A. GLOBAL 'REPRESENTATIVEE'SYSTE.M. OFE

MARI-NE-- .PROTECTED AREAS:*- Public Disclosure Authorized Wider14Carbbean, West-Afnca and SdtWh Atl :..

: ' - - 1: Volume2 Public Disclosure Authorized

, ... .. _ _ . .3 ~~~~~~~~~~------.. _. Public Disclosure Authorized

-I-~~~~~~~~~~y Public Disclosure Authorized t ;c , ~------..------;-fst-~~~~~~~~~- - .s ~h ort-Bn -¢q- .--; i ,Z<, -, ; - |rl~E <;{_ *,r,.,- S , T x r' K~~~~Grea-f Barrier Re6f#Abkr-jnse Park Aut lority ~Z~Q~ -. u

- ~~ ~~T; te World Conscrvltidt Union (IUtN);- s

A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Principal Editors Graeme Kelleher, Chris Bleakley, and Sue Wells

Volume II

The Great Barrier Marine Park Authority The World Bank The World Conservation Union (IUCN) The Intemational Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentTIhE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

Manufactured in the United States of America First printing May 1995

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.

This publication was printed with the generous financial support of the Government of The Netherlands.

Copies of this publication may be requested by writing to: Environment Department The World Bank Room S 5-143 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. WORLD CNPPA MARINE REGIONS

0 CNPPAMARINE REGION NUMBERS - CNPPAMARINE REGION BOUNDARIES

~~~~~~0 < ) Arc~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tic <_~

NorthoflEs Wes\ 2<< /Northr East g NorhWest / ~~~Pacific {,

/ \ %, < ^ e\ /: J ~~~~~~~~~~Med iter=nean

South Pacific \ J ''West )( -

SouthEas \ Pacific 1 5tt.V 1r

I=1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~LI A \ N J 0 1 ^-- u / Atrain@ /~ALmt- \\ \ (\ g - ASttasthv h . | 1- / *4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Nu,tellian / Izj Th.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Afia

/ \- \ \ B - \ ~~~~~~~~~~~~Antarctic

ol t^_-~~iz Xw a"; 0f_ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 g*

Contents

Introduction 1 Objective 2 Methodology 2 Selection of Priority Areas 3 Priorities for Conservation 3 Summary of Results 5 Priorities for Marine Biodiversity Conservation 8 General Recommendations 8 The Way Forward 11 7. Wider Caribbean 13 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 13 Assessment of Existing MPAs 17 Appendix 7.1 Ecological Features and Resource Problems of Caribbean Countries 35 Appendix 7.2 Distribution and Status of Threatened Caribbean Coastal and Marine Species 37 Appendix 7.3 Participation of Wider Caribbean Region in Major Intemational Conventions and Programs 38 Appendix 7.4 Institutions Providing Regional Support Services 39 Bibliography 40 8. West 43 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 43 Assessment of Existing MPAs 48 Priority Areas and Recommendations 56 Bibliography 68 9. South Atlantic 71 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 71 Assessment of Existing MPAs 76 Priority Areas and Recommendations 81 Bibliography 85 Contributors 87 Index 89 Map Supplement Acronyms

AIMS MAB Australian Institute of Marine Science Man and the Biosphere Programme

CITES MARPOL Convention on International Trade in Endan- Intemational Convention for the Prevention gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora of Pollution from Ships

CNPPA NGO Commission on National Parks and Pro- Nongovemmental Organization -tected Areas (IUCN). PADU GBRMPA Protected Areas Data Unit Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority SSC GEF Species Survival Commission Global Environment Facility TNC GIS The Nature Conservancy Geographic Information.System UNDP HDU United Nations Development Programme Habitats Data Unit UNCED ICLARM United Nations Conference on Environment International Center for Living Aquatic Re- and Development source Management UNEP IMO United Nations Environment Programme Intemational Maritime Organization UNESCO IUCN United Nations Educational, Scientific, and The World Conservation Union Cultural Organization

LME WCMC Large Marine Ecosystems World Conservation Monitoring Centre

MPA WWF Marine World Wildlife Fu11,

Data-Note Billion is a thousand million; trillion is a million million.

iv Introduction

.~~~~ .

This introduction is a summary of the com- conflicting uses of resources, damage and prehensive introductory chapter in Volume destruction of habitat, and other harmful con- I. It provides a summary of the background, sequences of human development. Biodiver- methodology, results, major conclusions and sity is especially at risk. Conserving marine recommendations of the four volumes of biodiversity is therefore a priority. this publication. An abbreviated summary of Since 1986 the IUCN Commission on Na- the major results of the 18 regional reports is tional Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) also included. The full descriptions and full has been promoting the establishment and summaries of the results are included in the management of a global representative sys- introductory chapter in Volume I. tem of marine protected areas (MPAs). The The marine environment is critical to the four volumes of this publication represent natural and cultural heritage of the world. the conclusion of the latest phase of Not only do many marine areas support a CNPPA's program and have been prepared great diversity of plants, animals, and natural through the collaboration of IUCN-CNPPA, habitats, but the oceans play an essential the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority role in climatic cycles and other global proc- (GBRMPA), the World Bank, and many esses. Marine ecosystems and resources are other organizations and individuals (acknow- fundamental to the sustainable development ledged in the contributors' section of each of coastal countries, providing food, miner- volume). This publication documents the als, pharmaceuticals, construction materials, biogeographic and ecological characteristics and a vast range of other products. in each of 18 Marine Regions of the world They often support growing tourism and and summarizes the range of marine biodi- recreation industries and play a vital role in versity within each region and the major transport and in the culture and lifestyle of threats to its conservation. Based on a com- coastal people. However, marine ecosystems prehensive set of selection criteria, including throughout the world face increasingly seri- ecological, social and economic factors, ma- ous threats from pollution, , rine protected area sites of national and re-

1 2 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas gional priority for the conservation of ma- Supporting information will be provided rine biodiversity are proposed in each re- for each of the regions, including: gion. These sites include existing MPAs in . An overview of the marine biodiversity need of improved management as well as and biogeography in each region, particu- new areas proposed to fill in the gaps in.bio- larly as they relate to MPAs geographic representation within the exist- * Available data on existing MPAs in each ing marine protected area system. region, including assessments of their rep- The following definition has been resentativeness and management effective- adopted by IUCN for the term "marine pro- ness tected area" (IUCN 1988): . Justification for the selection of priority Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, areas together with its overlying water and associ- * Identification of further information re- ated flora, fauna, historical and cultural fea- quired for completing a network of MPAs tures, which has been reserved by law or to cover each region's marine biological other effective means to protect part or all of and geographic diversity. the enclosed environment.

MEMHODOLOGY OBJECnWE The CNPPA has divided the marine areas of The aim of the report is to identify priority the world into 18 marine regions, largely on areas for the establishment and management the basis of biogeographic criteria, but for of a global representative system of MPAs. It practical reasons also considering political provides strategic guidance to governments, boundaries. In 1990, working groups were aid agencies, and others working to conserve established in each region, consisting wher- marine biodiversity conservation and achieve ever possible of both marine resource man- sustainable use of the marine environment. agers and marine scientists. The aims of the The report also offers recommendations that working groups have been to: address priority issues for the establishment . Summarize the main physical and biologi- and effective management of MPAs. cal characteristics of the marine environ- One of the prime objectives of this report ment was to produce maps of the 18 bio- a Divide each marine region into its con- geographic regions into which the CNPPA stituent biogeographic zones has divided the world, showing the loca- . Make an inventory of existing MPAs tions of: . Identify gaps in the representation of the * Existing MPAs biogeographic zones in MPAs * Existing MPAs characterized as to national . Identify areas of national or regional prior- and regional priority for management ity for the establishment of new MPAs or strengthening for management strengthening and sup- * Proposed new MPAs of national priority port to existing MPAs or regional priority. * Determine other recommendations for es- tablishing or improving the management Both existing and proposed MPAs are de- of MPAs in each marine region. picted on the accompanying maps as a point representing the center of an area. For pro- Workshops were held in the East Asian posed MPAs, this may be a well-defined lo- Seas (February 1993), the Baltic (Jure 1993), cation or a general focal area for biodiversity North West Pacific (September 1993), the conservation requiring further investigation. South Pacific (October 1993) and Latin Amer- Introduction 3 ica (January 1994) regions to allow marine PRIORrITES FOR CONSERVATION resource managers and marine scientists to cooperate in the identification of priorities. Priorities in this report have been identified In some regions this was the first time that for regional and national areas using avail- these two groups had cooperated in this able data. Only limited information has been way for any purpose. available on some subjects in some regions Information frorm the Protected Areas Data and countries, and the report reflects this Unit and Habitats Data Unit at the World variability in data. Recommendations on the Conservation Monitoring Centre has been management of individual MPAs require de- made available to GBRMPA and the World tailed assessment of these sites. Unfortu- Bank for this project, and these organiza- nately, the limitations of time and resources tions now maintain an identical computer- meant that such assessments were beyond ized database on MPAs. This database, the scope of this report. which has been substantially edited and up- The report concentrates on the subtidal dated for the purpose of this report by the marine environment in coastal areas and Bank and GBRMPA, has been used to gener- does not attempt to assess intertidal, estu- ate maps showing the location of MPAs arine, and wetland areas. In some instances, worldwide, each region's biogeographic clas- a lack of available information on the sification scheme, and the location of prior- boundaries of protected areas that appear to ity areas for the conservation of marine have marine components made it difficult to biodiversity of global significance. determine the extent of any marine environ- ment. It was therefore decided to identify only'those areas that'include a significant SELECTION OF PRIORTY AREAS subtidal marine component. Whenever possible national priority areas The criteria used to identify priority areas in were identified by national representatives this report were developed by Kelleher and and regional priority areas were identified Kenchington (1992) and have been adopted by the regional working group leader. This by the International Maritime Organization process of identification stretched over thriee for use in the identification of Particularly and every effort was made to incorpo- Sensitive Sea Areas and by the parties to the rate contributions from marine resource man- Helsinki Convention for identification of a agers and marine scientists in each country. system of marine protected areas for the Bal- The selection of sites was to some extent tic Sea. subjective, and the lack of information and a Priorities were identified primarily on the well-tested and accepted global bio- basis of ecological and biogeographic crite- geographical classification system makes the ria using available data. Other, equally im- determination of priorities between regions portant, criteria were used to provide difficult. However, priorities in each region additional justification for or against the se- have been identified within the framework lection of a particular area and to help de- of a biogeographic classification system con- cide the feasibility of establishing and sidered appropriate for that region.' successfully managing a marine protected Many nations are carrying out programs area. All priority areas were therefore as- for conservation and develop'ment of the ma- sessed as having a reasonable chance of suc- rine'environment. As far as possible, the ptri- cess as a marine protected area. orities identified in this report are consistent Within these guidelines, each working with expressed national priorities, as identi- group applied the specific criteria shown in fied by national representatives or in docu- Box' 1 for the selection of priority areas. ments such 'as National Environmental 4 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Box 1. Criteria for Selection of Priority Areas

Biogeographic criteria inhabitants, appreciation by tourists and * presence of rare biogeographic qualities others or as a refuge nursery area or or representative of a biogeographic source of economically important species). "type" or types * unique or unusual geological features. Social importance existing or potential value to the local, Ecological criteria national or international communities be- * an essential part of ecological processes cause of its heritage, historical, cultural, or life-support systems (for example, is a traditional aesthetic, educational or rec- source for larvae for downstream areas) reational qualities. * area's integrity, or the degree to which the area either by itself or in association Scientific importance with other protected areas, encompasses * value for research and monitoring. a complete ecosystem * the variety of habitats International or national significance * presence of habitat for rare or endan- * potential to be listed on the World (or na- gered species tional) Heritage List, declared a Bio- * nursery or juvenile areas sphere Reserve, or included on a list of * feeding, breeding or rest areas areas of international or national impor- * rare or unique habitat for any species tance, or is the subject of an international * genetic diversity (is diverse or abundant or national conservation agreement. in species terms). Practicality/or feasibllity Naturalness * degree of insulation from external de- * extent to which the area has been pro- structive influences tected from, or has not been subject to, * social and political acceptability, degree human-induced change. of community support * accessibility for education, tourism, rec- Economic importance reation , existing or potential contribution to eco- * compatibility with existing uses, particu- nomic value by virtue of its protection larly by locals (for example, protection of an area for * ease of management or compatibility recreation, subsistence, use by traditional with existing management regimes.

