would later develop the Cultural Intelligence Center in

Michigan.

In 2008, Ang worked with Linn Van Dyne to write Handbook of Cultural

Intelligence: Theory, Measurement, and Applications.73 This textbook officially

established the baseline for CQ literature, showing the reliability of their CQ instrument to academia. Their work further developed formal testing for a self-administered CQ test

and a 360° test administered by their own certified trainers. In spite of all this work by

Earley, Ang and Van Dyne, many have continued to think of cultural intelligence simply

as knowing things about culture.

As the concept of CQ gained popularity, many other individuals started to

develop the term. In 2008, Richard and Patricia Bucher developed a workbook-like text

encouraging its readers to build their CQ according in Nine Megaskills.74 These mega

skills promoted cultural awareness, but again did not deal with the nature of CQ.

Following Bucher and Bucher’s conceptual framework of cultural awareness, Elizabeth

Plum published Cultural Intelligence.75 Plum again desired to move the discussion of CQ closer to the idea of cultural awareness over the multidimensional construct of Earley

Ang’s CQ.

72 David A. Livermore, Serving With Eyes Wide Open: Doing Short-Term Missions With Cultural Intelligence (Ada, MI: Baker Books, 2006), 13-18.

73 Soon Ang and Van Dyne, Handbook of Cultural Intelligence: Theory, Measurement, and Applications (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008).

74 Richard D. Bucher and Patricia L. Bucher, Building Cultural Intelligence (Cq): Nine Megaskills (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2008), 7-10.

75 Elisabeth Plum, Cultural Intelligence (London: Middlesex University Press, 2008), 20-34.

Livermore continued to work on the validation of CQ through his leadership

within the private and public sectors. He was able to show the applicability of CQ to the context of the American military and its Department of Defense. In 2009, Karen Davis wrote about the need for CQ within the Canadian military with her book Cultural

Intelligence and Leadership: An Introduction for Canadian Forces Leaders.76 It appeared that CQ was gaining huge ground, as focused less on cultural awareness and more on cultural effectiveness.

In 2009, Livermore’s Cultural Intelligence77 became a staple in youth ministry across the U.S. and Canada. It was targeted toward youth ministry leadership, since

Livermore had been a youth pastor for a number of years and he desired to see the church be effective cross-culturally. At the same time in 2009, David Thomas and Kerr Inkson wrote another book focusing on CQ called Cultural Intelligence: Living and Working

Globally.78 Their intention was to address the CQ concept in the framework of business

but again pressed heavily upon the value of cultural sensitivity and knowledge. This

view, while helpful in many respects, consistently negates the necessity of one’s ability to

react in a different culture or context and focuses only on one’s cognitive reliability.

In 2009, Colleen Ward, Ronald Fischer, Fara Lam and Leonie Hall studied CQ in their article “The Convergent, Discriminant, and Incremental Validity of Scores on a

76 Karen D. Davis, Cultural Intelligence and Leadership: An Introduction for Canadian Forces Leaders, (Kingston, Ont.: Canadian Defense Academy Press, 2009).

77 David A. Livermore, Cultural Intelligence: Improving Your Cq to Engage Our Multicultural World, (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2009), 7-8.

78 David C. Thomas and Kerr Inkson, Cultural Intelligence: Living and Working Globally (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2009), 15.

Self-Report Measure of Cultural Intelligence.”79 In it, they determined that CQ is not as

accurate an instrument as the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire ((MPQ) scale in predicting an individual’s psychological, sociocultural and academic adaptations.80

The MPQ is a personality test that measures items like “social potency,” “social closeness,” “alienation,” and “traditionalism” vs. “absorption,” among many other traits considered highly applicable to multi-cultural environments.81 The work of Ward and colleagues did not attempt to measure or increase one’s success in a different cultural setting. Thus, it only pursued a specific context with similar values.

While the work of Ward and colleagues may have initially attacked the validity of the CQ construct, Livermore’s work continued to gain momentum in the US business world with his 2010 book, Leading With Cultural Intelligence, The New Secret to

Success.82 On the heels of Livermore, Soong-Chan Rah’s work, Many Colors: Cultural

83 Intelligence for a Changing Church, hit the church market. Like so many of the other

works reviewed in this chapter, Rah focused on cultural awareness but did not deal

specifically with the concept of CQ as developed by its creator. Rather, he simply utilized

the ambiguity of the term in the marketplace to publish his work.

79 Colleen Ward, Ronald Fischer, Fara Sheyna Zaid Lam, and Leonie Hall, review of “The Convergent, Discriminant, and Incremental Validity of Scores on a Self-Report Measure of Cultural Intelligence,” Educational and Psychological Measurement 69, no. 1 (2009): 85-105.

80 Ward, et al., 101.

81 “Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire,” University of Minnesota Press, accessed October, 2014, www.upress.umn.edu/test-division/mpq.

82 David Livermore, Leading With Cultural Intelligence, The New Secret to Success (New York: Amacon, 2010), xiii-xv.

83 Soong-Chan Rah, Many Colors: Cultural Intelligence for a Changing Church (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2010), 38.

Livermore returned again with his latest CQ work in The Cultural Intelligence

Difference.84 In it he defended the difference between his brand of CQ and those who

claimed the term but who referred only to cultural sensitivity programs. He continued to

pursue effectiveness over knowledge. Soon after, Brent MacNab worked on an

experiential approach to cultural intelligence in education.85 He suggests that in order for the concept of CQ to work in the classroom environment, teacher feedback is essential.86

This recognition is crucial to the CDBC environment because teacher involvement is a

pillar of the philosophy of CDBC one-to-one mentoring and discipleship. MacNab also

teamed with R. Worthley to study the relevance of self-efficacy in cultural intelligence.

They did this because CQ adherents had persistently taught that self-efficacy was key in

an individual’s ability to function effectively across cultural boundaries. 87

CQ’s Fit with BGSM

The researcher has determined that the cultural intelligence concept developed by

Earley, Ang and Joo-Seng and contextualized for testing by Livermore, is appropriate for

his BGSM. Their concept has been translated into the instrument called “The Multi-Rater

CQ Assessment.”88 It attempts to measure an individual’s effectiveness in contextual environments. It does this by identifying one’s motivation, knowledge, strategy, and

84 David Livermore, The Cultural Intelligence Difference: Master the One Skill You Can’t Do Without in Today’s Global Economy (New York: AMACOM, American Management Association, 2011), 5-7.

85 Brent MacNab, Review of “An Experiential Approach to Cultural Intelligence Education,” Journal of Management Education vol. 36, no. 1 (2012): 66-94.

86 MacNab, 70.

87 MacNab and R. Worthley, Review of “Individual Characteristics as Predictors of Cultural Intelligence Development: The Relevance of Self-Efficacy,” International Journal of Intercultural Relations vol. 36, no. 1 (2012): 62-71.

88 “Multi-Rater CQ Assessment,” The Cultural Intelligence Center, last accessed October, 2014, http://culturalq.com/multi.html.

behavioral aspects in the context of cross-cultural situations. This instrument has been

clinically tested for validity according to the standards of psychometrics. Therefore, the

researcher deems it most appropriate to be used to measure the biblically measurable unit of “strength.” As discussed in Chapter Two of this research, the unit of strength expresses

one’s contextual adaptability. Thus, this instrument is well-suited to measure the

biblically measurable unit of strength.

Literature Summary

This literature review identified the issues, resources and persons related to the

biblical gauge for self-measurement (BGSM) that the researcher has developed for this

project. This chapter first reviewed the previous research literature on discipleship and

student self-measurement in Canadian Bible Colleges. Second, it reviewed the

psychometric tools implemented by CDBCs.

No relevant literature was found relating specifically to the researcher’s context,

Rocky Mountain College. However, such literature did exist in the broader context of the

Canadian discipleship and Bible colleges. While it was scant, it revealed that the

researcher’s project will helpfully contribute to an overall understanding of CDBCs.

In regard to psychometric tools, the researcher has determined several of the tools

employed by the CDBCs to be the most useful for developing this project’s biblical

gauge for self-measurement. To measure the biblically measurable unit of the heart, Gary

Chapman’s Love Language assessment is the most helpful. To measure the biblically

measurable unit of the soul, many spiritual gifts analysis seem sensible. The wide variety

of theological approaches to spiritual gifts among Canadian discipleship and Bible

colleges means that the gifts inventory needs to be flexible. Some institutions will need to

use an inventory that emphasizes the charismatic nature of the gifts, while others will

need to use an inventory without this emphasis. Therefore, at least two different

inventories need to be made available. Consideration should be given especially to

Spiritual Gifts by Burns and Fields, and Hall and Edwards’s SAI. These two tests are perhaps most suited for the Canadian context of an intentional discipleship environment such as is found in the CDBCs.

To measure the biblically measurable unit of the mind, the researcher has chosen

Gallup’s StrengthsFinder assessment. This tool is the most effective in recognizing cognitive patterns in an individual. To measure the biblically measurable unit of strength, the cultural intelligence instrument Multi-Rater CQ Assessment best fits, due to its ability to evaluate one’s effectiveness in a given context.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND CASE STUDY PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Introduction

This research project addressed the ineffectiveness of self-measurement tools currently used for discipleship by Canadian discipleship and Bible colleges (CDBC) to guide their students toward self-identification for life development and planning. In order

to accomplish such a project, the researcher employed a research methodology that is

effective for accomplishing the holistic outcome.

Ultimately, any research methodology directs the whole research, both

intentionally and unintentionally. It “controls the study, dictates how the data are

acquired, arranges them in logical relationships, sets up an approach for refining and

synthesizing them, and finally yields one or more conclusions that lead to expansion of

knowledge.”1 The researcher examined many possible research methodologies for this project. The following is a summary and conclusion to the researcher’s chosen route for a methodological approach to this project.

Rationale for Qualitative Methodology

It has been suggested that different academic disciplines may use different routes

to arrive at similar destinations and conclusions.2 Therefore, it is essential to recognize the discipline in which the researcher is entrenched. The context of the researcher is vital

1 Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod, Practical Research, Planning and Design ( New Jersey: Pearson 2013), 4-5.

2 Leedy and Ormrod, 7.

to the route that must be taken if consistent developments are expected to be found and

built upon. The current context of the researcher is within a discipleship environment.

Self-measurement is consistent with this context because measurement of one’s efficacy for discipleship is essential to discipleship. But self-measurement is not found simply by means of empirical evidence or quantitative data. It must also be informed by qualitative data, which demands that the researcher look at characteristics or qualities that cannot be exclusively reduced to numerical values.3

For qualitative research to take place, researchers may first survey a large number

of individuals, then follow up with a few of them to obtain their specific language and

voices about the topic. Collecting both closed-ended quantitative data and open-ended

qualitative data proves advantageous to the best understanding of a research problem.4

Once multiple types of data are collected, triangulation is typically employed. Multiple

sources of data are collected with the assumption that they will all converge to support a

particular hypothesis or theory. This approach is common and typical of qualitative

research.5

Even within qualitative research, there are many different methodologies the

researcher can employ. In light of the subjective content regarding self-measurement and

self-efficacy, as well as the theological challenge of understanding oneself in the light of

an immeasurable God, this research project employed qualitative methods for self-

development. This includes case study with elements of grounded theory.

3 Leedy and Ormrod, 95.

4 John W. Creswell, Research Design, Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2009), 22.

5 Leedy and Ormrod,102.

Case Study

Academic research is conducted to expand society’s knowledge base. Problems are approached to find solutions. However, even with depth of knowledge and solutions to problems there is no guarantee that social change takes place. This affirms the vital role of research for transformation, not simply for information. In other words, research

should be conducted for transformative reasons rather than simply to build the knowledge

base void of action.6

Much of the research conducted in the social sciences on behalf of business and

management has “lost touch with its social essence.”7 Lessem and Schieffer suggest that

methodology itself needs to find integrity and not simply lean on empirical evidence.8

For integrity of method, the researcher must find the path of methodology that is most culturally relevant and experientially pragmatic to the researcher in his current and past contexts.

The awareness of culturally charged epistemologies has caused people to question the nature of research itself. Researchers have had to deepen their own convictions on their own intrinsic motivations behind research in efforts not to skew results. In this pursuit, it has become apparent that the researcher’s own epistemological limitations need not to be removed, but added, as part of the data.9

One of the methods used to capitalize on the researchers themselves as data is the

case study. Case studies have become a common methodology for research initiatives.

6 Ronnie Lessem and Alexander Schieffer, Integral Research (Geneva: TRANS4M, 2008), 19.

7 Lessem and Schieffer, 19.

8 Lessem and Schieffer, 20.

9 Leedy and Ormrod, 97.

They recognize the complicated nature of the world and the globalizing of data. While there are limitations to case study, unlike other research methods, a “comprehensive catalog” of research designs for case studies has yet to be developed.10

D. F. Bromely suggests that the case study method is to be understood as an attempt to systematically investigate an event or a set of related events with the specific aim of describing and explaining them.11 Robert Bogdan and Sari Knopp Biklen12

describe it similarly, but they limit it to a single event, while Yin suggests that multiple events can be studied with this methodology.13 As the current research for this project has

multiple sources in it, this researcher has chosen to apply Yin’s model for multiple event case study.

Since this project researched both individual development and program development, Yin’s model for case study proved to be pragmatic.14 Yin’s four-part model

for case study development and research is constructed with the following four parts.

First, Yin’s model begins with the “construction of validity.” This takes place

during data collection and must cover two steps: first, the definition of the boundaries of

the case study, and second, the definition of operational requirements.15 During the

construction of validity process, open coding is prudent. The next part is to establish

10Robert Yin. Case Study Research. Design and Methods(Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2009), 751.

11 D. F. Bromely, (1990). Academic Contributions to Psychological Counseling: A Philosophy of Science for the Study of Individual Cases, Counseling Psychology Quarterly vol. 3, no. 3. and R. Brislin, Understanding Culture’s Influence on Behavior. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace,1993)209-307.

12 Robert Bogdan and Sari Knopp Biklen, Qualitative Research for Education (Boston: Allyn and Bacon 1992), 72.

13 Yin, 572.

14 Leedy and Ormrod, 141.

15 Yin, 1076.

“internal validity.” This takes place during data analysis, when a researcher is explaining

the relationship between a cause (x) and effect (y) in the study. If the investigator

incorrectly concludes that there is a causal relationship between x and y without knowing

some third factor, that z for instance may actually have caused y instead of x, then the

research design has failed to deal with some threat to internal validity.16

The third part in Yin’s model is to establish “external validity.” This happens

during the case study design and deals with the problem of knowing whether a study’s

findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case study.17 External validity for the case study in this research project demands that the Canadian context be explicit. This is necessary because the Canadian context is different enough from other contexts, the US context for example, that replication in a different context is not guaranteed.18

The final, fourth part of Yin’s model is establishing “reliability.” This happens during data collection. Reliability is established if another researcher performed the same case study so that facts would be reproduced in a familiar fashion.19

In light of the particular type of research conducted in this project, its case study

methodology worked well with grounded theory during the process of constructing

validity and establishing external validity.

Grounded Theory

While all research is apparently grounded in data, grounded theory attempts to be

an inductive approach to developing its theories. It is considered by most to be a

16 Yin, 1089.

17 Yin, 1102.

18 Yin, 1110.

19 Yin, 1140.

qualitative method of social science research. However the researcher has determined that

the current Glaserian view deems it to be a general method and not simply qualitative.

The major purpose of grounded theory is to “begin with the data and use them to

develop a theory. Typically a grounded theory study focuses on a process related to a particular topic – including people’s actions and interactions – with the ultimate goal of developing a theory about the process.” 20 Grounded theory can be utilized as part of the open coding process for developing not only theories for the current topic, but to develop the instruments used to measure the non-linear elements or qualities of a phenomenon.

The Researcher’s Use of Case Study Mixed with Elements of Grounded Theory

Some case study research goes beyond being a type of qualitative research by

using a mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence.21 This research project followed this

example because it evaluated a discipleship environment in which it needed to recognize

the various elements that can direct a student in identity development. The researcher

chose to use the case study method as the project’s qualitative method. Since the survey

instruments were developed in order to react to the students’ self-understanding, the

researcher chose grounded theory to create appropriate measurement standards.

Grounded theory lent itself well to the construction of the validity of the case study since

it demands that research react to its findings in order to build the validity of its process.

Case Study Project Overview: The ButterKnife Project.

During the theological and biblical work, alongside the literature review, a

common theme became apparent about identity development. This theme proposed a

20 Leedy, 146.

21 Yin, 672.

metaphor for the project case study. There appears to be a connection between how God

created humankind in the details of personal existence and His desire for the way in which humans are to live their lives. In other words, a human’s personal design communicates the desire of its Designer; one’s nature of reflecting the Imago Dei communicates God’s desire for him or her. This theme called to mind how a butter knife’s design communicates the desire of the designer for its use. It is this metaphor that gave a working title to the project. In parallel research during this project, the researcher developed the “ButterKnife Principle” which states “The design reveals the will of the designer.” It is in the design that the intention of the designer is found for the design’s implementation.

Setting Up the ButterKnife Case Study

Case Study, Construct Validity

According to Yin, the construction of validity of a case study needs two primary

actions. First, define the boundaries of the case study. Second, define the operational

requirements.22 These two actions need to be considered to produce external validity and reliability in the four-part construction of a case study.

The boundaries of this case study were created to ensure external validity and reliability for the sake of project reproduction. The specific boundaries of this case study include the macro and micro settings, macro and micro participants and privacy/ethics standards.

22 Yin, 1076.

Macro Setting

The macro setting of this case study was Canada. It occurred in an intentional, discipleship environment outside of a specifically directed church ministry. Further, it occurred within a western Canadian province known for independence and disregard for external influences. The city of Calgary was the project’s location, which grew from

990,000 people in the year 2000 to 1.2 million in 2013. This growth has been primarily multi-cultural in nature since one out of four Calgarians in the last fifteen years has immigrated from another country.

Micro Setting

The micro setting of this case study was Rocky Mountain College in Calgary,

Alberta, Canada. The study itself was set in the specific discipleship environment called

“The Edge.” The Edge is a program at Rocky Mountain College constructed around discipleship elements and traditional classroom student interaction and development. The

Edge starts with a spiritual retreat to direct and develop a trusting atmosphere for discipleship. After the opening semester’s retreat, regular class interaction is the main source for input into the student’s lives. Classes were mandatory for Edge students. Mid- semester, the Edge students experience a service project for approximately a week.

There are a few options for service to address the different needs and passions of the student. These service projects can look like a short-term mission trip. All students of the

Edge are required to participate in one experience. The semester that this project reviewed was from September 2012 to December 2012.

The college personnel who were involved in this project were limited due to financial restraints. The primary players were the researcher, who, in addition to

conducting the research, acted as a professor and mentor to the students. He also acted with the Edge director. Other professors were involved with teaching the students but were not involved to develop the students’ identities towards the goal of this research.

The Dean of Students and the school President were involved at a minimal level. Their

time was not available for the project itself. The director of student development was also

involved at a minimal level. She was responsible for the whole of the student population,

so she had minimal responsibility for participants in the Edge program.

Macro Participants

Macro participants create external validity. The standard for macro participants in

a case study requires that any potential participants must have relatively consistent value

systems to that of the intended micro participants.

Macro Participants. The macro participants were CDBCs, or Canadian

Discipleship and Bible Colleges. The CDBCs that were included in this research to ensure external validity were chosen for their similar strategy of discipleship within the traditional education system. They were also further narrowed for this research based upon the student body population. A similar ethos and size were needed to produce a case study that would be externally valid and repeatable. It was also required that they have reputable standing with the CHEC (Christian Higher Education of Canada). After the initial narrowing and choosing of the relevant CDBCs, each school was contacted by the researcher and two questions were asked of their personnel who were closest to the students in their discipleship tracts.

Macro Participant Survey Questions. The CDBCs were asked: “What types of testing does your school currently use to test students within your discipleship

environments for self awareness?” Secondly, they were asked, “How many students

attend your school on average?” These were both asked to ascertain the likelihood that this particular CDBC would be considered valid because of its consistency with RMC.

Below is the list of CDBCs that were asked these questions.

Table 4.1, CDBCs Used to Externally Validate the ButterKnife Project

CDBCS Location Bethany College Hepburn, Saskatchewan Columbia College Abbotsford, British Columbia Heritage College and Seminary Cambridge, Ontario Horizon College and Seminary Saskatoon, Saskatchewan King’s University College Edmonton, Alberta Prairie College Three Hills, Alberta Redeemer University College Ancaster, Ontario Vanguard College Edmonton, Alberta Alberta Bible College Calgary, Alberta Bethany Bible College Sussex, New Brunswick Canadian Southern Baptist College Cochrane, Alberta Christ for the Nations College Surrey, British Columbia Emmanuel Bible College Kitchener, Ontario Eston College Eston, Saskatchewan Master's College and Seminary Peterborough, Ontario Nipawin Bible College Nipawin, Saskatchewan Pacific Life Bible College Surrey, British Columbia Steinbach Bible College Steinbach, Manitoba Summit Pacific College Abbotsford, British Columbia

Micro Participants

As part of establishing external validity, participants in larger groups are picked at

random to ensure the most accurate general feelings or thoughts. In this case study, all students were chosen, therefore ensuring that no voices had been lost in the procedure of the study itself. This defends the validity of the research, because if and when the study is repeated in real world circumstances, consistent results should generally appear.