Action Plans or National Conservation information from management experience, Strategies. community education, research and monitor- Priorities for marine biodiversity conserva- ing should be taken into account in making tion will change in the future as further infor- decisions and taking action. Regular review mation becomes available, as experience and updating of the priorities identified in and education increase the awareness of this report is therefore to be welcomed. communities and decisionmakers about the It its beyond the scope of this report to role and importance of marine environments deal with issues relating to broader coastal and ecosystems, and as the priorities identi- zone management. However, the close inter- fied in this report are acted upon. This new action between marine environments and be- Introduction 5

Table 1. Number of Subtidal MPAs, by Marine Region Marnne Region Number ofMPAs Percentageof Total

1 Antarctic 17 1.3 2 Arctic 16 1.2 3 Mediterranean 53 4.0 4 Northwest Atlantic 89 6.8 5 Northeast Atlantic 41 3.1 6 Baltic 43 3.2 7 Wider Caribbean 104 7.9 8 West Africa 42 3.2 9 South Atlantic 19 1.4 10 Central 15 1.1 11 Arabian Seas 19 1.4 12 East Africa 54 4.1 13 East Asian Seas 92- 7.0 14 South Pacific 66 5.0 15 Northeast Pacific 168 12.8 16 Northwest Pacific 190 14.5 17 Southeast Pacific 18 1.3 18 Australia/New Zealand' 260 19.9 Total 1,306

tween the land and sea imposes an urgent SUMMARY OF RESULTS need for the integration of protected area management and an overall conservation In terms of the number of MPAs, there are strategy in the coastal zone. This is a central significant disparities between marine re- challenge to governments and organizations gions (Table 1). working in coastal areas. MPAs are success- There is also wide variation in the size.of ful only if they are managed as part of MPAs. The mean size of the MPAs invento- broader programs that provide for manage- ried is over 100,000 hectares. However, this ment of all uses of the sea and adjacent number is greatly skewed by a relatively land. Large, multiple-use MPAs covering small number of very large MPAs; a truer re- complete ecosystems are a major step to- flection may be given by the median size, ward this goal. They can be examples of ef- which is 1,584 hectares. Table 2 shows the fectively protected Large Marine Ecosystems distribution of MPAs according to size (LMEs). Smaller reserves, which are often classes. community-based, also need to incorporate Biogeographic classification systems. have management of land-based activities that af- been adopted for use in 17 of the 18 marine fect the viability of the MPA. regions, the exception being the Antarctic re- Although this report is concerned with gion, for which there is no general agree- sites of regional importance for marine biodi- ment on an appropriate classification versity, it recommends that all countries system). These systems have been used in within a region should attempt to conserve a assessing the degree to which existing.MPAs biogeographically representative set of sites represent the major biogeographic types in at the national level in accordance with Reso- each marine region. Table 3 lists the number lution 17.38 of the IUCN General Assembly. of zones in each region that have at least 6 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Table 2. Distribution of MPAs For the zones that have MPAs the mean by Size Class number of MPAs per zone is approximately Size Number of MPAs eleven. This number is skewed by a large number of MPAs in relatively few zones. 1-10 41 The median number of MPAs per bio- 11-100 175 geographic zone is four. 101-1,000 226 Table 4 shows the number of bio- 1,001-10,000 242 geographic zones in relation to number of 100,001-1,000,000 79 MPAs, according to frequency classes rang- > 1,000,000 22 ing from 0 to 26 or more. unknown 315 The recommendations of the IVth World Total 1,306 Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas (IUCN 1993) call for 10 percent of each of the world to be included in protected areas. Although the lack of an ac- one MPA and the number that have no cepted global classification system makes MPAs. comparison between marine regions diffi- Across all marine regions 118 out of 150 cult, broad conclusions may be drawn about zones (about 79 percent) have at least one the extent to which MPAs achieve this objec- MPA, while 32 (about 21 percent) zones tive. have no MPAs. Two marine regions (North- In the great majority of cases the area of west Atlantic and East Asian Seas) have each marine biogeographic zone that is in- MPAs in every zone. All the remaining six- cluded in MPAs is much less than 1 percent teen marine regions have at least one zone of its total area. Furthermore, most of the with no MPAs. biogeographic zones are large areas that in-

Table 3. Representation of Biogeographic Zones Number of Biogeographic Number of Biogeographic Marine Region Zones with at least one MPA Zones with no MPAs

1 Antarctic 2 Arctic 4 1 3 Mediterranean 8 2 4 Northwest Atlantic 10 0 5 Northeast Atlantic 5 1 6 Baltic 8 1 7 Wider Caribbean 5 1 8 West Africa 4 1 9 South Atlantic 4 1 10 Central Indian Ocean 4 2 11 Arabian Seas 8 5 12 East Africa 3 2 13 East Asian Seas 8 0 14 South Pacific 12 8 15 Northeast Pacific 8 1 16 Northwest Pacific 7 1 17 Southeast Pacific 3 3 18 Australia/New Zealand 17 2 Total 118 32 Introduction 7

Table 4. Frequency of MPAs Table 5. Management Level of MPAs in Biogeographic Zones ManagementLevel Number of MPAs MPAs per Zone Number of Zones High 117 0 32 Moderate 155 1-5 60 Low 111 6-10 22 Unknown 923 16-25 9 Total 1,306 21-25 9 26+ 12 answered without information on the extent Total 150 to which MPAs are achieving their conserva- tion objectives. However, data on manage- ment effectiveness are sketchy. The difficulty of obtaining such information points to the clude a range of different ecosystem types. general absence of evaluation of manage- More detailed information on the range of ment effectiveness. Although field surveys ecosystem types present in each zone and in could not be carried out to supplement avail- each MPA would be required to determine able existing data, it has been possible to as- the extent to which the biodiversity of each sess the management of 383 out of 1,306 zone is "represented." However, there must MPAs (29 percent). The management level be doubts about the extent to which MPAs has been classified according to the follow- of a median size of 1,500 hectares can pro- ing scheme: tect a representative sample of the biodiver- . High: Generally achieve management ob- sity of a large zone, particularly given the jectives interconnectedness of the sea and the de- . Moderate: Partially achieve management gree to which material (pollutants, larvae, objectives and so on) and impacts are transferred. . Low: Generally fail to achieve manage- From the available information on the ment objectives size, number and distribution of MPAs ac- cording to biogeographic type, it is clear Table 5 shows the numbers of MPAs as- that the coverage of existing MPAs falls well sessed as having high, moderate or low man- below a target figure of 10 percent of all ma- agement level. rine . About one-fifth of the marine About 31 percent of those MPAs for which biogeographic types identified have no data were available were assessed as having MPAs. Although there is sure to be a degree a high management level and generally of commonality of biogeographic types be- achieving their management objectives. tween some marine regions, these gaps The reasons for MPAs failing to achieve would appear to be significant at the re- their management objectives vary between gional scale. marine regions. However, there are some There are a few very large MPAs, but commonly recurring themes that can be sum- most are relatively small areas of less than a marized as: few thousand hectares. Many are threatened . Insufficient financial and technical re- by activities beyond their boundaries that sources to develop and implement man- are beyond the scope of existing manage- agement plans ment control. . Lack of trained staff Questions about the degree of protection * Lack of data on which to base manage- provided to marine biodiversity cannot be ment decisions including information on 8 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

the impacts of resource use and the status MPAs sites have been identified as being of of biological resources regional priority for the conservation of ma- . Lack of public support and unwillingness rine biodiversity. Of these, 73 (47 percent) ,of users to follow management rules, are existing areas that require support for im- often because users have not been mean- proved management and 82 (53 percent) are ingfully involved in establishing these proposed new MPAs. rules Inadequate commitment to enforcing man- agement GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS Unsustainable use of resources within MPAs The recommendations in this publication Impacts from activities in land and sea ar- specifically address priority issues for the es- eas outside the boundaries of MPAs, in- tablishment and effective management of a cluding pollution and overexploitation, global representative system of marine pro- lack of clear organizational responsibili- tected areas for the protection and sustain- ties for management, and absence of coor- able management of the world's marine dination between -agencies with biodiversity. responsibilities relevant to MPAs Key recommendations are outlined below, . Lack of clear organizational responsibili- with the full text provided in the introduc- *ties for management and absence of coor- tory chapter of Volume 1. The recommenda- dination between agencies with tions are based on an analysis of the 18 responsibilities relevant to MPAs. regional reports and a synthesis of the rec- ommendations contained in these reports. Achieving effective management of exist- ing MPAs is of equal priority to the estab- 1. Achieving Integrated Management lishment of new areas. In most regions a of the Marine Environment significant number of MPAs exist only on pa- per with no management plan and no man- The establishment and management of agement activity of any sort. MPAs should occur within regimes that pro- vide for integrated management of all uses of the adjacent land and sea areas. Thus, PRIORITIES FOR MARINE BIODIVERSffY wherever possible, management of MPAs CONSERVAIION should be coordinated with the management of adjacent land areas. A listing of regional priority areas for all re- Management responsibilities for MPAs gions covered in a volume is included in a must be clearly defined to avoid duplication table at the end of each volume. This is fol- and competition between agencies. These re- lowed by a serious of regional maps with sponsibilities must be accompanied by insti- digitized information on the location of each tutional and administrative mechanisms to of these sites. National and regional priority ensure coordination of agencies with respon- areas for each Marine Region are included in" sibilities relevant to the marine environment. the relevant regional report. Achievement of ecological sustainability In all, 640 MPA sites have been identified should be the overriding goal of MPA man- as being of national priority for marine biodi- agement. versity conservation. Of these, 232 (36 per- The Large Marine Ecosystem and UNESCO cent) are existing areas that require support Biosphere Reserve models should be ap- for improved management and 408 (64 per- plied where practicable in establishing and cent) are proposed new MPAs. In total, 155 managing MPAs. In particular, a large multi- Introduction 9

ple-use MPA may provide the basis for inte- MPA management priorities. Providing infor- grated and sustainable management of a mation of practical use to managers for the complete marine ecosystem, with the advan- protection and management of marine biodi- tage that coordination of regulating different versity should be a primary objective of all human activities can be automatically these systems. achieved when management responsibility rests with one agency. 3. Securing Community Support

2. Ensuring the Application of Science Where there is continuing use or custody of to Management marine resources by local people, whether an effective MPA can be established will de- Increased research and monitoring are re- pend largely on the voluntary acceptance of quired to assist in making MPA management management measures locally. MPA manag- decisions. Available funds should be di- ers should therefore devolve some responsi- rected toward those areas of research that bility to local users, including involvement have a high likelihood of answering manage- in planning and participation in manage- ment questions. ment programs. the establishing of an effec- The development of long-term monitoring tive MPA will depend very largely on program for all MPAs should be a priority. A voluntary acceptance of management meas- fairly broad sweep will be needed for moni- ures, including involvement in planning and toring the changes brought about by the var- participation in management programs. The ied human activities and for providing use of traditional knowledge and skills in the enough information to develop appropriate management of MPAs should be encouraged. management responses. This will require de- MPAs must provide for the continued wel- veloping techniques that can be easily under- fare of people affected by their creation. stood and widely applied. Community support will depend on the de- Research is needed on the existing and velopment of management plans that are, to planned uses of the marine environment the extent feasible, compatible with tradi- and their likely effects. Such basic informa- tional or customary practices for the use and tion is essential to keeping these activities conservation of marine resources. MPAs compatible with the overriding goal of eco- should be used for the economic well-being logical sustainability. of coastal communities by providing a sus- There are two fundamental principles in tainable flow of benefits as well as achieving ensuring effective application of science to conservation objectives. Where appropriate management: to management objectives and within the * Managers and scientists must work to- limits of ecological sustainability, tourism gether in the identifying the environ- and should be encouraged to pro- mental problems to be addressed by the vide sustainable financial benefits to local scientific methods. communities. * Managers and scientists must work to- Ongoing consultation with local communi- gether in designing the research programs ties is required to determine economic, so- for addressing such problems and in inter- cial, cultural and conservation priorities and preting and applying the results. to determine how MPAs can help achieve these priorities. MPAs should be integrated Any further developments in bio- and compatible with ecological, social, and geographic classification resulting from this economic objectives at both the national and research or monitoring can proceed in paral- local levels. Local communities must be con- lel with the implementation of immediate vinced of the importance of using marine re- 10 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas sources sustainably and of the need and agencies should commence a coordinated benefits of taking action to protect marine scientific and administrative effort to ensure biodiversity. This will require conducting in- that existing MPAs meet their management formation campaigns to raise the profile of objectives. MPAs and marine biodiversity conservation Programs that aim to support MPAs must and incorporation of a strong marine compo- provide sufficient financial and technical re- nent in environmental education. sources over a time frame long enough to allow for effective implementation, monitor- 4. Developing the Human Capacity ing, and review of management plans. to Manage 6. Identifying Sources of Funding International and other support for capacity development in marine management should Sufficient resources need to be mobilized for emphasize the development of training ca- the development and implementation of pacity within regions and countries. Such an management plans, for regulatory statutory approach involves "training the trainers" and review processes, interpretation, education, the establishment of regional and national training, volunteer programs, research, moni- training centers that can undertake further toring, surveillance and enforcement pro- training to produce a multiplier effect. grams. It is unlikely that governments alone Training should extend to all levels, from can provide these resources now or in the field staff to senior managers with the aim of future. equipping MPA managers with the skills re- Sustainable financing for MPAs, therefore, quired for their job. Training is required to must be developed if they are to function increase the political awareness of the bene- well in the long term. This will require inno- fits of effective MPA systems. vative approaches and partnerships. Exam- There is a demand for a network in which ples include revenue generation from taxes managers of MPAs can share and learn from or "rent" from resource uses such as fisher- each other's experience and discuss and re- ies or tourism, as well as taxes on develop- view management priorities. ment projects that result in losses of marine or coastal biodiversity. In some countries the 5. Achieving a Balance Between Planning, establishment of trust funds has proved to Implementation and Evaluation be a useful tool. Partnerships with NGOs and the private sector, which leverage man- In total, 1,306 MPAs have been identified as agement skills and investment capital for in- established in all of the marine regions. come generating enterprises consistent with Available data suggest that the number of conservation objectives should also be ex- MPAs that fail to achieve their management plored. objectives is high. One reason for this is that Research should be carried out to evaluate the resources and emphasis on planning and publicize the economic benefits of MPAs typically exceeds that given to imple- MPAs and the feasibility of integrated conser- mentation of management. There is even vation and development. (CNPPA is carrying less attention given to evaluation of the suc- out such research.) cess of management. In cooperation with local communities Effective implementation, monitoring and and other groups, management agencies: review are essential for MPAs to achieve should identify and establish facilities to pro- their management goals, and should be part mote ecotourism in MPAs and make use of of all. MPA management programs. MPA MPAs as a tool for . Introduction 11

Many developing countries will require fi- tions such as the GEF, World Bank, United nancial assistance to establish national MPA Nations Development Programme (UNDP), systems, and there is a clear role for the in- regional banks, bilateral organizations, and ternational community to provide such sup- nongovernmental sources. port. However, in some cases the most Many of these agencies provide funding effective use of resources might be made primarily on a national basis. It follows that through the-use of a regional fund or system the development of proposals for priority of national environmental funds, particularly MPAs in developing countries should have a where there is a diversity of small govern- strong national focus and that all such pro- mental and nongovernmental organizations posals must be developed and implemented managing MPAs. with the full involvement and support of the relevant national government authorities and other appropriate organizations and individu- THE wAY FORWARD als. The importance of this principle has been recognized in this report, which has This report recommends priority areas and been developed with. very wide participation actions for the creation of a global repre- of national representatives. Although in the sentative system of MPAs. It is intended to majority of cases proposals probably will be provide strategic guidance to the Global En- country specific, in some instances they may vironment Facility (GEF), World Bank, and be. developed using regional institutions that other organizations for investment in marine have national support, such as the South Pa- biodiversity conservation. The next phase cific Regional Environment Programme must focus on the development and imple- (SPREP) and the Coordinating Body for the mentation of specific proposals for the crea- Seas of East Asia (COBSEA). This pragmatic tion of new MPAs and for improved approach has advantages in promoting coor- management arrangements for inadequately dination between country efforts and in managed existing MPAs. Sites of highest pri- some cases may be more efficient in terms ority in each region are identified in this re- of administrative effort. port. At the same time, in some regions or International organizations such as IUCN countries additional investigation is required and CNPPA that already have a broad con- to refine priorities or to begin filling in the stituency of both governmental and nongov- gaps in knowledge that will make it possible ernmental organizations can also be used to set priorities. effectively. This report proposes that IUCN It can be expected that developed coun- and CNPPA mobilize this constituency to tries will take the initiatives and provide the consult with the governments of the develop- funding for further developing their national ing countries where the priority areas identi- MPA systems, using funds and resources of fied in this study occur. It will be necessary their own. By identifying priorities, this re- to establish national working groups of sci- port will help such countries make the most entists and managers to ensure coordination efficient use of their resources. and cooperation between the management Few developing countries have the hu- and scientific communities. NGOs and com- 'man or financial resources that are required munity groups should also be represented in to create and effectively manage new MPAs. the process. The purpose of the consult- These countries will require assistance inter- ations will be to develop proposals for im- nationally in terms of both expertise and the plementing the priorities that meet the provision of funds. Possible sources of those criteria of funding organizations and that are funds include international financing institu- compatible with national social and eco- 12 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Box 2. Priority Actions for the Establishment of a Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

1. Develop and implement projects to ad- plied for carrying out monitoring and research dress the priority areas and other recommen- in MPAs; achieve effective community support dations in this report. and participation in management of MPAs and 2. Establish national representative systems strengthen the capacity and effectiveness for of MPAs which, as far as possible, encompass planning, administration and day-to-day man- complete ecosystems or habitats and which agement. are integrated with national policies and effec- 8. Carry out training programs that develop tive mechanisms for coastal zone management. the capacity for MPA management in regions 3. Develop institutional arrangements to and countries. These programs should train achieve integrated management of each MPA trainers and develop training curricula and and provide coordination mechanisms to en- use these as a basis for regional- and country- sure that adjacent land and sea areas are man- based curricula and training. aged in a complementary way. 9. Establish a global network to support ma- 4. Actively involve local communities and ma- rine resource managers, based on existing re- rine resource users in the planning, manage- gional networks. ment and maintenance of MPAs. 10. Carry out further investigations to address 5. Bring managers and scientists together to biogeographic and other information gaps nec- conduct integrated, multi-disciplinary, manage- essary for the identification of priority areas as ment-oriented research and monitoring pro- part of the global system of marine protected grams to provide a rational basis for selection, areas. planning and management of MPAs. 11. Mobilize domestic resources for marine 6. Commence a coordinated effort to system- protected area management from such atically monitor the effectiveness of existing sources as natural resource taxes and levies, MPAs: user charges, joint ventures with the private 7. Develop and disseminate tools and guide- sector, trust funds and endowments, and eco- lines that can be widely understood and ap- tourism.