Micro participant selection and sample size. In qualitative research, participant selection is a crucial step in developing a repeatable and internally valid case study. In general, participants need to be picked to represent a portion of the general population in question. In many case studies, many individuals are involved, thus creating the need for a portion of the individuals to be chosen for a sample size. Strict guidelines are in place for adequate sample sizing of large groups. However, for smaller populations, such as

N=100 or fewer, there is little point in sampling. One should instead survey the entire population.23

It is a vital part of external validity with participants to ensure that they continue

to carry on extra-curricular activities that would tend to be typical for the demographic of

the participant pool. The participants in this study were held to that standard. At the onset of this research, it was predicted that the program would have 40 participants applying for the program. However, there were only 10 registered applicants for the Edge program in 2012. Therefore, this research chose all participants (n=10) in the Edge program to be part of this case study.

Privacy standards and ethics. In order to gain approval by the micro participants, all were given a letter of research intention including the option to be involved with the case study. Participants were encouraged to prayerfully consider their involvement in this research. Each participant was then asked to sign a release to the researcher for the collection of his or her private experiences and data. This was done in recognition of the privacy of the participants and of the ethical research standard, as well as in recognition of the Canadian Privacy Act (Appendix A).

23 Leedy, 251.

Project ButterKnife Operational Procedures

Case study operations according to Yin require a filter of external validity and reliability. All procedures should be followed in light of the nature of external validity and reliability of a case study research project. The nature of grounded theory demands that in the process of collecting data, theories are engaged and then re-engaged to start forming the narrowed approach to the research problem.

Data Types

This case study searched for several types of data regarding its various qualitative and quantitative requirements. Among the types of data were biblical and theological readings, a review of the relevant literature for the topic, the researcher’s field notes both

from participant interaction and micro-setting conversations, perceived relevant

chronological events, the researcher as data, and researcher’s surveys, both open and

closed. This process of data collection and implementation started during the biblical and

theological research paralleled with the current literature review to narrow the case of

data for the open coding process.

Biblical and Theological Work

The biblical and theological data of a case study project should include current

theological perspectives within the chosen setting and biblical teaching and perspectives

regarding the topic. The biblical and theological data of this project included three

primary types of information. First, it pursued the data relevant to the question: is there a biblical call to evaluate oneself? Second, this project included the data relevant to the follow-up question: if there is a call for self-evaluation, what standard should be used for it? Third, according to that standard, what relevant data needs to be collected to

98 understand its measureable units? The point of discovering these specific units of data was to effectively measure oneself holistically and according to one’s call and design.

Literature

The literature data of a case study project should include current literature used within the chosen setting regarding the topic. The literature data investigated in this project included student self-measurement and the psychometric tools implemented within Canadian Discipleship Bible colleges. This data was limited to what was in current use within the macro setting of this case study.

Field Notes

Case study field notes should include many different types of data found within the micro setting of the project. The researcher included data sources regarding the micro participants, relevant personal interactions, relevant chronological events, and the researcher’s own chronological assumptions and conclusions.

Participant Interaction

The researcher included case study field notes about the interactions between the researcher and the participants. It included planned meetings and interviews as well as ad hoc conversations. These conversations were both irregular and the regular interactions he had with the participants. They were both personal and professional in nature.

The Researcher as Data

The case study field notes included the experiences of the researcher during the process of the project. This data can include the researcher’s feelings, changed

assumptions, personal changes and personal interactions on the case study outside of the

project micro setting.24

Chronological Events

The researcher’s case study field notes included presumed relevant chronological events based on the macro and micro settings. Data can include participant schedules, setting schedules and unpredicted environmental events such as local or international newsworthy events and holidays.

Survey Types

When surveys are included in a case study, for internal, external validity as well as project reliability, the case study should include an overview of the types of surveys used as well as the analysis methodology.

Open Survey

Open surveys in a case study should be developed in accordance with grounded theory methodology to collect qualitative data pertaining to the research question in order to understand participant motivations and development. The open survey in this case study was developed in the above method in order to understand student motivations and identity development.

Closed Survey

Closed surveys in a case study should include quantitative evidence, to ascertain consistent standards of measurement for a changing phenomenon.25 This is a method

consistent with ensuring internal validity of the case study. The closed survey in this case

24 Leedy and Ormrod, 97.

25 Yin, 667.

100

study was developed in the above method in order to understand the changing dynamics

of identity development on participant motivations.

Project ButterKnife Data Collection

Once the BGSM was developed to keep a theological framework for the research according to the grounded theory open coding, further instruments were needed to be located or developed to ensure adequate data was gained. One must be careful not to equate the tools of research with the current methodology. A research instrument is a

“specific mechanism or strategy that the researcher uses to collect, manipulate, or interpret data.”26 The instruments used in this study were developed only after the

methodology for the research problem was developed. The instruments were developed

to uncover the participants’ motivations and identity traits for purpose of self-

measurement and ultimately for self-feeding and development.

BGSM Collection

Psychometric testing was given to the participants in fulfillment of the BGSM.

Participants engaged a self-measurement tool related to the Love Languages and Cultural

Intelligence that the researcher collected the same day. During the semester, participants

were also given the StrengthFinders 2.0 online test and an in-house spiritual gifts

inventory that required Internet capabilities. Once the participants completed the online

portions, the researcher collected the data.

Field Notes Collection

Case study field notes were collected as the researcher interacted within the

project timeframe boundary. The researcher collected data regarding the micro

26 Leedy and Ormrod, 7.

101

participants, relevant personal interactions, relevant chronological events, and the

researcher’s own chronological assumptions and conclusions.

Participant Interaction and Micro Setting Conversations

Case study field notes collected included interactions between the researcher and

the participants. They included planned meetings or interviews as well as ad hoc

conversations with individuals who had regular interaction with the participants in both

personal and professional situations.

Researcher as Data

This case study included collected personal experiences of the researcher during the process of the project. This data collected included the researcher’s feelings, changed assumptions, personal changes and personal interactions regarding the case study, both inside and outside of the project micro setting.27

Chronological Event Collection

This case study included presumed relevant chronological events based on the macro and micro settings. Data collected included participant schedules, setting schedules and unpredicted environmental events such as local or international newsworthy events and holidays.

Open Survey Collection

The open survey was developed in accordance with grounded theory methodology to measure the participants’ views of their identities and roles according to their own personal understanding of God’s will for them. It was completed and collected at the

Edge’s spiritual retreat prior to the start of the semester. This was done to ensure a

27 Leedy, 97.

102

distraction free environment for the participants to focus more clearly on the open survey.

The survey asked the participants five questions to gauge their own understandings.

Participants were asked: “Do you feel that you know who you are in Christ? Explain”;

“Do you feel that you know who you are in this world? Explain”; “Do you feel that you know what God’s will is for your life? Explain”; “Do you feel that Gods’ will for your life is the same as your parents’ will for your life? Explain”; and finally, “How do you reflect the image of God in your life; and does it have anything to do with who you are, or who you need to be? Explain.” After the participants completed the open survey, the researcher collected the data.

Closed Survey Collection

Two closed surveys were administered to the participants during the regular semester. These surveys alternated between measuring the participants’ growing identity development and their internal motivations connected to their own growth.

The first closed survey measured the participants’ self-awareness regarding their perceived identity. The questions were developed with the use of a Likert type scale from

“strongly disagree = One” to “Strongly Agree = Seven.” Participants circled a number between One and Seven to represent where they fell on the scale. The perceived identity survey followed these four questions over the semester. They were administered on

October 2 and 16 and November 12, 2012. They were given and collected within fifteen minutes at the beginning of the class in which the researcher was their professor.

The statements for this first closed survey were “You know who God created you to be,” “You are living in God’s plan for your life,” “You have a deep feeling of identity in who you are,” and “You know who you need to be in this world.”

103

The second closed survey measured the participants’ self-awareness regarding their perceived motivations according to their identities. The questions were developed with the use of a Likert type scale from “Strongly Disagree = One,” to “Strongly Agree =

Seven.” Participants circled a number between One and Seven to represent where they fell on the scale. The perceived motivation survey followed these four questions over the semester on October 9 and 23 and November 27, 2012. They were given and collected within fifteen minutes at the beginning of their class with the researcher as their professor.

This second set of statements said “When you think of whom God made you, you are motivated,” “As you understand yourself more, you are excited about God’s plan,”

“As you know more about yourself, God’s will for your life excites you,” and “You actually desire to live in God’s plan for your life.”

Case Study Internal Validity

Internal validity is the approximate truth about inferences regardingcause -effect or causal relationships. Thus, internal validity is only relevant in studies that try to establish a causal relationship. It is not relevant in most observational or descriptive studies, for instance. But for studies that assess the effects of social programs or interventions, internal validity is perhaps the primary consideration. In those contexts, you would like to be able to conclude that your program or treatment made a difference.28

The researcher’s theory regarding the developing of identity towards BGSM and the increase of motivation, meets the entrance requirements of case study internal validity. The two closed surveys measured the growth movement over the semester. This is a “Multitrate-multimethod approach.” This can be found in a classroom setting that

28 “Internal Validity,” Research Methods, accessed Nov 28, 2014, http://www.social researchmethods .net/kb/intval.php

104 addresses achievement motivations and social motivation, which might each be measured, by both self-report questionnaires and teacher observations.29

Project ButterKnife Data Analysis

Case study data analysis can be accomplished in many ways. It is typical of qualitative methods of analysis, but can utilize quantitative measures, especially when utilizing grounded theory elements of analysis. The data analysis is vital to case study internal validity and must provide evidence of data collection, storing and reference. Data analysis can include the use of qualitative measures such as coding and quantitative measures such as graphing of developmental changes and advances.

Qualitative analysis was completed to look at characteristics and qualities that cannot be entirely reduced to numerical values. Qualitative measures of analysis began by creating a profile for each participant according to his or her list of BGSM characteristics collected by the researcher. This profile was used to catalogue the participants’ open and closed ended data. The researcher used the Dedoose software and web application, designed for both qualitative and quantitative research and analysis.

The researcher used the software to categorize the data into codes. This fulfilled the internal validity of open coding, axial coding and selective coding. The researcher created codes as they appeared throughout the data analysis and added to the number of codes throughout the process. Phase One of the coding was to input data into Dedoose and create open codes to find initial patterns. Phase Two of the coding narrowed the codes into more manageable units of measure. Phase Three followed selective coding protocol

29 Leedy and Ormrod, 90.

105 and deciphered the main themes that would be used for analysis and model construction for the research project.

Quantitative analysis was completed to look at characteristics and qualities that can be reduced to numerical values. The researcher took qualitative measures for analysis by inputting data into participant profiles and using Excel software to find patterns in the trending of motivation for identity development over the duration of the research project timeframe.

Biblical and Theological Analysis

As part of the open coding process before the data for every participant was collected, the biblical and theological research for this project discovered and determined what major themes would be present in the creation of the participant measurement instruments. The BGSM was the standard for measurement.

Literature Analysis

As part of the open coding process before the data for each participant was collected, the literature review for this project discovered and determined what major themes were present among CDBCs in their student development processes. They added to the creation of the participant measurement instruments.