nomic developmental priorities. The develop- nities. A flexible mechanism also must be ment of national and local management ca- found to reflect, for example, progress in re- pacity must be key to all proposals. fining the identification of biogeographic ele- These activities will need to be comple- ments that will most likely reveal the need mented by a suite of other actions if a sys- for additional MPAs to create a more repre- tem of MPAs is to be developed that sentative system of MPAs. To begin this proc- effectively represents the biogeographic ess, the study has identified various priority zones of the world's seas and contributes to actions for the establishment of a global rep- the maintenance of marine biodiversity as resentative system of marine protected ar- well as to the well-being of human commu- eas, outlined in Box 2. MARINE REGION 7 Wider Caribbean

Sonja Stanley, editor

46;

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARuE nomic and other activities necessitate mari- BIODIVERSffY time traffic that contributes to the vulnerabil- ity of marine species and habitats. Already, The Wider Caribbean Region is defined as the Caribbean has been declared a "particu- the coastal and marine areas of the Carib- larly sensitive area" by the Intemational Mari- bean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, including the time Organisation (IMO 1992). Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos Islands, the Gulf Coasts of Oceanography the United States and Mexico, and the Carib- bean Coasts of Central and South America. The region is linked by the warm Guiana The region includes the following coun- Current that sweeps northward from Recife tries: Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Baha- on the coast of . This current joins the mas, Barbados. Belize, Bermuda, Cayman North Equatorial Current, flowing between Islands, Colombia, Costa Rica, , Domin- the southern Caribbean islands and then ica, , Florida (U.S.), north around the western end of Cuba and French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Gua- into the Eastern Gulf of Mexico. In the Gulf temala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, it forms a loop turning south then east Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Netherlands through the Florida Straits, and thence north Antilles (Curacao, Bonaire, Aruba, St. where it becomes the Gulf Stream above the Maarten, St. Eustatius and Saba), Nicaragua, . Generally, currents sweep Panama, Puerto Rico (U.S.), St. Christopher from east to west with coastal countercur- and Nevis, St. Vincent and The Grenadines, rents and several gyres. Because most of the St. Lucia, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, marine plants and animals in the Caribbean Turks and Caicos Islands, Venezuela, Virgin have a planktonic larval phase lasting from Islands (U.K.), and Virgin Islands (U.S.). several weeks to more than a and the The region is characterized by socio-lin- propagules are carried long distances by the guistic and economic diversity. Many eco- east-west current, the homogeneity of the

13 14 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas species associations is striking in these with the nutrient-rich cold waters below. Nu- waters. trients, particularly inorganic nitrogen and The ocean surface temperature in the phosphorus, are regenerated from decaying tropical parts of the region averages 270C plant and animal material and bacteriaf and and does not vary much during the year, sea- are fertilizers of the plant growth that sup- sonal fluctuations not exceeding 3°C. Tem- ports other life forms. Because these nutri- peratures in the southernmost part of the ents remain locked away in the deep, cold Gulf are similar, but the northernmost part waters offshore and in calcareous sediments shows strong seasonal changes from 160C in in the area, the primary productivity, or rate winter to 280C in summer. Salinity is rela- at which plant material is produced in photo- tively high between January and May and synthesis, is low for the open sea. lower between June and December owing The northern boundary of the Caribbean to the inflow in late autumn of low salinity plate is aligned east-west, essentially parallel water from the Orinoco and Amazon with the direction of movement of the plate, and from the equatorial convergence. creating the Cayman Trough in the north- Of note are the potential effects of sea west and a zone of folding and thrust fault- level rise in the region, increasing the need ing to the northeast at . Stresses for protecting coastal habitats. The implica- along the northern plate boundary have tions of sea level rise for the region should caused uplift in many of the islands and sub- be seriously considered, particularly in the sidence in some areas, resulting in exposure context of the role of MPAs. of marine limestones, reefs and terraces on land in many areas. The eastern boundary of Coastal Geography and Geology the Caribbean plate is a subduction zone that creates an accretionary sediment pile. With an estimated total surface area of 4.31 The sediments are initially shoved under the million square kilometers and an average pile and eventually crumpled and faulted up- depth of approximately 2,200 meters ward. The island of Barbados, for instance, (UNEP/IUCN 1988), the Caribbean is charac- is a ridge of deformed sediment extending terized by high biological productivity along above the sea surface. The Lesser Antilles, the coasts (providing rich feeding grounds formed by subduction activity from the colli- for near coral reefs, seagrass beds and sion of the Caribbean and Atlantic plates, ), but low productivity in the are volcanic islands bursting at the surface, deep ocean regions. It includes both tropical some on coral platforms and others with and subtropical waters, with Cape Hatteras high, rugged (volcanic) mountains. forming the northern limit of tropical fauna. Most island and mainland coastlines drop Ecosystem Diversity precipitously to depths of 2,000 meters within a few kilometers of shore, although The marine seascape of the Caribbean sup- there are substantial shallow water areas in ports a complex interaction of three distinct Belize, Cuba, and most notably in the Baha- ecosystems: coral reefs, stands, mas. Thus, the total area of coastal waters- and seagrass beds (see Appendix 7.1 for de- the shallow water (less than 200 meters tails on ecological features and resource deep) on which humans are most depend- problems). Distinct in their solutions to the ent for food and the zone most susceptible ecological problems of obtaining nutrients to human influence-is relatively small. As is lacking in warm surface waters, these tropi- typical of tropical seas, however, the warm cal marine ecosystems are among the most surface waters of the Caribbean rarely mix productive in the world. Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 15

Coral Reefs Mangroves

Coral reef faunas are the most diverse in the In the Wider Caribbean mangroves are world, in terms of higher taxonomic variety. found on almost every coastline, although The framework built by corals and algae sup- there are wide variations in mangrove cover- ports a variety of , sea whips, sea age depending on the geographic charac- anemones, worms, tube worms, shrimps, teristics of each island or continental area. crabs, lobsters, snails, clams, starfish, brittle- Low-relief coastal plains with ample freshwa- stars, feather-stars, sea urchins, sea cucum- ter inflows foster the most complex and larg- bers, and fish. est forests. The most impressive forests are About 14 percent of the area of the found along the coasts of Central and South world's coral reefs are found in the region. America and the Greater Antilles, which Fringing and patch reefs are the most com- have extensive systems. In the Eastern mon around islands, on the side facing the Caribbean, steep shorelines, limited freshwa- prevailing winds. Of note are the long bar- ter runoff of low dry islands, and exposure rier reef system off Belize (approximately of a large portion of the shorelines to power- 220 kilometers) and the Andros barrier reef ful waves impose limits on mangrove devel- (approximately 176 kilometers) in the Baha- opment. Nevertheless, small sheltered mas. Bank or bank-barrier reefs are moder- pockets at protected river mouths occur in ately common. Atoll-like structures are 40-50 areas. found in Belize, the Bahamas, and Colom- Of the true mangrove species occurring in bian waters. Small atoll-like reefs, more com- the Wider Caribbean, the red (Rhizophora monly known as basin or cup reefs, are mangle), black (Avicennia germinans) and found in Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and off the white (Lagunculariaracemosa) mangroves coast of Mexico. are the most widely distributed. Depending Reef development is often greater on the on the environment where they develop, smaller, low islands with low rainfall and lit- mangroves can grow into trees taller than 40 tle sedimentary runoff such as Barbuda, meters (such as those in the estuary of the Anegada, Antigua, St. Croix, Grande Terre Rio San Juan in Venezuela) or can remain and the Southern Grenadines. The Greater scrubby growth of only 1-2 meters in mar- Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico) ginal environments. generally have more extensive reefs than the Several proposed reserves in Martinique, Lesser Antilles (Putney 1982). Antigua and Barbuda feature some of the Reefs in the Caribbean are under severe largest unspoiled mangrove stands in the threat. Problems include coastal erosion eastern Caribbean. Of the largest islands, from dredging and construction, pollution Cuba has the largest mangrove coverage, es- from sewage wastes and fertilizers, removal timated at 4,000 square kilorneters, with of large quantities of fish (including use of trees reaching 25 meters in height. Continen- toxic and hazardous materials to flush out tal areas rimming the Caribbean such as Flor- fish), and resulting changes in fish popula- ida, have extensive mangrove stands on the tions, as well as damage from boat anchors west and south coasts and on the Keys. Simi- and recreational misuse (Wilson 1987). Ber- larly the Gulf coast of Mexico has many muda's reefs are severely affected by coral large mangrove-fringed coastal lagoons. diseases, particularly Black Band disease. In Other mangroves are found along the Carib- common with the rest of the Caribbean, Ber- bean coasts of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, muda suffered mass mortality of the urchin Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Venezuela and Pan- Diadema antillarumin 1983. ama. Along the coasts of Belize and Guate- 16 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

mala, mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs trapping sediments, serve as nursery areas are intimately linked in what is con'sidered for fish, and provide wetland habitats for the largest continuous reef in the Caribbean. birds, and manatees. This largely undisturbed but heavily fished area is a sanctuary for migrating birds and endangered marine animals. Elsewhere Species Diversity along the coasts of Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, mangroves cover vast Appendix 7.2 lists the distribution and status stretches of the low coastal plain influenced of threatened Caribbean coastal and marine by the inland penetration of sea water. animal species. Problems affecting mangrove ecosystems include clear-cutting for tourism develop- Fish ment, creation of ponds, and the filling in of watersheds for development Reefs play a major role in supporting the arti- projects, causing loss of habitats (Wilson sanal fisheries of many island and mainland 1987). states in the region. The main fisheries throughout the region are of small pelagics Seagrass Beds (menhaden, flyingfish, mackerel), large pela- gics (tuna, billfish and ), reef fish (snap- Both mangroves and seagrasses show simi- per and grouper), coastal demersal fish lar distribution pattems as related to generic (drum, weakfish, croaker), crustaceans richness, with the Caribbean being one of (shrimp, lobster, crab) and mollusks (oyster, the areas of greatest diversity. In the Greater scallop, and conch). There are some under- Caribbean, seagrass meadows are usually utilized resources like cephalopods (squid composed of Thalassia testudinum, or turtle- and octopus), small pelagics, deepwater grass, that is the dominant species. They are shrimp, and deepwater snapper. coated with numerous epiphytes, both micro- In general, knowledge of the status of reef scopic and macroscopic, and are inter- fish stocks is very poor. It is known though, spersed with other seagrasses such as that fisheries in the region are extremely Halodule wrightbi and Syringodiumfila- overexploited, and many islands are now forme, and major benthically rooted algae utilizing for consumption the less desirable like Halimeda, Penicillus, Udotea, Rhipo- species. There is great concern also for the cephalus, and Caulerpa (Thoraug 1981). The high level of artisanal effort and the use of seagrass beds stabilize bottom sediments unselective gear (fish traps). Two excep- that could otherwise damage corals. They tions, Belize and the Bahamas, are of note, contribute to the retardation of coastal ero- because they have the lowest human popula- sion, and species such as Thalassiaprovide tion per unit area and are the two areas grazing for sea turtles, manatees, fish and in- where the most substantial resources vertebrates. remain, despite increasing pressure. The main problem affecting seagrass beds is increasing sedimentation (Wilson 1987). Birds

Other Ecosystems Various species of waders and make their home in the Wider Caribbean re- Coastal lagoons are an important mainland gion. One species of shearwater, two of pet- feature in the Wider Caribbean region. Com- rels, two tropic birds, one pelican, one mon to many islands are salinras, or shallow frigate, three boobies, eight tems, one gull, tidal ponds. Both systems protect reefs by numerous egrets, herons and flamingos, and Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 17

many species of migratory waders (shore the Caribbean. For the purposes of this re- birds) (IUCN 1979; CMC 1992; Sprunt 1984). port the question of coverage has therefore been handled in subregions. The boundaries Invertebrates of these subregions are shown on Map 7.

Jellies, lamp shells, sponges, molluscs and crustaceans, chordates, sponges, echino- ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING MPAS derms, anthropods, coelenterates, and bryo- zoans (CMC 1992) are examples of the wide Although its focus is on MPAs, this report array of invertebrates found in the Wider emphasizes that they are successfully man- Caribbean. aged only. if they are part of a broader pro- gram to conserve natural resources and the Reptiles biological support systems of the world.

Turtle species found in the region include Description of National MPA Systems the green, hawksbill, Kemp's and olive Ridley, leatherback, Central American River The concept of protected areas is not new and loggerhead. The largest turtle nesting ar- to the region. The very first protected areas eas are in Suriname, but occur all over the in the insular Caribbean were established region. Most areas have had significant re- over 200 years ago out of a concern for wa- ductions in turtle populations as a result of tershed protection. The Main Ridge Reserve exploitation for commercial purposes. of Tobago was set aside in 1765 as "woods Crocodiles, including the Spectacled Cai- for protection of the rain" (Cross 1991), and man, Brown Caiman and the American the Kings Hill Reserve was established on St. , are found in the region. Many is- Vincent in 1791 for "the purpose of attract- land wetlands house breeding populations, ing the clouds and rain .... for the benefit much reduced in recent years, of the Ameri- and advantage of the owners and possessors can Crocodile. There are also several species of lands in the neighborhood thereof" (Bird- of iguanas in the region. Rock Iguanas sey, Weaver and Nicholls 1986). Both of found include Allen's Cay, Andros Rock, these reserves are still in existence today. Bertsch's Rock, Crooked/Acklins, San Salva- IUCN uses a system of categories to class- dor, Central Exuma and White Cay Iguanas. ify protected areas according to manage- ment objectives. This classification was Marine Mammals recently revised in 1994, and protected areas in the Caribbean have not yet been catego- The West Indian Monk Seal used to breed rized according to the new system. The cate- on Jamaican offshore cays throughout the gories referred to below therefore are those Caribbean. The last sighting of this extinct of the previous, 1982, version of IUCN classi- species was in Jamaican waters. The West In- fication. dian Manatee is at home in wetlands and According to the WCMC and IUCN (insu- shallow seas primarily in the Greater Antilles lar Caribbean [WCMC 19911 and Suriname, and coastal areas of the continents. Guyana and Belize [IUCN 19921), equivalents of all of the IUCN categories from I to V are Biogeographic Classification found in the Caribbean. Of the protected ar- eas (marine, coastal and terrestrial) that have There is no single ecosystem, vegetation, bio- been classified by the WCMC, 60 percent are diversity, habitat, or life zone classification category IV (Nature Conservation Re- system that has been applied uniformly to serve/Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanc- 18 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas tuary), 25 percent are category II (National gion, only Suriname has established pro- Parks), 7 percent are category V (Protected tected areas in the coastal zone. None of Landscape or Seascape), 5 percent are cate- these areas includes a significant subtidal ma- gory I (Scientific Reserve/Strict Nature Re- rine component. serve), and 3 percent are category III Cuba has the richest biota in the Carib- (National Monument/Natural Landmark). bean with about 50-65 percent of the fauna Nearly 75 percent of the actual area pro- and flora being endemic. Most MPAs in this tected in the region is considered to be of region are not exclusively marine, but consti- the category IV type under the IUCN classifi- tute an extension of coastal protected areas. cation system. , There are substantial numbers of pro- Management Level tected areas in the region that include ma- rine or coastal elements. An assessment has The information in this section is based on been carried out to identify those that meet the OAS/NPS 1988 Report, modified by infor- the IUCN definition of an MPA and include significant marine elements (van't Hof, per- sonal communication). Table 7.1 lists the Table 7.1 Number of MPAs in the number of MPAs with a significant marine Wider Caribbean Marine Region component and the number of other coastal Other protected areas (with coastal terrestrial or in- Coastal tertidal elements but no subtidal compo- Area MPAs Areas nent) in countries in the Wider Caribbean. Data are obtained from OAS/NPS (1988). Antigua and Barbuda 2 1 Bahamas 9 0 Barbados 1 1 Assessment of Representation Belize 2 0 of Biogeographic Zones Cayman Islands l 3 Colombia 6 1 Using a variety of sources (OAS/NPS 1988; Costa Rica 4 0 IUCN 1978; IUCN 1982; WCMC 1991) pro- Cuba 15 15 vides a relatively good information base for Dominica 1 0 Dominican Republic 7 4 determining the coverage of marine pro- Guadeloupe 1 0 tected areas. Not only is there an up-to-date Guatemala 2 0 inventory, but there are also relatively good Honduras 4 1 data concerning the ecosystems and manage- Jamaica 4 0 ment effectiveness for each area. Martinique 1 0 ment ~~~~~~~~~ 7 ~~~~~Mexico1 Table 7.2 identifies habitats within pro- Montsert 1 0 tected areas that are rated as fully managed Netherlands Antilles 4 3 (OAS/NPS 1988). The location of the subre- Panama 2 0 gions is shown in Map 7. Puerto Rico 1 3 The analysis indicates that all of the major Saint Lucia 2 1 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1 0 ecosystems of each of the subregions are in- Trinidad and Tobago 1 7 cluded within marine or coastal protected ar- United States 6 4 eas that are rated as fully managed. Areas Venezuela 8 8 are considered "fully managed" when the ob- Virgin Islands (U.K.) 1 2 jectives for which the area was created are Virgin Islands (U.S.) 2 3 being achieved. Total 96 58 The subregion of greatest concern is the Guianan. Of the three countries of this subre- a. System of 24 noncontiguous units. Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 19

Table 7.2 Habitats within Protected Areas Rated as Fully Managed Subregion MPA Habitats

Antillian Virgin Islands (U.K.). Wreck of the Rhone M.P. R Virgin Islands-(US) Virgin Islands National Park C,G,W,R,B,L,H Buck Island National Monument C,G,R,B,H Netherlands Antilles Saba Underwater Park C,G,R Antigua and Barbuda Nelson's Dockyard National Park C,G,W,R,B,L St. Lucia Maria Islands Nature Reserve C,G,B Barbados Barbados Marine Reserve C,G,B

Continental Colombia P.N. Corales del Rosario C,G,W,13,L,H P.N. Tayrona C,G,W,R,B,L,H Netherlands Antilles Bonaire Underwater Park C,G,W,R,B,L Curacao Underwater Park C,G,W,R,B,L

Northwest Mexico Parque Submarino Cozumel C,G Res. Ecologica Isla de Contoy W,B R.B. Sian Ka'an C,G,W,R,B,L,H Cuba Las Salinas Desembarco del Cranma* Pta .Frances-Pta .pedernales

Gulf Mexico Res. Ecologica Rio Lagartos W,L,H U.S., Southern Florida Looe Cay National Marine Sanctuary C,G Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary C,G John Pennekamp State Park C,G,W,R,B,L,H Everglades National Park W,B,L,H Fort Jefferson National Monument C,G,W,R,B,L,H Biscayne National Park C,G,W,R,B,L,H Rockery Bay N.E.R.R. W,L

Bahamian Bahamas Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park C,G,W,R,B,L,H Inagua National Park C,G,W,R,B,L,H Union Creek Reserve G,W,B,I.,H

Guianan Suriname Wia Wia Nature Reserve* G,W,B,I,,H Coppename-Mouth National Reserve' G,W,L,H Galibi Nature Reserve* G,W,B,L,H Note: All areas are fully marine except those marked with an asterisk (*), which have a terrestrial or intertidal compo- nent, but no major subtidal component. Key: B=beaches; C=; G=seagrass beds; H=critical habitat for endangered species; L=bays, lagoons, or estuar- ies; R=rocky beds; Wwetlands. Source OAS/NPS (1988). 20 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas mation obtained during the preparation of Jamaica and St. Lucia where recommenda- this report. tions are already being implemented. Of Generally, two-thirds of Caribbean pro- note is the Soufriere Marine Management ected areas are not achieving full manage- Area Plan in St. Lucia. In countries where nent capacity (OAS/NPS 1988). This is not plans have not yet been endorsed, their rec- surprising since many personnel of the Carib- ommendations have been incorporated in bean region do not consider themselves to other policy documents. be adequately trained for their job at any The Wider Caribbean countries of Pan- level in the management of protected areas. ama, Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize have A survey by Gardner (1991) indicated this to documents, but these have not yet become be a full 80 percent. The lack of training in- system plans (IUCN 1992). Costa Rica, the stitutions regionally for protected area man- country with the best consolidated system, agement is a major contributing factor. has documents that have separately ana- It should be pointed out that none of the lyzed its subsystems, including current man- areas rated as fully managed by the agement status. There is also a Central OAS/NPS (1988) are managed by local gov- American System (SICAP) of protected areas emnment agencies. Either they are managed in which there are a few coastal marine by an agency of a metropolitan government parks, protected areas and wetlands in- such as in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Is- cluded from Costa Rica, Honduras, Guate- lands, and Guadeloupe or by nongovem- mala and Belize. Generally these areas are mental organizations such as the poorly managed (IUCN 1992). Venezuela is Netherlands Antilles Parks Foundation presently adjusting its system of national (STINAPA) or the National Trusts of the Ba- parks according to current international crite- hamas, British Virgin Islands, Jamaica and St. ria (IUCN 1992). Lucia. International and Regional Initiatives System Plans Relating to MPAs

From country to country, system plans have World Heritage Convention gained the respect of governments and vari- ous other organizations involved in pro- Appendix 7.3 lists the signatories from the tected areas management. System plans Wider Caribbean to the World Heritage Con- ensure that management objectives specific vention and other major conventions. There to a particular country are clearly defined. are three existing World Heritage sites in the System plans have been developed for sev- Wider Caribbean that include marine ele- eral countries in the region. Plans, or their ments: the Everglades National Park in the equivalent, have been developed for the Do- United States (Florida), Rio Platano Bio- minican Republic (Departamento de Vida Sil- sphere Reserve (Honduras) and Sian Ka'an vestre 1990), the British Virgin Islands (BVI Biosphere Reserve (Mexico). National Parks Trust/CANARI 1986), Anguilla Listing of a World Heritage Site (natural) (marine only) (Jackson 1987), Antigua and is being pursued by St. Lucia. Recent adjust- Barbuda (Robinson 1979), Dominica ments in the criteria for cultural landscapes (Shanks and Putney 1979), Grenada made at the Meeting of the Parties in Santa (GOG/OAS 1988), and Trinidad and Tobago Fe, New Mexico (U.S.) in 1992 may increase (GOTT/OAS 1980). System plans are cur- opportunities for World Heritage listings in rently in their final stages of development in the region. Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 21