Field Notes Analysis

The case study field notes that the researcher analyzed included different types of data found within the micro setting of the project. The researcher included data sources regarding the micro participants, relevant personal interactions, relevant chronological events, and the researcher’s own chronological assumptions and conclusions. These notes

106

were added to the researcher’s data profiles in Dedoose software for the qualitative

analysis.

Participant Interaction Analysis

Case study field notes included interactions between the researcher and the participants. It included planned meetings or interviews as well as ad hoc conversations.

They included micro setting conversations in addition to participant exchanges, which were both personal and professional in nature. These notes were added to the researcher’s data profiles in Dedoose software for the qualitative analysis.

Analysis of Researcher as Data

Case studies should include the experiences of the researcher during the process of the project. In this research project, this data included the researcher’s feelings, changed assumptions, personal changes and personal interactions on the case study outside of the project micro setting.30 These notes were added to the researcher’s data profiles in Dedoose software for the qualitative analysis.

Chronological Event Analysis

Case studies should include presumed relevant chronological events based on the macro and micro settings. Data included in this research were participant schedules, setting schedules and unpredicted environmental events such as local and international newsworthy events and holidays. All perceived relevant chronological events were added to the Excel software to locate trends or possible variations in the progression of participant motivation on their identity development.

30 Leedy and Ormrod, 97.

107

Survey Analysis

Open survey data analysis. Open survey data included BGSM profiles by the

participants. The researcher used this data to develop participant profiles for the

following of individual changes. While data was collected, no particular analysis was

conducted to find correlations between participant BGSM qualities and that of motivation

improvement by itself.

Closed survey data analysis. Data analysis for the closed surveys was conducted as part of internal validity to this case study. Likert type scales show progression, with the cause-effect in mind. Excel software was used to input the survey data into the participant profiles to follow trends in their motivations as their identity development took place.

The analysis provided the researcher with general statistics to determine if patterns throughout the project timeline became apparent. Statistics have two principal functions. The first is to “help the researcher describe the data.” The second is to help the researcher “draw inferences from the data.”31 The interval scale of measurement helped the researcher conduct the analysis. This scale has “equal units of measurement and its zero point has been established arbitrarily.”32 The interval scales of measurement allowed

the researcher statistical analyses that were not possible with nominal or ordinal data.33

Case Study External Validity

External validity asks the question regarding a study’s ability to generalize: “To

what populations, settings, treatment variables and measurement variables can this effect

31 Leedy and Ormrod, 10.

32 Leedy and Ormrod, 86.

33 Leedy and Ormrod, 86.

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be generalized?”34 The key to external validity for a case study is to assure that the study is repeatable in such a way that generalizations can be made to the greater public. If a case study fails to produce such validity, it can appear to be to self-serving and not useful beyond its own environment. This requires the researcher to pursue repeatable procedures as they are developed and implemented. External validity is worked upon at the onset of the case study, but it is vital for the researcher to continue to check throughout the study, to make sure that the strategy and plan for the study is consistently followed and can produce generalizations to the greater public. There can be a concern if a case study is only implementable within a laboratory setting, because then it has no greater good.

It is crucial to recognize the demographics in the case study. It is impossible to generalize any statement for all people, but to narrow the field. The researcher can generalize some statements to the general public. This can take on a theological bent if done from that perspective, through the qualitative methods of deduction. One can make a claim over all people, which is immeasurable.

Rationale for Self-Measurement

As part of the ethos of the study towards student self-maintenance, it proved vital for the construction of validity that self-measurement instead of peer measurement would be used. Students are expected to self-feed and self-measure to ensure life development and this was demonstrated and taught to the participants. As procedures for self- measurement and self-feeding are developed and implemented, external validity is assured in order to bring generalizable habits to the general potential participant pool.

34 “External Validity,” Explorable, accessed Nov 28 2014, https://explorable.com/external-validity

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Consistent Theological Approach

To ensure external validity in a case study of this theological nature, a consistent theological framework needs to be established, as it is crucial to affirming correlations to those involved in student discipleship. The BGSM is crucial to the external validity of this case study as it brings consistent framework for student discipleship in the general population of Protestant denominations and churches. It is prudent to recognize, however, that extra attention needs to accompany the researcher when determining which spiritual psychometric tool is to be implemented when pursuing the BGSM.

Case Study Reliability

Case study reliability is accomplished as the construct validity, internal validity, and external validity of project are affirmed by the project boundaries and operations and

are clearly defined and created to be repeatable. The researcher needs to stay connected

to the specific procedures throughout the case study to establish integrity of method and

reproducible patterns for reliable repetition of the case study in a different micro setting.

The nature of this current chapter in the research acts to establish case study reliability in

the project itself.

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CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS

Introduction

The problem this project addressed was the ineffectiveness of self-measurement tools currently used for discipleship by Canadian discipleship and Bible colleges

(CDBCs) to guide their students toward self-identification for life development and planning. The researcher employed case study methodology containing elements of grounded theory in an attempt to discover possible solutions to the research problem.

According to Leedy and Ormrod, data analysis for a case study typically involves organizing details about the case in order, categorizing the data, interpreting single instances, identifying patterns and synthesizing and generalizing.1 These elements aid in

the internal validity of a case study. After designing and implementing this project, the

following reflects the findings extracted from the research.2

Organization of Details About the Case in Order

The details of this case study were defined in the previous chapters. They include

constructing the validity details of project boundaries and operational requirements; constructing internal validity details regarding causal relationships found in quantitative data; constructing external validity details pertaining to generalizability; and constructing reliability of details which are confirmed by the above project construction components.

1 Leedy and Ormrod, 141-142.

2 Leedy and Ormrod, 94.

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The organization of details required by Leedy and Ormrod was affirmed in the

methodology of case study design found in the previous chapter.

Categorization of Data

The categorization of data for this case study was divided into qualitative and quantitative findings. In order to confirm external validity and reliability of the project, all qualitative and quantitative findings were triangulated to find additional patterns. As part of the overall categorization of data the qualitative analysis followed open and axial coding apart from the quantitative data. The quantitative data was triangulated with the qualitative findings after open and axial coding was accomplished. Selective coding was then conducted to locate additional patterns and themes.

Qualitative Findings

The qualitative findings of this project include meaning discovered in the individual participant profiles made up of their BGSM results and the open survey data.

BGSM Results

Participants took the psychometric testing relevant to the biblically measureable

units suggested by the BGSM. With all ten participants, a variety of results were

collected. No major themes arose through the profile creation except that it was a

consistent finding that the majority of participants had the love language of quality time.

This could suggest that students that attend a CDBC for identity development are willing

to take time to discover themselves. The BGSM did appear to aid in the development of

identities in the participants but was not measured according to motivations per say.

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Open Surveys

Open survey analysis was accomplished using open and axial coding. Through a process of open coding, 76 codes were located. Through the rigorous process of axial coding, 10 codes became apparent to the researcher.

Axial Code List

The following is the list of ten axial codes that the researcher refined, along with a description of each.

Confused Identity

Participants consistently communicated that they were confused about who they were and who they were supposed to be. Their confusion lead to vague answers regarding their own perceived identities.

Spiritual Identity

Participants consistently communicated that they were more aware of their spiritual identities. They gave comments about their identity as a whole with spiritual answers and metaphors for their own understanding of self.

Role

Participants consistently communicated that they defined their own identities based upon the roles that they currently had in their lives or proposed roles for life planning given by parents or others. They seemed to identify one’s role as equal to their identity.

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Pursuing God

Participants consistently communicated that in the process of identity development, they desired to pursue God. This shows a willingness to look for identity outside of simply earthly conversations or practical expressions of identity.

Dual Nature

Participants consistently communicated that they understood elements of their identities, but that there was confusion regarding how their identity in Christ affects or affirms their identity in practical, earthly planning and development.

God’s Will

Participants consistently communicated that they believed God’s will must have effect on their identities. They communicated that they believed God’s will is necessary to identity fulfillment.

Identity Failure

Participants consistently communicated that they did not understand who they fully were. While some admitted that they understood parts of their identities, failure and frustration became a subcategory of this code.

Vague Answers

Participants consistently communicated vague answers towards their identities in regard to their understanding of themselves. Many answers appeared to be “biblical sounding,” but reflected little to no real biblical or spiritual meaning. It appeared that they had been told how to answer questions of identity, but had little to no ownership of their actual identities.

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Parents

Participants consistently communicated that their parents played a key role in

their own personal identity development. Many said that they desired parental input and

many relied on parental maintenance during the process of identity development and life

planning.

Table 5.1, Axial Coding of Qualitative Data

Code Description

Confused Identity They know parts of their identity but can’t connect them. Spiritual Identity They recognize some spiritual elements of themselves. Role They tend to equate their practical role in life with their identity. Identity Ignorance They affirm that they don’t understand who they are. Pursuing God They consistently are pursuing God to find themselves. Dual Nature Conflict They consistently find disconnect between their spiritual and practical identities. God’s Will They consistently believe their identity is found in God’s will. Identity Failure They consistently admit failure to understand themselves. Vague Answers They gave spiritual sounding answers to practical questions. Parents They consistently believe that their parents play a practical support role in their identity development.

Interpretation of Single Instances

Selective Codes

In the selective coding process, the researcher refined the ten axial codes down to three themes that emerged. These themes were, “God’s Heart and Will for My Life,”

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“My Supernatural Identity (self/ego),” and “Practical Support (how do my parents and

the church fit?).”

Table 5.2, Axial and Selective Codes of Qualitative Data

Axial Codes Selective Code

Pursuing God, God’s Will God’s Heart and Will Dual Nature Conflict, Identity, Super/Natural - Self/Ego Confused Identity, Spiritual Identity, vague answers Role, Parental Support, Identity Practical Support. Ignorance

Identification of Patterns, Integration, Synthesis and Interpretation of Themes

The following summary is an integration, synthesis and interpretation of the three

themes as discovered in the biblical and theological research, the literature review and the

qualitative findings from the selective coding of the open survey.

God’s Heart and Will

God’s heart and will have a direct effect on someone’s identity. Through the biblical and theological study, the primary step in finding oneself is to identify with God and His greater plan for Himself and His world. This is consistent with the greatest commandment. Also, the literature reviewed supports that it is vital to identify with

God’s plan in order to develop one’s own plan. Further, the open survey supports that participants are seeking God’s will and heart for themselves as an intrinsic part of their own identity development. The researcher therefore must conclude that God’s will is to fulfill His greatest desire that is to love. God’s heart and will are for His people to love.

He has intrinsically designed humanity with that intention and ability. His heart and will seem to reflect His spiritual nature and practical application.

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Supernatural Identity

Humans are created with a supernatural identity. Through the biblical and

theological study, the researcher demonstrated that humanity is created with a dual nature, both of spirit and of flesh. This is confirmed by Jesus Himself. Also, the literature review supports the duality of man’s identity. Current psychology confirms this duality, yet struggles to incorporate the divine. Instead of labeling this part of the human identity as from God, psychology tends to label it as one’s own uniqueness. Further, the open survey supports that participants recognize their dual identity. They frequently find themselves confused between the two components and incorrectly address each component with descriptors for the opposite marker. God has created humanity with a supernatural/natural, a spiritual/flesh, or an ego/self duality that can be recognized and developed for identity.

Practical Support

God has created humanity to find support in identity development beyond

Himself. Through the biblical and theological study, it is clear that God created humankind with both spiritual and fleshly identities that can be recognized and practically activated to accomplish His greatest commandment, which is dependent on others. Also, the literature review supports the necessity of coaches and helpers in the process of identity development. One’s identity cannot be developed wholly in a community vacuum. Further, the open survey supports that participants recognize their need for other participants in their identity development. They long for wisdom from parents and mentors. God has created identities to find community and work together in the same direction.

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Quantitative Findings

The quantitative findings of this project include meaning discovered from the current state of student identity and directional patterns of motivation through identity development.

Closed Survey Findings

Identity Development Survey

The first closed survey measured the participants’ self-awareness regarding their perceived identity. Participant responses are noted for the following questions in Table

5.3 on the following page.

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Table 5.3a, Identity Development Data at a Glance (n=10)

Increase Increase Increase No Decrease Decrease Decrease then then change then then stabilized decrease stabilized increase

You know who God 2 2 1 4 1 created you to be. You are living in 2 1 3 4 God’s plan for your life. You have a deep feeling 3 1 2 3 1 of identity in who you are. You know who you need 3 2 2 1 1 1 to be in this world.

Half (50 percent) of the participants reported an increase in their knowledge of

who God created them to be. Fewer participants (30 percent) reported living in God’s

plan for their life. Slightly more than half of the participants (60 percent) reported having a deep feeling of identity in who they are. An even larger percent (70 percent) reported knowing who they needed to be in the world. From these results, the data suggests that while college students’ identity development did increase in knowing who God wanted them to be in the world, they still wrestled with completely understanding God’s plan for their lives.

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Table 5.3b, Identity Development Data, Question by Question

1. You know who God created you to be

a. 4 out of 10 participants experienced no change. b. 2 out of 10 participants experienced an increase and then stabilized. c. 2 out of 10 participants experienced an increase. d. 1 out of 10 participants experienced an increase and then decrease. e. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease.

These responses to the first question suggest that half of the participants experienced

some identity development through the process of the project.

2. You are living in God's plan for your life.

a. 4 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease. b. 3 out of 10 participants experienced no change. c. 2 out of 10 participants experienced an increase. d. 1 out of 10 participants experienced an increase then decrease.

These responses suggest participants have a disconnect in understanding between who

they are and how their identity connects to their conception of God’s plan or will for their

lives.

3. You have a deep feeling of identity in who you are.

a. 3 out of 10 participants experienced a no change. b. 3 out of 10 participants experienced an increase. c. 2 out of 10 participants experienced an increase then decrease. d. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease. e. 1 out of 10 participants experienced an increase and then stabilized.

These responses suggest that participants continue to struggle with their identities as an intrinsic part of their being.

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4. You know who you need to be in this world.

a. 3 out of 10 participants experienced an increase. b. 2 out of 10 participants experienced an increase then decrease. c. 2 out of 10 participants experienced an increase and then stabilized. d. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease then increase. e. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease. f. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease and then stabilized.

The responses above suggest that the majority of participants learned more about their earthly role, but find it hard to connect it to their spiritual identity.

Identity Development Summary

Participants in the Edge program experienced identity development. This development seemed to revolve around their spiritual nature instead of their practical nature. As they developed their spiritual nature, without the development of their practical nature in parallel, confusion over their total identity seemed to take place.

Motivation Analysis Survey

The second closed survey measured the participants’ self-awareness regarding their perceived motivations according to their identities. In the following questions participant responses are noted.

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Table 5.4a, Motivation Self-Awareness Data at a Glance (n=10)

Increase Increase Increase No Decrease Decrease Decrease then then change then then stabilized decrease stabilized Increase When you think of whom God 4 1 2 2 made you, 1 you are motivated. As you understand yourself 2 1 1 1 3 1 more, you are 1 excited about God’s plan. As you know more about yourself, God’s plan 1 2 1 2 1 3 for your life excites you. You actually desire to live in God’s plan for your life. 1 1 1 5 1 1

According to the table above, forty percent of the participants reported an increase in their motivation, as they understood their identity. Fifty percent of participants reported a loss of motivation as they considered God’s plan for their lives, while thirty percent encountered an increase of some type. Again, fifty percent of participants reported a decrease of some kind when considering acting out God’s plan for their lives.

Finally, fifty percent of participants experienced no change in their desire to live in God’s plan as they understood their own identities. From these results, the data suggests that while college students did find increased motivation, as they understood themselves, the thought of acting out their identities decreased motivation.

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Table 5.4b, Motivation Self-Awareness Data, Question by Question

1. When you think of whom God made you, you are motivated

a. 4 out of 10 participants experienced an increase. b. 2 out of 10 participants experienced no change. c. 2 out of 10 participants experienced an increase, then decrease. d. 1 out of 10 participants experienced an increase, then stabilized. e. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease.

The responses to this question suggests the majority of participants became motivated as

they reflected on their own identity as God created them.

2. As you understand yourself more, you are excited about God’s plan

a. 3 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease. b. 2 out of 10 participants experienced an increase. c. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease, then increase. d. 1 out of 10 participants experienced an increase, then decrease. e. 1 out of 10 participants experienced no change. f. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease and then stabilized.

This suggests participants find their role and identity in God’s plan daunting and hard to

become excited about.

3. As you know more about yourself, God’s will for your life excites you

a. 3 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease then increase. b. 2 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease. c. 2 out of 10 participants experienced an increase then decrease. d. 1 out of 10 participants experienced an increase. e. 1 out of 10 participants experienced no change. f. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease then stabilized.

This suggests the majority of participants find self-knowledge of themselves not sufficient enough to create motivation to succeed in God’s plan.

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4. You actually desire to live in God’s plan for your life

a. 5 out of 10 participants experienced no change. b. 1 out of 10 participants experienced an increase. c. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease. d. 1 out of 10 participants experienced an increase, then stabilized. e. 1 out of 10 participants experienced a decrease, then stabilized. f. 1 out of 10 participants experienced an increase then decrease.

These responses suggest that the majority of participants find it hard to motivate themselves for God’s plan for their lives.

Motivation Development Summary

Students who identify with God’s plan for their lives become afraid, but as they identify with God’s heart for them, they become motivated. It appears that God’s heart for the participants builds their motivation. However it appears that His will for them and the practical plan for their lives decreases motivation and activates fear.

Closed Survey Themes

During the closed survey analysis, two main themes emerged. The first was that motivation increases or decreases during identity development, as participants are able to connect their identity with the practical application of God’s will on earth. The second theme was that the program effectiveness of the Edge to facilitate identity development is lacking with practical applications for identity usage.

Extra Pattern

During the surveys, the dip in development and motivation occurred around the time of the participants’ learning service trip. The reading week and service trip create a two week gap in intentional identity development in the students. This break seemed to create a struggle for participants to keep growing their motivations.

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Synthesis and Generalizations

Taking into consideration all the findings from both qualitative and quantitative sources, the following five generalizations can be made to predict typical results in accordance to this case study construct. First, the BGSM does aid in the development of one’s identity. Second, as people understand God’s heart and a spiritual view of

themselves, they become motivated. Third, as people understand God’s plan and practical

application for themselves, they can become discouraged if not connected to their

spiritual view of themselves. Fourth, identity development must be done paying an equal

amount of attention to both the spiritual and the natural sides, with applications to the identity components. Fifth, people need practical support to adequately develop their dual nature identities and to apply them to their life planning.

Conclusion

Students in the Edge program genuinely desired to seek God’s will for their lives. In searching for God’s will, they come across confusion over their dual nature. Even when identity development takes place for the individual, students must be prepared to create patterns for practical support to engage in their newfound identities. When a student acts out of sync with his or her identity, even identity development can become less effective.

Further, when leaders in the students’ lives require academic elements inconsistent with student identity, confusion for the student follows. For the first part of

125 self-feeding, students need to be put into opportunities that align with their identities, or they will fail to act in accordance to who they are and instead follow unconnected expectations. Also, leaders must be aware of the confusion between students’ view of

God’s heart for them and His will. They can become afraid if both are not developed together and applied in unison.

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CHAPTER SIX: THE IDENTITY EDGE

Introduction

RMC’s Edge program has enabled the students to participate in off-campus experiences, including classes, trips, cross-cultural experiences and retreats. The following eight-step

process was created to help the students develop their “Identity Edge.” It is suggested that during the two-month process, students in this program be restricted to Identity Edge- related programs and classes only.

The Identity Edge (IE)

Parameters and Requirements

The Identity Edge (IE) has been created to enable students to define and refine their identities in Christ and in the world. This is to prepare the students for lives of service in a practical application of their identity in a world needing the Lord.

In order to accomplish this task, the researcher recommends that the following program structures be put in place for maximum efficacy to the program. First, IE students should be separated from other students not in the program. This can help remove distraction for IE students so they can deepen their identities in Christ rather than fix their identities in expectations based on traditional academic values. Second, IE students should be unable to take classes outside of the IE program for the duration of

127 the program. Third, needed staff and professors should submit to the purpose and dynamic requirements of the IE program and create assignments based on student identities rather than on general assignments that have a broader perspective. Fifth, all elements of the IE program must be inline with each other to promote the growth of its participants. If elements are structured around a generalized theme of growth, they will fail to help students understand their identities.

The Eight Steps of the Identity Edge

The following eight steps have been created to help students develop their Identity

Edge in their life planning.

Step One: You Are Supernatural

Possible course description. “When God created humankind, He created them in

His image. In order to understand who we are, we must understand who He is. Since

Jesus Himself came to earth, His identity is crucial to understand. As we understand

Jesus, we understand that He was both a divine and earthly man. He was both super and natural. In order to understand ourselves, we must understand that we too are created with a duality of nature, in imitation of Jesus. During this step of the Identity Edge, students will be encouraged to understand the dual nature of Jesus and how His image is reflected in our dual image too.”

Proposed duration. It is recommended that a three-day intensive could cover the time requirements of this step. This can ensure that students find enough time to be introduced to the topic and find practical ways to make connections to their lives.

Proposed assignments objectives. The objective of this set of assignments is to aid in student awareness of the nature of their supernatural dual identities. Students must

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prove that they recognize the theology of the dual nature of Christ and be prepared to

address themselves as supernatural. All assignments should be proposed to the facilitator

to affirm that the objectives are completed according to the class requirements and the

students’ personalized identity learning plans (PILP).