UNESCO Man and the BiospheeProgrwnme governmental meetings of CEP. The SPAW program is currently implementing specific In contrast with Central America where MAB projects to strengthen a Wider Caribbean enjoys wide application, in insular Carib- Parks and Protected Areas Network and to bean the program has not been broadly em- promote revenue generation, training, re- ployed. With the exception of terrestrial gional management guidelines, and evalu- activities in Cuba, the majority of MAB appli- ation and assessment of protected areas. In cations in the insular region occur in territo- addition, funding is being sought for priority ries of the United States. There are five conservation activities for species of regional existing Biosphere Reserves with marine concern as listed in the Protocol. components: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (including Tayrona NP, Colombia), Guade- Convention on Intervention on Nature loupe Archipelago (Guadeloupe), Sian Ka'an Protectionand Wildiffe Preservation (Mexico), Virgin Islands National Park (U.S.), in the Western Hemisphere and Everglades National Park (U.S.). The establishment of Biosphere Reserves The Western Hemisphere Convention has with marine components is actively being been the framework for north-south techni- pursued in the Dominican Republic. cal assistance between protected area agen- cies in North America, especially the U.S. Convention on Wetlands of International National Park Service and Fish and Wildlife Importance Especialy as Waterfowl Service, and those in the Caribbean. Habitat(Ramsar) IUCN Marine ConservationStrategy Appendix 7.3 lists signatories from the Wider Caribbean to Ramsar. In 1976-77, the Marine Steering Committee (MSC) of IUCN identified the Caribbean as a Programfor Specially ProtectedAreas priority region within the IUCN Marine Pro- and Wildlife gram. A "Strategy for the Conservation of Liv- ing Marine Resources and Processes in the A Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Caribbean Region" was undertaken during Wildlife for the Wider Caribbean was 1978 and completed in 1979 through two adopted by governments of the region in projects by IUCN that were financed by the January 1990 as part of the Cartagena Con- World Wildlife Fund (WWF). vention, under the framework of the Carib- A strategic planning process was used at bean Environment Program (CEP). In the scale of the Wider Caribbean that in- pursuance of the Protocol, CEP has devel- volved the collection, mapping, and field oped a regional program for Specially Pro- verification of data on the general marine en- tected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW). The vironment, habitats, species, socio-economic budget and workplan of the SPAW Regional information, and legal jurisdictions. Study ar- Program for each biennium are developed eas that were representative of resource and reviewed every year by government ex- types and particular problems were visited perts through the Interim Scientific and Tech- to gain insights at the field level. Graphic in- nical Advisory Committee (ISTAC) pursuant formation was analyzed by map overlay to the provisions of the Protocol. Final gov- methods to identify concentrations of living emmental approval to the SPAW workplan resources and their support systems, and so- and budget is provided every year by inter- cio-economic activities. Superimposition of 22 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

these two data sets indicated areas of con- be significant to note that small island states flict and compatibility for the human and constitute most of the early ratifiers of the natural systems. Areas of multiple natural re- Convention. sources and of singular importance were identified. Priorities for action were outlined The Barbados Declaration based on the general graphic information and specific recommendations gained from In May 1994, the Barbados Declaration was the field visits to the representative study signed by the 41 small island developing areas. states of the world to reaffirm the principles Through the strategic planning process, and commitments to sustainable develop- the following was produced: a data bank for ment embodied in Agenda 21. Complement- the Caribbean Region with resources, refer- ing the Declaration is a program of action ences (these data have been updated and that includes measures for enhancing the de- digitized by the CEP), a bibliography to sup- velopment of integrated coastal zone plan- port the data bank, a data atlas for the Carib- ning and management, and within this bean Region, analysis and synthesis models, framework, for protecting coastal and ma- profiles of the study areas, and repre- rine resources. The need for improved man- sentative priorities for action in the study ar- agement and broader representation of eas, including protected areas. marine protected areas is clearly implicated.

The Convention on Biological Diversity USAID Training Strategy

Implementation of the Biodiversity Conven- During 1979-80, the U.S. Agency for Intema- tion, a product of the 1992 Earth Summit tional Development supported the develop- (United Nations Conference on Environment ment of the "Study of Requirements for and Development, Rio de Janeiro) is begin- Training in Natural Resources and the Envi- ning concurrent with the preparation of this ronment in Latin America and the Carib- report, and few conclusions can be drawn at bean," which was carried out by the World this early stage. Actions called for in the Con- Wildlife Fund-US. Many of the region's ex- vention include: the preparation of national perts and institutions relating to natural re- plans, programs and strategies for conserva- source management participated in the tion and sustainable use of biodiversity; es- study. The study documented the status and tablishment of systems of protected areas for trends for natural resources in the region in situ conservation and promotion of envi- and current and planned training programs. ronmentally sound development around pro- Target groups were identified together with tected areas; rehabilitation of degraded current gaps in training opportunities. A ecosystems; research and monitoring; and wide variety of training methods was pro- prevention of the introduction of exotic spe- posed, as well as actions required to support cies. The Convention is also expected to pro- training in the region. The study resulted in mote participatory conservation involving the preparation of eight volumes of back- communities in and around sites critical for ground material, three of which were on the the protection of biological resources. It also Caribbean, and a detailed "Strategy for Train- provides a framework for international coop- ing in Natural Resources and Environment: eration, especially in the area of exchange A Proposal for Development of Personnel of information relevant to conservation, in- and Institutions in Latin America and the Car- cluding technology transfer and training. ibbean." While it is too early to assess the Conven- The proposal was never accepted for fund- tion's importance to the Caribbean, it may ing by USAID. The background documents Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 23 have, however, been a major reference on biodiversity conservation in ACP countries the subject and have served as background over the last 20 years constituted one of the material when the Consortium of Caribbean first activities. Based on the review, priorities Universities for Resource Management was in the ACP states and the possibilities for of- established in 1988. fering support were identified. The strategy proposed builds on the re- Neotropical Action Plan gional action plan that was developed by IUCN/CNPPA, as well as the existing SPAW A Strategy for Protected Areas of the Neot- Regional Program of UNEP. The main aim of ropical Realm was adopted at the 27th Work- the strategy is to increase the number of ef- ing Session of IUCN's Commission on fectively managed national parks and pro- National Parks and Protected Areas held in tected areas in the insular Caribbean. This is the Nahuel Huapi National Park, Argentina, to be achieved by: 9-14 March 1986. Caribbean participation in . Increasing local capacity for managing the session was limited. The strategy aimed protected areas through networking, re- at providing a regional overview of actions gional support, technical cooperation, needed to more effectively plan and manage and demonstration protected areas of the Neotropical Realm. . Promoting collaboration and regional self The Strategy was directed at the govern- sufficiency ments of the region and international organi- . Collecting and analyzing information and zations including IUCN, WWF, UNEP, FAO, opinions in the region so that priorities OAS, World Bank, and bilateral develop- can be updated and effective programs ment agencies. It outlined 4 goals, 5 objec- defined, funded, and implemented. tives, and 125 activities. No specific follow-up mechanism for dissemination or Canadian International Development implementation of the Strategy was put in Agency place. While it provides a checklist for re- quired actions in the larger region, there is CIDA has had a strong presence in the no evidence that it has been used in the Car- Wider Caribbean from the early 1980s. Pro- ibbean to stimulate, fund, or guide imple- jects designed to fight water pollution and mentation of protected area programs. protect the natural resource base are pres- ently underway in Jamaica, Honduras, Costa European Union Strategyfor Protected Rica, Guatemala and other countries through- Areas in the Caribbean out the Wider Caribbean. CIDA has, for in- stance, provided funding to the Montego The European Union (EU) has committed it- Bay Marine Park, Jamaica, for purchase of self, through Article 33 of the Lome IV con- equipment to enhance the protection of vention, to supporting the African Caribbean coral resources. Its recently launched Green and Pacific (ACP) states in their efforts to Fund provides an additional source of fund- achieve "the protection and enhancement of ing for various conservation projects. the environment and natural resources, the halting of deterioration of land and forests, Intemational Nongovemmental the restoration of ecological balances, the Conservation Organizations with preservation of natural resources and their Initiatives in the Region rational exploitation." A strategy for the man- agement and development of protected ar- The Nature Conservancy (TNC), a U.S.- eas has been developed. A review of EU based NGO, has a regional program for the and other support to protected areas and Caribbean that targets development and 24 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

management of the important parks of the and administration) related to insular Carib- region. TNC works with partner conserva- bean protected areas for-fiscal 1991 was tion organizations in the region to improve about US$150,000. In Belize, WWF/US has the information base for conservation, en- provided 46 disbursements for funding of hance local management capacity, and ob- project activities in the period between 1979 tain the financial resources needed for and 1992. These activities, address protected protected area management. TNC is working area conservation and management, protec- with local organizations in Jamaica and the tion of species of special concern, and Dominican Republic to establish national strengthening of conservation institutions. trust funds to suppQrt park management. TNC's major funding initiative for park man- Wildlife Conservation Society agement in Latin America and the Carib- bean, entitled "Parks In Peril," is an WCS is the conservation arm of the New emergency effort to-safeguard the most im- York Zoological Society. WCS or its prede- portant and most imperiled natural areas in cessors have been active in Caribbean con- the hemisphere by bringing onsite manage- servation since the early part of the century, ment to 20 critical parks and reserves each undertaking biological surveys in Trinidad year for a ten year period (TNC 1990). Some and Guyana and establishing a pioneering 37 "critical parks and reserves" and another biological research center, the Asa Wright Re- 30 "proposed and unprotected sites" of the search Centre, in Trinidad. WCS is currently Wider Caribbean have been identified for in- active in Belize, where it provides technical clusion in the program. Marine/coastal sites assistance to the GEF project in coastal zone with an active TNC presence under this in- management, supports research, and moni- itiative include: tors avifauna in the lowland forests. . Ria Lagartos/Celes, Mexico * Sian Ka'an, Mexico ConservationInternational . Maya Mountain/marine, Belize . Tempisque-Nicoya, Costa Rica CI is a U.S.-based NGO active in Suriname, * Corcovado/OSA, Costa Rica Guyana, and Belize in the Wider Caribbean . Marino Ballano, Costa Rica Region. In Suriname and Guyana, CI main- . Montego Bay Marine Park, Jamaica tains national offices that provide technical . Jaragua, Dominican Republic assistance, project development, and aid in . Parque del Este, Dominican Republic coordination between national and interna- Salt River Bay, U.S. Virgin Islands tional organizations. Activities have concen- St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands trated on improving the capacity of . Sierra Nevada, Colombia indigenous communities to protect resources Utria, Colombia and on rapid appraisals of biological re- Bastimentos, Panama sources to assess conservation priorities. In Darien, Panama Guyana, a rapid assessment of the Kanuku Mountains has led to increased protection World Wildlife Fund for habitat of the Harpy Eagle. In Belize, CI undertook a biological assessment of the Co- The WWF/US responds to project requests lumbia River Forest Reserve as part of its submitted by local.organizations. Current Rapid Appraisal Program (Parker et al 1993). protected area projects support resource as- CI has participated in the creation of sessment, infrastructure development, and Chiquibul N.P. and is active in the develop- educational activities. The budget (projects ment of a transboundary protected.area link- Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 25 ing Chiquibul and adjacent lands in Guate- jects covered by CANARI's training activities mala. It is now assisting in the design of a that are directly relevant to MPAs include biosphere reserve to link four key protected coral reef monitoring techniques, conflict areas. CI has also provided support for the resolution, participatory planning, revenue development of the technical report on the generation, and ecotourism for rural develop- expansion of the Coxcomb Basin Wildlife Re- ment. Partial financial support to some CA- serve (CI 1992). NARI programs has been provided by the CEP.