Location requirements. The location of this step is open for facilitator needs. As this step may include traditional class type elements, it is suggested that the facilitator find a location that can support this type of interaction with media needs and other necessities.

Staffing requirements. Depending on the number of students enrolled, it is recommended that one facilitator be available for every eight to ten students. This can provide the appropriate one-on-one interaction needed by students to move into their own identities.

Step divisions. This step is divided into four main units of discussion and study: “The

image of God,” “The image of God in man,” “The dual nature of Christ,” “The dual

nature of man.”

Step Two: The Greatest Purpose and You

Possible course description. “When Jesus was asked what the most important

commandment was, He quickly replied by quoting the Shema from Deuteronomy. He

replied, ‘You must love the Lord your God with all of your heart, with all of your soul,

with all of your mind and with all of your strength.’ God’s greatest commandment was

for us to love with all of our being. The 4 quadrants that Jesus used to describe our

requirements to love illustrate for us a model for personal development.” This step of the

Identity Edge is to help students develop their understanding of love and God’s

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requirements of how to love God and others. This step is divided into four parts in order

to define the four elements of man according to the greatest commandment: First, “Heart:

The Intrinsic Image.” Second, “Soul: One’s Spiritual Allocation.” Third, “Mind: One’s

Cognitive Expression.” Fourth, “Strength: One’s Contextual Adaptability and Efficacy.”

Proposed assignments objectives. Students take the four psychometric tests allocated for the definition of each one’s four elements of identity. The staff will develop a Student Identity Profile (SIP) for each student based on the results from the tests.

Step divisions. This step is divided into four main units of discussion and study.

The first is “Theology of loving with all of your heart.” The second is “Theology of loving with all of your soul.” The third is “Theology of loving with all of your mind.”

The fourth is “Theology of loving with all of your strength.”

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Step Three: The ButterKnife Principle

Possible course description. “Just as God created humankind in His image to

reflect His greatest desire, God strategically designed humans to act out that desire. As we consider the butter knife, the design of the knife itself communicates to the user the purpose of the knife. Ultimately, the ‘ButterKnife Principle’ states that the design reveals

the will of the designer. This step of the Identity Edge is to help students understand that

their identity itself is God’s will for their lives. Students should understand that who they

are is God’s plan for their lives and to live according to their design is to fulfill God’s

will in their lives.

Proposed duration. Three-day retreat.

Proposed assignments objectives. Students should be required to identify

elements of their own design and meditate on them. Then, in assignment, students should

communicate to the facilitator according to their design how they have been developed

for a purpose. All assignments should be proposed to the facilitator to affirm that the

objectives are completed according to the class requirements and according to the

students’ personalized identity learning plans (PILP).

Location requirements. Due to the nature of this step, it is recommended that a

retreat type setting be acquired for the duration of the three-day process. During this step,

students will be engaging in the key to the Identity Edge program. It is vital that students

recognize that the way God created them is His will for their lives. A retreat setting will

aid in removing distraction from this crucial step.

Staffing requirements. Depending on the number of students enrolled, it is

recommended that one facilitator be available for every eight to ten students. This can

131 provide the appropriate one-on-one interaction needed by students to move in to their own identities.

Step divisions. This step is divided into three main units of discussion and study.

The first is “Elements of Design,” the second is “How Design Reveals Purpose: What

Does a Butter Knife Do?” The third is “How Purpose is Accomplished through Design:

Where Do You Use a Butter Knife?”

Step Four: Called by Design

Possible course description. “God has created us to love. He has also strategically designed each one of us to be motivated to love in certain ways. Biology agrees with this.

Our limbic system drives us to find worth in things and people. This corresponds with the

Bible’s image of our hearts. Also, the neo-cortex in our brains drives us to find practical application and cognitive reasoning in the things in which we find worth. This corresponds with the Bible’s image of our minds.” During this step of the Identity Edge, students will be encouraged to understand how God strategically designed them to love with their hearts and their minds.

Proposed duration. It is recommended that a two-day intensive could cover the time requirements of this step. This can ensure that students find enough time to be introduced to the topic and still find practical ways to make connections to their lives.

Proposed assignments objectives. Students should grasp the nature of their biological design as it affirms the heart and mind that is referenced in the great commandment. They should also be able to articulate how their heart and mind are the filter for all of life. All assignments should be proposed to the facilitator to affirm that the

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objectives are completed according to the class requirements and according to the

students’ personalized identity learning plans (PILP).

Step divisions. This step is divided into four main units of discussion and study.

The first is “Design and Deployment.” The second is “The Biology of the Greatest

Commandment.” The third is “Your Heart: Theology of Calling.” Finally, the fourth is

“Your Mind: Theology of Expression.”

Step Five: Called by Context

Possible course description. “God has created us to love. He has also strategically

placed each one of us to love in certain ways. In understanding how God choses our

context, it is vital to understand His contextual design in each of us. God has designed us

to receive both a spiritual and physical allocation of resources. This is highlighted in our

soul and our strength. Both of these components for the greatest commandment reference

our ability to follow through on the call to love.” During this step of the Identity Edge,

students will be encouraged to understand how God strategically places them in context

to love.

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Proposed duration. It is recommended that a three-day intensive could cover the time requirements of this step. This can ensure that students find enough time to be

introduced to the topic and find practical ways to make connections to their lives.

Proposed assignments objectives. Students will be required to analyze their

spiritual gifts assessment and their cultural intelligence results. After analyzing them,

students will be required to communicate to their facilitator the practical tools that they

bring to ministry. They must include their spiritual allocations as practical devices. All

assignments should be proposed to the facilitator to affirm that the objectives are

completed according to the class requirements and according to the students’

personalized identity learning plans (PILP).

Step divisions. This step is divided into four main units of discussion and study.

The first is “Your spiritual allocation.” The second is “Your physical allocation.” The third is “Defining your context.” The fifth is “Increasing your effectiveness.”

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Step Six: The Holistic Call

Possible course description. “God has created us to love. He has also strategically

created us each individually to love in a holistic way. In order to understand who we are

and how we are to be in this world, we must define and refine our full calling. The

greatest commandment of humankind is to love. We do this by developing ourselves and

by preparing for the context in which God puts us.” During this step of the Identity Edge, students will be encouraged to understand how God has strategically designed and strategically placed them to love.

Proposed duration. It is recommended that a two-day intensive could cover the time requirements of this step. This can ensure that students find enough time to be introduced to the topic and find practical ways to make connections to their lives.

Proposed assignments objectives. All assignments should be proposed to the facilitator to affirm that the objectives are completed according to the class requirements and according to the students’ personalized identity learning plans (PILP).

Location requirements. The location of this step is open for facilitator needs. As

this step may include traditional class type elements, it is suggested that the facilitator

find a location that can support this type of interaction with media needs and other

necessities.

Staffing requirements. Depending on the number of students enrolled, it is

recommended that one facilitator be available for every eight to ten students. This can

provide the appropriate one-on-one interaction needed by students to move into their own

identities.

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the designer, so does humanity’s design.” During this step of the Identity Edge, students

will be required to define their call by their design and not be external influences.

Understanding their design as God’s primary calling in their lives is vital to claiming

victory in their identities.

Proposed duration. It is recommended that a five-day intensive could cover the

time requirements of this step. This can ensure that students find enough time to be

introduced to the topic and find practical ways to make connections to their lives.

Proposed assignments objectives. Students should come up with a written plan

incorporating their design call, their contextual call and their plan for call fulfillment. All assignments should be proposed to the facilitator to affirm that the objectives are completed according to the class requirements and according to the students’ personalized identity learning plans (PILP).

Step divisions. This step is divided into three main units of discussion and study.

The first is “Define your design call.” The second is “Define your contextual call.” The third is “Develop your plan.”

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Step Eight: Aligning Your Call

Possible course description. “God has also strategically designed us to love in certain intrinsic patterns that are seldom seen by others unless we claim those patterns as our identity in Christ. Understanding our identities is the foundation. But it is critical once your identity is understood that you create life rhythms to act out your identity and defend it. It is also crucial to find people who will build you according to your Christ-like identity. During this step of the Identity Edge, students will be encouraged to develop a plan to protect and build their new identities in practical ways. These plans will include personal proposals, requests to professors for personalized learning assignments, as well as tasks for job searching and resume building according to who they are.

Proposed duration. It is recommended that a five-day intensive could cover the time requirements of this step. This can ensure that students find enough time to be introduced to the topic and find practical ways to make connections to their lives.

Proposed assignments objectives. Students will create their plans for identity protection and application, following the question “How will you make decisions based on whom God called you to be.” All assignments should be proposed to the facilitator to affirm that the objectives are completed according to the class requirements and according to the students’ personalized identity learning plans (PILP).

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Step divisions. This step is divided into four main units of discussion and study.

The first is “Addressing your design with others.” The second is “Developing your plan

to be you.” The third is “Finding support.” Finally, the fourth is “Claiming victory in

your identity in Christ.”

Summary

The problem this project addressed was the ineffectiveness of self-measurement

tools currently used for discipleship by Canadian discipleship and Bible colleges (CDBC) to guide their students toward self-identification for life development and planning. The researcher chose case study as a qualitative method. Since the survey instruments were developed in order to react to the students’ self-understanding, the researcher chose grounded theory to create appropriate measurement standards. Grounded theory lent itself well to the construction of validity of the case study, since it demands that research reacts to its findings in order to build the validity of its process.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Project Design

Strengths

One of the strengths of the project design was that the method of qualitative research demanded that the researcher “look at characteristics, or qualities, that cannot be exclusively reduced to numerical values.”1 Case study proved prudent in attempting to

1 Leedy and Ormrod, 95.

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decipher cause and effect relationships between motivation and identity development. It

allowed the researcher to investigate related events in an attempt to describe and predict expectations, as required by Bromely.2

Another strength of the project design was that it was designed and implemented

for transformative reasons, not simply academic pursuits.3 The intention of the researcher was to provide a model for the macro and micro participants to foster student development, which would prove to last beyond the time frame of the particular identity development programs.

Another strength of the project design was that it conformed to Yin’s model for case study.4 His four step plan for developing a trustworthy and rigorous research project

allowed the researcher to focus his attention on the steps and fulfill them with greater

ease due to the nature of each step.

The approach to external validity of the project was a strength. Both the macro

and micro settings gave great samples to assure consistent external validity. As sample

sizes for both the macro and micro settings were all inclusive, it gave the researcher the

ability to make generalizations with greater ease, thus assuring external validity.

It proved to be a strength to focus on self-measurement instead of peer

measurement. It was a strength because it reinforced the desired ethos of student self-

maintenance. Students are expected to self-feed and self-measure to ensure life

development. This was demonstrated and taught to the participants. As the procedures for

self-measurement and self-feeding were developed and implemented, external validity

2 Bromely, 209-307.

3 Schieffer, Lessem and Alexander, 19.

4 Leedy and Ormrod, 141.

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was assured, which in turn brought generalizable habits to the potential participant pool.