Regional Organizations and Initiatives Organization of Eastern Caribbean States Marine Parks Program, Caribbean Conservation Association The OECS Natural Resources Management Unit has identified protected areas (marine The Caribbean Conservation Association, and terrestrial) as a program focus. The pro- supported by Canada's CIDA and partially at gram concentrates on training and informa- times by UNEP's Caribbean Environment Pro- tion exchanges at the regional level and on gram, has developed a marine parks pro- a demonstration project in St. Vincent. gram that focuses on pilot projects in Anguilla, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Caribbean Environment Program Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, and Trinidad and The Protocol on Specially Protected Areas Tobago. The program also is designed to dis- and Wildlife (see above) was adopted by seminate information, train personnel, estab- the Governments of the Wider Caribbean in lish a database, develop materials for public January 1990 as part of the Caribbean Envi- awareness and education, and publish tech- ronment Program of UNEP. In follow-up, nical articles. CEP has developed a regional program for SPAW that includes networking, revenue Parks and Protected Areas Program, generation, training, development and imple- Caribbean Natural Resources Institute mentation of regional guidelines and criteria, monitoring, evaluation, and assessment of CANARI is a regional nongovernmental or- protected areas and wildlife (IJNEP 1994). ganization dedicated to the study and promo- An overall budget of US$756,500 has been al- tion of mechanisms and policies that located for SPAW for the 1994-95 biennium enhance the formal participation of commu- and US$400,000 in counterpart funding is be- nities and their institutions in conservation ing sought. and management. Protected areas are an im- portant part of CANARI's program, which in- CentralAmerican Commissionfor cludes a range of field research, information, Environmental and Development training and extension activities. In the field of marine protected areas, CANARI supports CCAD was established in 1989 and is com- a number of experimental field projects im- posed of ministers assigned by each govern- plemented by local and national institutions, ment. It meets regularly to review regional such as the establishment of a co-manage- agreements and has produced a regional ment system for the Soufriere region of St. agenda that defines its environmental policy Lucia and the ecodevelopment of the and proposes a number of projects and ac- Samana Bay in the Dominican Republic. Sub- tivities on sustainable development. 26 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Paseo Pantera Priority Areas and Recommendations

In addition to working to preserve terrestrial National Prioities for the Establshment ecosystems, PP strongly emphasizes protec- and Management of MPAs tion and wise management of coastal and ma- rine ecosystems. Regional components of its With two-thirds of the protected areas in the program include regional ecotourism, environ- Caribbean not achieving the objectives for mental education, and a regional conservation which they were estabfished, considerable in- strategy. In Honduras, PP is presently estab- vestment will have to be made before they lishing working relations with the Honduran can be considered to be true protected areas. Government and nongovernmental organiza- Enhancing the local capacity to manage tions to protect and improve management of should thus be given priority at least equal to coastal resources of the Bay Islands. In Belize, that of establishing more areas, especially if Costa Rica and Panama similar efforts are un- they would not have proper management. derway for conservation of wetlands and The areas listed as requiring management sup- coastal marine environments. port are those identified by OAS/NPS (1988) as being only "partially" or "legally" (on paper Latin American Technical Network only) protected (as opposed to the third cate- on Protected Areas and Wildlife gory used by OAS, "fully" protected).

Under the coordination of the FAO Regional Existing MPAs that require management Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, support (an asterisk * indicates that the area this network prepared the Nahuel-Huapi Ac- has both a marine and a terrestrial component): tion Plan for Protected Areas in 1987. The _ Palaster Reef Marine National Park (An- network proposed ideas for the improve- tigua and Barbuda) ment of MPAs in the region and in 1988 _ Salt Fish Tail Reef (Diamond Reef) Ma- held a regional workshop in the Dominican rine National Park (Antigua and Barbuba) Republic on Marine and Coastal Protected Ar- _ Black Sound Cay. National Park (Baha- eas. The network presently satisfies some of mas) the needs for improved information flow by _ Conception Island National Park (Ba- attempting to compile information on pro- hamas) tected areas for dissemination. (See Appen- _O Pelican Cays Land and Sea Park Na- dix 7.4 for a listing of some institutions and tional Park (Bahamas) the support services they provide.) _01" Peterson Cay National Park (Bahamas) _O Union Creek (within .Inagua NP) Man-. The Audubon Society aged Nature Reserve (Bahamas) _O Barbados Marine Reserve (Barbados) At its inaugural meeting at the turn of the _O Half Moon Caye National Monument century, the Audubon Society of the United (Belize) States expressed concern for the West In- _ Santuario de Fauna y Flora Cienaga dian flamingo flocks in the Bahamas. The So- Grande de Santa Marta (Colombia) ciety has actively worked on its concern _O Reserva Natural Haines Cay to Cotton since the 1950s and has guided a research Cay (Colombia) and monitoring program in partnership with _ Parque Nacional Natural Isla de Sala- the Bahamas National Trust. This successful manca (Colombia) program has restored this species through- _ Santuario de Fauna y Flora Los Flamen- out the Wider Caribbean. cos (Colombia) Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 27

Refugio de Vida Silvestre Barra del " Parque Nacional Marino Turtle Harbor Colorado (Costa Rica) (Honduras) -Ow Parque Nacional Cahuita (Costa Rica) _o Middle Morant Cay NR/SciR Nature Re- "Ow Parque Nacional Tortuguero (Costa Rica) serve (Jamaica) "Ow Refugio Nacional Vida Silvestre Gon- _Ow Ocho Rios Protected Area (Jamaica) doca Manzanillo (Costa Rica) _ Montego Bay Marine Park (Jamaica) (Cub'a) _ Southeast Pedro Cay NR/SciR Nature 'Ow Parque Nacional Marino del Reserve (Jamaica) Naranjo (Cuba) _ Caravelle Littoral Conservation Area "Ow Cayo Blanco de Casilda (Cuba) (Martinique) 'Ow Parque Nacional Marino Cayo _O Reserva Especial de la Biosfera Ria Ce- Caguama (Cuba) lestun (Mexico) 'Ow Reserva Floristica Manejada Cayo _ Reserva Fauna El Garrafon (Mexico) Caguanes/Cayos de Piedra (Cuba) _O Reserva Marina La Blanquilla (Mexico) uOw Parque Natural Cayo Romano (Cuba) _O Fox's Bay Bird Sanctuary Private Re- -OW Area Natural Turistica Cayo Saetia serve (Montserrat) (Cuba) _ Comarca Indigena Kuna Yala (San w Refugio de Fauna Cayos de Ana Maria Blas) (Panama) (Cuba) _ Parque Nacional Portobelo (Panama) 'ow Delta del Canto (Cuba) "O Reserva Natural Estuarina Nacional Ba- 'Ow La Isleta-Nuevas Grandes (Cuba) hia Jobos (Puerto Rico) -- w Peninsula Guanahacabibes (Cuba) _ Maria Islands NR (St. Lucia) 4 Parque Natural Sur _ Soufriere Marine Management Area' (Cuba) (St. Lucia) 0-~ National Park Cabrits (Dominica) _O Tobago Cays Marine Park (St. Vincent "Ow Soufriere Scott's Head Marine Reserve and the Grenadines) (Dominica) _'w Buccoo Reef Marine Parks (Trinidad Santuario de Fauna Banco de la Plata and Tobago) (Dominican Republic) _Ow Parque Nacional Archipelago Los Ro- Reserva Scientifica Natural Lagunas Re- ques (Venezuela) donda y Limon (Dominican Republic) _ Parque Nacional Laguna de la Restinga -- w Parque Nacional Los Haitises (Domini- (Venezuela) can Republic) _ Refugio de Fauna Silvestre Isla de Aves .4 Parque Nacional Del Este (Dominican (Venezuela) Republic) _O Parque Nacional Laguna de Tacarigua Parque Nacional Jaragua (Dominican (Venezuela) Republic) 'w Parque Nacional Mochima 'Ow Parque Nacional Submarino La Caleta (Venezuela) (Dominican Republic) O Parque Nacional Morrocoy 'O Parque Nacional Monte Cristi (Domini- (Venezuela) can Republic) w Reserve Naturelle du Grand Cul de Sac Regional protected area specialists, P. Ros- Martin (Guadeloupe) abal (IUCN), A. Smith (CANARI), WCMC, 'Ow Biotopo Punta de Manabique (Guate- L. Holowesko (IUCN/CNPPA), and Sue Wells mala) (UNDP/GEP consultant) identified the areas Parque Nacional Rio Dulce (Guatemala) of national priority for the establishment of "00- Biosphere Reserve Rio Platano (Honduras) new MPAs. 28 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Proposed new MPAs: lands, wetlands, and protected areas of the '_ Barbuda (Antigua and Barbuda) World Conservation Monitoring Centre Andros Barrier Reef (Bahamas) (WCMC) at Cambridge, U.K. A series of Bacalar Chico (Belize) maps was developed from these atlases illus- Caye Caulker (Belize) trating the areas of multiple resources. The _O Laughing Bird Caye National Park maps were prepared using overlays, with ar- extension (Belize) eas of importance being indicated by areas *Aw Port Honduras (Belize) of greatest overlap. They are obtainable > Sapodilla Cayes (Belize) from the WCMC. "4w Southern Lagoon (Belize) The Strategy for the Conservation of Liv- '*w*' Southwater Caye (Belize) ing Marine Resources and Processes in the _ Turneffe Atoll (Belize) Caribbean Region (IUCN 1979) proposed pri- Tortuguero/Miskito Marine System ority areas for marine resources conservation. (Costa Rica) These areas are shown on Map 7. A list of the ~ Zapata Swamp (Cuba) areas with multiple resources is as follows: > Los Canarreos Archipelago (Cuba) * South Florida (U.S.) 9 Louisianan-Texan Coastal Zone (U.S.) Regional Priorities for the Establishment . Campeche (Mexico) and Management of MPAs . Cancun (Mexico) * Gulf.of Honduras (Belize, Guatemala and Past Efforts Honduras) . Mosquitia (Honduras and Nicaragua) From 1978 to 1981, the Eastern Caribbean . Orinoco River Delta Area (Venezuela and Natural Area Management Program (EC- Trinidad) NAMP), the forerunner of the Caribbean . Arrecife Alacran (Mexico) Natural Resources Institute (CANARI), under- . Bocas del Toro (Panama) took a survey of conservation priorities in . Magdalena River Delta Area (Colombia) the Lesser Antilles to devise a logical, system- . Vieques-Virgin Islands-Anguilla atic and effective strategy for conservation * Turks and Caicos Islands action. The results of the survey are in data . Crooked-Aklins Bank (Bahamas) atlases for the 25 islands and island groups * Inagua and Little Inagua (Bahamas) of the region and an overall report on priori- a Samana Area (Dominican Republic) ties and recommendations. . Delta and the Gulf of Go- The final report made specific recommen- nave (Haiti) dations on area-specific priorities for the im- plementation of a system of protected areas Areas of singular resources: representative of the major ecosystems of * Kemp's Ridley Turtle Nesting Area (Tam- the Lesser Antilles. These included existing pico, Mexico) protected areas in Dominica and Guade- * Humpback Whale Calving Area (Sil- loupe and proposed new areas in Barbuda, ver/Mouchoir/Navidad Banks) St. Kitts, and Anegada. Initiatives for the es- . Crocodylus rhombiferArea (Western tablishment and development of these new Cuba) areas, in cooperation with local govern- a Olive Ridley Nesting Area (Suriname) ments and conservation organizations, have been pursued by ECNAMP/CANARI and the Current Priorities Caribbean Conservation Association. The data atlases have served as basic references The following sites were identified by Lynn within the region and for databases on is- Holowesko (IUCN/CNPPA), Pedro Rosabal Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 29