It proved to have good case study reliability.

Finally, the researcher’s use of grounded theory proved vital to the development

of the surveys. Grounded theory allowed the researcher to find a theory of motivation for

identity development during the biblical and theological research. It proved pragmatic as

a general method and not simply as a qualitative method. It created the quantitative type

data, which showed connections between motivation and identity development. This in

turn secured internal validity. Finally, grounded theory caused the research design to

pursue and establish the ultimate goal of research in developing a theory about the process of growth and innovation.5

Weaknesses

Perhaps one of the greater weaknesses of the project design involved its external

validity. The CDBCs that were studied had limited experience with this sort of intentional

model development due to their small sizes and resources. Therefore, no CDBC that was

studied had pursued its own research on identity development. This greatly limited the

amount of literature that was relevant to this project. All of the CDBCs involved simply

employed literature that was found with relevant topics, but none of the literature was

Canadian.

Another weakness of the project design was the closed survey collection. The

surveys were completed and collected at the beginning of class time with the researcher

as the acting professor of those classes. It was accomplished with other students in the

room, which was the intention of the design. It was believed that by giving the survey in

5 Leedy and Ormrod, 146.

141 a manner consistent with the students’ regular class format, the survey participants would not be taken out of their normal routines. Despite this belief, it proved to be a distraction rather than a benefit. This correlates with Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle that suggests that in the process of measurement, the process itself affects the attempted measurement, which can skew results. Students appeared distracted and rushed to complete the surveys in front of their peers because the regular class start loomed at their completion.

The project was designed to hand out a secondary open survey, which was to be completed after the semester had ended. After the semester had concluded, participants were not motivated to complete the survey and in fact failed to do so. The weakness in the design was that this survey was outside of the semester even though participants expected it. They were unable to fulfill its requirements.

Another weakness in the project design had to do with the BGSM collection.

Students did fill out all four components of the BGSM. However, students had a hard time connecting the first two of the tests (Love Languages and Cultural Intelligence) with the second two (StrengthsFinder 2.0 and Spiritual Gifts Inventory). The first two were completed after the initial survey collection and introduction to the project while the second two were given later in the process. Participants had a hard time seeing how they were related to one another.

A final weakness in the project design was an unexpected theological conflict regarding the spiritual gifts assessments. This affected the case study’s external validity.

The research design expected some differences in the spiritual gifts assessments used in

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the project, but through conversations with the CDBCs, the researcher discovered after

the project design that this was more influential an issue then he had previously expected.

Modifications for Improved Research

The researcher recommends that several modifications should be considered to improve the research. These revolve around the design weaknesses outlined above.

First, future researchers should investigate all literature about identity development used in CDBCs and not only the literature directly used by CDBC discipleship staff. The researcher focused too narrowly on only this literature and therefore missed out on relevant insights from a broader perspective. Non-discipleship staff at CDBCs sometimes also employ identity development procedures in their curricula and this would have broadened the literature available for review. It would have ascertained a greater value of identity development from the broader staff.

Next, the surveys should be completed and collected after the class in an adjacent room secured for participants only. The students had been distracted during the closed survey collection, and this weakened the results. Completing and collecting the surveys at a time and place other than the regular classroom should ensure that participants

experience less distraction from immediate peers and time constraints. It could also be

collected after class time but previous to any greater events such as lunch or chapel, as

these events can cause students to rush their survey completion.

Any future projects should consider having any and all surveys needed for

research to be completed within the semester in question. The project’s secondary open

survey was uncompleted by participants, which reduced the amount of insightful data in

the project.

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Next, all of the four required components of the BGSM should be completed at

the onset of the project. The BGSM completion is important for participant profiling.

This means it is critical that all required components be completed at the same time. To make sure this happens, any issues, such as the need for Internet connections, should be handled ahead of time so that nothing hinders the full BGSM completion.

Finally, further research should consider using a more neutral spiritual conversation tool for the spiritual gifts assessment. The researcher was surprised at the level of theological conflict over the spiritual gifts assessments among the CDBCs. The researcher recommends using APEST as a spiritual allotment tool. This test can discuss the ministry aspect of spirituality over the gifting of spirituality. This could alleviate some theological differences between not only CDBCs but also participants alike.

Unexpected Phenomena During the Case Study

During this research project, some unexpected phenomena occurred which had immediate impact on the study.

At the onset of the planning for the project, Rocky Mountain College’s Edge program expected 40 students to enroll in the discipleship program. However, only 10 students enrolled. This caused both RMC and the researcher to adjust their plans for the following year. Furthermore, RMC considered closing the discipleship program altogether, even though it is currently still active.

Another issue at Rocky Mountain College that arose at this time was a general lack of enrolment. In response to this, RMC has changed its academic direction and began pursuing an online teaching format primarily. It has held to some discipleship elements. RMC is committed to intentional discipleship, but is currently trying to

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understand a relevant way to do so without traditional enrolment that is needed to

maintain an institution.

Sadly, some of the CDBCs included in this project closed during the process of the project due to their own struggles with enrolment declines and financial instability. In conversation with some of the involved CDBC staff regarding the closings, the researcher

concluded that many of the issues these institutions experienced appear to be similar to

RMC’s. Many of them considered online teaching but ultimately dismissed the idea.

Research Applications and Conclusion of the Project

The researcher recommends that further research applications be considered

regarding the findings of this project, applications that include both academic and

ministry settings. First, he suggests that the ButterKnife model and principle could be

used in other discipleship environments that are undertaking intentional identity

development. Second, he recommends that the biblical and theological research could be

used in sermonic work. Third, the case study model could be used to identify potential

reasons behind students leaving CDBCs. Finally, the researcher recommends that the

case study model should be used to identify potential issues in church identity

development.

The problem this project addressed was the ineffectiveness of self-measurement

tools currently used for discipleship by Canadian discipleship and Bible colleges (CDBC) to guide their students toward self-identification for life development and planning. The researcher employed case study methodology containing elements of grounded theory in an attempt to discover possible solutions to the research problem.

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The researcher discovered elements that explained some of the possible issues for the ineffectiveness of the tools used by the CDBCs. All CDBCs reviewed, including the project setting of Rocky Mountain College, had no holistic model or approach for identity development. Consistently, all CDBCs attempted to develop elements of the students’ identities. But they did not follow through with necessary components and failed to influence students to continue the work of identity development.

Further, the lack of resources and literature available for such holistic work to be accomplished by the CDBCs caused a lack of success, not only of the tools employed, but of the students’ identities as well.

Perhaps the greatest reason for the lack of effectiveness in the tools and the programs for identity development was the lack of holistic support for students to live out their newly discovered identities. Students need formal help securing their new identities, but appear to be released before such identities are secured. Further, the CDBCs wishing to pursue identity development should ensure that all staff and professors are acting in alignment with any and all student expectations.

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CHAPTER SEVEN: REFLECTIONS

The Researcher’s Personal Reflection

Since the day that the researcher decided to pursue the issues relevant to this study, the world of the study and of the researcher has changed. It seems that a time of

accelerated change in the world has taken place. Globalization has given birth to radical and rapid change and caused greater need for clarity of identity. The heart of the researcher for this project was to find commonalities in his own identity in order to fit into this new world and most of all to be more effective in it. Through his own journey of identity, he found the area of research vital to his life and effectiveness in academia and ministry.

During the time of this project, some of the schools that the researcher had involved and studied have closed or rebranded themselves. The church and her para- church extensions have been increasingly pushed to find new relevance in a world that finds them out of touch. The researcher has detected the same perception about his personal effectiveness. Through this study the researcher found new certainty in his identity, just as he intended for his students. The dual nature studied in this project became a source of constant growth and success for the researcher himself.

Because the research was of a spiritual nature, the researcher found himself digging deeper into his own spirituality and personal understanding. The personal inquiries that the researcher asked of himself revolved around his own understanding of

God’s heart and will for him and how that would effect his own life and experiences. As

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the research followed the journey of Christ through his dual nature, the researcher found

himself in times of confusion and frustration in his own dual nature. At times during the

research, the researcher found himself expressing feelings and perceptions much like the case study participants regarding his own motivations and fears.

It became clear in the mind of the researcher that God creates opportunities for growth in an area by stretching the individuals’ faith and ability in that area. Due to the fact that the research itself was about deepening one’s identity, the researcher felt many times that his own identity was challenged to a level that he had not expected. Further, the research revolved around the nature of motivation as it comes from the God-given

identity of each person. Therefore, the researcher found that his motivation was also

challenged at new levels.

The researcher also experienced times of parallel identity development within his ministry area. Many times during the project, people approached the researcher with seemingly random challenges to their identity and to their motivation to follow God. The researcher gives God credit for these divine appointments in order for both researcher and the passerby to deepen in their own identities and their efficacy for each other.

It also became an expected theme of discussion for the researcher, among other church leaders across North America, that a time of identity development for the church was indeed vital to the survival of the faith. As the researcher discussed the various areas of research, he was given multiple affirmations of the value of developing one’s identity

around the greatest commandment of love. The researcher does not recall a single conversation that would have led him to leave the area of study. Rather, the conversations only deepened his urgency and call to the research.

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It became apparent early on in the research that the researcher’s own identity

would be challenged by the very nature of the rigor required. While his own strengths do

not show up in all areas required to complete the project itself, he found strength in the

team of those around him to help him fulfill the demands of the thesis. Just as the

researcher found that students need to find practical support so that they can be true to

their identities in the world, the researcher needed to find practical supports to fulfill this

project. Many times through the project, the researcher felt that he personally needed the

outcomes of the study for his own benefit.

Through the research, the researcher grew in his dual nature, but also in his

practical abilities. Both rigor and writing became areas of improvement. He became more

reflective and analytical. Through the process of working with his advisor and editor, the

researcher grew in his own efficacy to impact those in on his proverbial path.

Finally, through his own identity development and that of those around him, the

researcher became convinced of the overall purpose and perhaps calling of this research.

He firmly believes that as individuals understand themselves in light of how God

strategically created them to love Him and others, they will be released from a legalistic

battle to please God and actually get excited to please Him. Further, in the process of conducting his own identity development through the BGSM findings, the researcher felt that for the first time in his life, he was able to love himself. Jesus commanded

humankind to love others as they love themselves. But the majority of believers have a

difficult time actually loving themselves in the first place. This puts the command at risk,

of making it irrelevant to those who cannot first love themselves. Through the BGSM

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profiling, the researcher and the participants shared similar feelings regarding their

increased abilities to love themselves.

Areas of Further Research

Other areas of research became apparent to the researcher during this project. One area of study would be to understand the correlation between an individual’s specific

BGSM profile and the speed or ease that they might exhibit for identity and motivation development. It became apparent to the researcher that certain identity types find change and growth a simpler and more attainable process.

Another area of study would be to understand the correlation between BGSM types and entrance into CDBCs. It became a sub-pattern of this research that certain

identity types seem to enter CDBCs more regularly than other identity types. For example, it appeared that those with the love language of quality time and words of encouragement were more ready to enter a CDBC than others. The researcher surmised that these types were more willing to conduct a season of study that looked less pragmatic to life planning, whereas those with a different love language, the love language of acts of service for instance, might be less inclined to study at a CDBC. The researcher conjectured that those with acts of service as a primary love language seem to make quicker decisions regarding the implementation of their identity.

A third area of study would be to understand the correlation between the typical

BGSM type of student that attends a CDBC and the school’s enrolment and marketing strategies for attaining their students. For example, if schools are marketing to appeal to those with a primary love language of acts of service, they might fail to realize their enrollment expectations. This is because, as hinted at in the research, the reality seems to

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be that students with that love language rarely attend such schools. Marketing could be

redirected towards those students who tend to be willing to take their time in life planning

and away from those students who prefer immediate academic and career success.

Another possible area of study could be to find a deeper level of understanding

regarding cross-cultural identity development. The participants within this study were all from basically the same ethnic and religious background. Further study could indicate different factors upon which people rely for motivation. For example, in many eastern cultures, individualistic paradigms do not prove pragmatic within their communal value systems. Further study could include looking at patterns of cultural worth to find practical ways to develop identities based on the greatest commandment. This could include looking outside of the Canadian context.

Conclusion

Students in RCM’s Edge program genuinely desired to seek God’s will for their life. In searching for God’s will, they come across confusion over their dual nature. Even when identity development takes place for the individual, students must be prepared to create patterns for practical support to engage in their newfound identities. When a student acts out of sync with his or her identity, even identity development can become less effective.

Further, when leaders in the students’ lives require academic elements inconsistent with student identities, confusion for the student follows. For the first part of the self-feeding process, students need to be put into opportunities according to their

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identities, or they will fail to act in accordance to who they are. Also, leaders must be

aware of the confusion among students over understanding God’s heart for them versus understanding His will. They can become afraid if both are not developed together and applied in unison. Leaders need to develop identity depth as opposed to the traditionally proposed identity width.

Finally, the dual nature of man must be recognized in order to holistically and effectively develop identities. The church has done an effective job in developing a theology of identity according to one’s heavenly nature. But an ineffective theology and practice is available to those attempting to develop the earthly side of their divine design.

The Designer’s will for the life of a person is found in that person’s design. It is within a

person’s earthly design that God has communicated His intentions for a person’s life.

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APPENDIX A: PERSONAL SELF-AWARENESS PROJECT CONSENT FORM FOR LEVEL THREE RESEARCH

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Personal Self-Awareness Project Consent Form for Level 3 Research

You are invited to participate in a study that will address the efficacy of self- measurement tools within Rocky Mountain College, EDGE program; these tools are used to guide students into self-identification for life development and planning. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because of your enrollment in the EDGE program. The research being done has two purposes, (1) to aid in the development of student testing within the EDGE program and (2) to discover data regarding the testing tools and your self-identification and motivation for doctoral work completed by Professor Brad Friesen through Bethel Seminary in St. Paul, MN.

If you decide to participate, we (Brad Friesen, Brad Teigen) will ask you questions regarding your understanding of God’s will for your life, and your self assessment of how you desire to live out that will. There will be questions about your understanding of yourself, and your motivation levels throughout the Fall Semester, 2012. With these questions, you may find yourself developing deeper faith, or experiencing times of trial in your faith as we hope to discover deeper elements of motivation and identity within the student Edge experience.

Any information obtained in connection with this study that can be identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission. In any written reports or publications, no one will be identified or identifiable and only aggregate data will be presented. All personal information will be held in confidence at Rocky Mountain College.

Your decisions whether or not to participate will not affect your future relations with Rocky Mountain College in any way. If you decide to participate, you are free to discontinue participation at any time without affecting such relationships.

This research project has been approved by my research advisor in accordance with Bethel’s Levels of Review for Research with Humans. If you have any questions about the research and/or research participants’ rights or wish to report a research related injury, please call Brad Friesen at 403-835-8670.

In April 2000, the Canadian Parliament passed Bill C-6 to give Canadians more control over how their personal information is handled. It is now known as the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA). The Act contains rules for how private sector organizations may collect, use, or disclose personal information in the course of their activities. The act came into force on January 1, 2001, and the rules were applied to the personal information of clients and employees in the federally regulated private sector. On January 1, 2004, these rules were extended to all provincial businesses if a province does not have its own substantially similar private-sector privacy legislation in place by that time. We will comply with the rules of the PIPEDA.

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There are essentially two principles: an organization must state 1) what information it is collecting, and 2) the reasons for doing so. The person whose information is being collected must give consent. There are several ways for giving consent. One is written permission, which we are seeking for the gathering of information listed below.

We will collect, receive, use and disclose personal information about you, for the purposes of conducting this study. We may also disclose your personal information under strict confidentiality restrictions to Rocky Mountain College and may aggregate such data in reports and publications as set out above. By signing this form, you consent to our collecting, using and disclosing your personal information for the foregoing purposes, and to carry out these purposes you agree that we may disclose your personal information collected during the course of this study.

You hereby agree that we may use and retain your personal information for the forgoing purposes for one year, after which time it will be turned over to Rocky Mountain College and retained in accordance with its document retention policies and procedures and obligations at law. If you agree to the gathering by us of the following personal information, please print your name clearly and sign and date the form in the spaces provided.

I, ______(please print clearly) consent to the collection of my personal information listed below by Brad Friesen and Brad Teigen for the purposes indicated above.

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APPENDIX B: LOVE LANGUAGE SELF-ASSESSMENT

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Love Languages Assessment Test

Derived from Gary Chapman’s The Five Languages of Love

Put a mark next to the answer that makes you agree with most.

Section One

A___ When Someone says, “You did a great job on that. I appreciate it.” B___ Someone unexpectedly does something in or around your house, room, office or place of study, etc. that you appreciate. C___ Someone brings you a surprise treat from the store. D___ Someone invites you on a leisurely walk just to chat. E___ Someone makes a point to embrace and/or kiss, hug you before leaving them.

Section Two

A___ Someone tells you how much he or she appreciates you. B___ Someone volunteers to do the dishes (or wash the car) for you and encourages you to relax. C___ Someone brings flowers (or special food treat) for you just because he/she cares for you. D___ Someone invites you to sit down and talk about your day. E___ You enjoy receiving a hug even when you are just passing from room to room.

Section Three

A___ Someone, during a party, shares about a recent success you had. B___ Someone does one of your chores. C___ Someone surprises you with an unexpected gift. D___ Someone surprises you with a special afternoon trip. E___ Someone holds your hand as you walk through the mall or stands by your side with an arm around your shoulder at a public event.

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Section Four

A___ Someone praises you about one of your special qualities. B___ Someone brings you breakfast in bed. C___ Someone surprises you with a membership to something you have always wanted. D___ Someone plans a special night out for the two of you. E___ Someone will personally drive you to an event instead of you having to go on the old, crowded bus with the rest of the group.

Section Five

A___ Someone tells you how much his/her friends appreciate you. B___ Someone takes the time to fill out the long complicated applications that you had hoped to get to this evening. C___ Someone sends you something special through the mail. D___ Someone kidnaps you for lunch and takes you to your favorite restaurant. E___ Someone gives you a massage/back scratch.

(Transfer your scores from your test questions to this score sheet.)

Score Sheet

Section 1 A___ B___ C___ D___ E___ Section 2 A___ B___ C___ D___ E___ Section 3 A___ B___ C___ D___ E___ Section 4 A___ B___ C___ D___ E___ Section 5 A___ B___ C___ D___ E___

Totals A___ B___ C___ D___ E_

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A: Encouraging Words/Words of Affirmation

B: Acts of Service

C: Gift-Giving/Receiving Gifts

D: Quality Time

E: Physical Touch

Record your love languages in order of importance. You: 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______5. ______Languages of Love

Words of Affirmation: Verbal expressions of appreciation, compliments, praise, and thanks, conveyed for the well being of the one you love. Such communication demonstrates: encouragement: it inspires and motivates (not pressures) another to pursue a latent interest or achieve personal potential; kindness: it encompasses loving tones and truthful statements to build intimacy, express understanding, share difficult feelings or show forgiveness; and humility: it requests instead of demands, asks instead of nags.

Acts of service: happily doing things you know your spouse would like you to do or helping your mate with tasks that need to be done. Examples might include keeping the house clean, putting the toilet seat down, ironing, changing diapers, cleaning the garage, cooking or going out for dinner, or attending a symphony performance. Such acts require thought, time, planning, and effort. They are done in love not fear, or guilt, resentment or duty and may go against social or family stereotypes.

Receiving Gifts: Tokens or symbols of affection, caring, remembrance and thoughtfulness. They may be tangible gifts: little (or big) presents that you’ve found, made or purchased, given either at a special time or for no specific occasion; or gifts of self: your physical presence in important moments or times of crisis.

Quality Time: Focused, undivided and uninterrupted attention, despite busyness and business. It is demonstrated in: togetherness: not just proximity, but in the simple emotional connection and enjoyment of being with each other; meaningful conversation: sympathetic (not just solution-oriented) dialogue and active listening to share feelings, thoughts, and desires in a friendly uninterrupted context; and shared activities: doing things together that interest one or both of you just in order to create a unique experience and mutual memory.

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Physical Touch: communication of your love through the body’s nerve endings, with sensitivity to what methods, circumstances, and timing your spouse finds pleasant. It includes hugs, kisses, hand holding, back rubs, sitting close, hair stroking, and of course, regular sexual intercourse. It also encompasses long, empathetic embraces and tender touches of understanding when your spouse is in tears or times of crisis.

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APPENDIX C: CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE SELF-ASSESSMENT

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Cultural Intelligence Self Assessment

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APPENDIX D: BUTTERKNIFE PROFILE

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Buckingham, Marcus. Go Put Your Strengths to Work: 6 Powerful Steps to Achieve Outstanding Performance. New York: Free Press, 2007.

______. Standout: The Groundbreaking New Strengths Assessment From the Leader of the Strengths Revolution. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2011.

______and Donald O. Clifton. Now, Discover Your Strengths. New York: Free Press, 2001.

Burns, James and Doug Fields. Spiritual Gifts. Ventura, CA: Gospel Light, 2008.

Chapman, Gary and Paul E. White The 5 Languages of Appreciation in the Workplace: Chicago: Northfield Publishing, 2011.

Chapman, Gary D. The Five Love Languages. Chicago: Northfield Publishing, 1992.

______. Your Gift of Love: Selections From the Five Love Languages. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 2000.

______and Ross Campbell. The 5 Love Languages of Children. Chicago: Northfield Publishers, 1997.

______. The 5 Love Languages: The Secret to Love That Lasts. Chicago: Northfield Publishers, 2010.

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