(IUCN), Yves Renard (CANARI) and Sixto shore in some areas, mostly in the center. Inchausteguii (IUCN/CNPPA and UNDP) To the south and north the reef comprises as being of regional priority according to scattered patch reef and massive corals. In the criteria listed in the introduction of this some areas the reef is nearly 1 kilometer report. wide. The outer edge of the system drops off to the Tongue of the at Proposed new MPAs: about 2 meters and from there abruptly to - Barbuda (Antigua and Barbuda) the ocean floor at 1,200 meters. >b Andros Barrier Reef (the Bahamas) The lagoon between the reef and the "0 Belize Barrier Reef (several repre- shore contains isolated heads of Siderastrea sentative sites) radians, and gorgonians are also abundant _ Tortuguero/Miskito Marine System in some areas, as well as extensive patch (Costa Rica) reefs. Conchs (Strombusgigas) and helmet shells (Cassis tuberosa) are also found in Existing MPAs that require management the lagoon. loggerhead (Caretta caretta), support: green (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill tur- v'' Archipelago de los Canarreos (Cuba) tles (Eretmochelys imbricata) all nest along _O Manzanillo-Monte Cristi (Dominican the beaches of Andros, although all are Republic) under tremendous pressure from the local "Ow Silver Bank (Dominican Republic) population.

-_ Soufriere Marine Management Area Colonies of seabirds, including the white- (St. Lucia) tailed tropic bird, sooty tern, bridled tern, and brown noddy tern are found in the cays The justification for the selection of these that make up the reef systems. Green Cay, sites is outlined in the following discussion. east of the main island of Andros, is an im- portant nesting site of the white crowned pi- Barbuda (Antigua and Barbuda) geon, a much favored, locally limited species. Antigua and Barbuda is a two-state nation The'reef is considered one of the finest located in the Lesser Antilles. Barbuda is a barrier reefs in the Caribbean and is the low, limestone island of about 174 square third largest reef system in the world. It is an kilometers with a coastline formed by la- extremely important resource for the fishing goons, mangroves and coral reefs. The latter industry, both local and national, particularly are reportedly in excellent condition. This as a source of grouper, snapper and other site consists of a group of very well-con- commercial fish, spiny lobster and conch. served biotypes (coral reefs, sandy beaches The barrier reef is also of emerging impor- and lagoons) of particularly high species tance to the nation's tourism industry, with richness, most notably in the mangroves that its new emphasis on ecotourism, and these provide a nesting area of numerous pro- increasing pressures are adversely affecting tected birds such as pelicans and frigates. the reef system. Illegal The island of Barbuda is small and has a by foreign poachers has also degraded the small population; however, tourism is'rap- reef's resources, as has the use of toxic sub- idly increasing the risk of modification of stances to collect crayfish. biotypes that are not institutionally protected. In 1984 the Bahamas National Trust recom- mended to the government that the reef sys- The Andros BarrierReef (the Bahamas) tem' be declared a national reserve under the This reef is located 2-5 kilometers offshore protection of the Trust that also manages the of the island of Andros in the western Baha- country's national parks. This' proposal is cur- mas. A line of low cays runs parallel to the rently under consideration. 30 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Representative Sites on the Belize BarrierReef has been studied since the 1950s. Turtles (Belize) nesting in Tortuguero, although able to dis- With a length of 720 kilometers, the Belize perse through most of the Atlantic, remain Barrier Reef is the second largest in the mostly in feeding grounds in nearby waters world after Australia's Great Barrier Reef. along the coast of Nicaragua. The country's reef system is also unique in The area is not only important as the main featuring three atolls, of which Glovers Atoll Caribbean nesting ground for green turtles, is considered to be the best example of an but also harbors a wealth. of biological diver- atoll in the Caribbean. Species diversity is sity. The coastal area has an excellent tropi- high for the Caribbean and, in general, reef cal forest with a significant portion of Costa condition is good, although there are rapidly Rica's biodiversity represented. The marine growing pressures from coastal develop- part includes coral reefs, turtle grass flat- ment, tourism, watersports, sedimentation lands, and important fishing grounds for the from changes in land use, and . local population. Associated with the barrier reef ecosystem The area warrants high priority for the es- are extensive areas of relatively pristine tablishment of a marine protected area and coastal wetlands, lagoons, seagrass beds and seems particularly suited to a multiple-use mangrove forest, which provide critical habi- zoned MPA such as a Biosphere Reserve. tat for threatened species such as sea turtles and manatees. In view of its exceptional Arcbipielago de los Canarreos(Cuba) character, there is growing support for the This is one of the most important marine designation of the Belize Barrier Reef as a and coastal wildlife areas of Cuba, with a World Heritage site. combination of limestone, sandy and man- There are proposals for a number of new grove small islands, as well as a large coral protected areas that would substantially in- reef that has been very well preserved. The crease the amount of protected subtidal habi- islands have a number of threatened and en- tat and the representativeness of different demic species of plants, mammals, reptiles types of marine habitat within the national and birds. Some of the islands are very im- system of protected areas (see proposed portant as nesting areas, especially new MPAs under national priorities). While for migratory birds. More than 500 species Belize's reputation as one of the last "un- of fish, 60 species of coral, and more than touched wildernesses" has led to substantial 100 species of sponges have been recorded international donor support, the country still from the coral reef. There are 64 submarine lacks the full capacity to adequately protect archaeological sites, mainly shipwrecks from its outstanding marine biodiversity. Manage- the 17th and 18th centuries. There is also a ment plans for existing MPAs have not been particularly important and interesting system fully implemented and there remains con- of underwater caves. cern about the long-term sustainability of This area is included in the Cuban Na- many projects once current sources of fund- tional Protected Areas System, and there are ing are exhausted. many scientific studies on its ecology and biodiversity. However, despite its impor- Tortuguero/MiskitoManne System (Costa Rica) tance as a conservation area, it is not under Tortuguero Beach in Costa Rica, became proper management. There is a lack of re- well known through both scientific and sources and personnel for the protection of popular publications by Dr. Archie Carr. the areas, and there is no integrated manage- Known as the most important nesting beach ment plan for the area as a complete marine in the area for green turtles and other spe- and coastal unit. This area is under great cies such as hawksbill and leatherbacks, it pressure for tourism development and fisher- Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 31 ies activities and requires adequate resources Each year 80 percent of the known Atlantic for its conservation on a long-term basis. population migrates here during winter. From January to April pregnant females Manzanillo-Monte Cnsti Area (Domincan come to whelp, and males come to court Republic) and mate receptive females. Newborn calves This coastal marine area is located in the start to grow and gain sufficient strength to northwestern corner of the Dominican Re- migrate north with the rest of the popula- public along the border with Haiti. The area tion. The area, previously an important fish- has extensive mangroves and brackish and ing ground for local fishermen, has been freshwater lagoons that connect with the declared as the Silver Bank Marine Sanctu- Yaque del Norte River, making a complex ary by the Dominican Government. system of wetlands. Although the area has been established as The site includes habitat of the endan- a marine sanctuary for over 10 years and has gered (Crocodylus acu- a broadly representative governing commis- tis) where a very dispersed, low-density sion, it has been difficult to manage the area population remains. The area is rich in wa- due to lack of resources. This is the only terfowl, including flamingos, roseate spoon- non-coastal marine sanctuary in the Domini- bills, black and white ibises, ducks, and can Republic. sandpipers. It is also the habitat of the His- paniolan slider and the rhinoceros iguana. SoufriereMarine Management Area (SMMA) All four marine turtles present in Hispanio- (St. Lucia) Ian waters-the green, hawksbill, loggerback, St. Lucia is one of the northern Windward Is- and leatherback-nest on the vast beaches. land in the eastern Caribbean. The Soufriere Due to the extensive turtle grass habitat, the region is located on the southwest coast of area supports a relatively important segment the island and is important for its reef re- of the local manatee population. There are sources and the quality of its coastal land- extensive shallow water reefs, and in a com- scapes-and the economic activities these plex of seven offshore keys, regionally im- resources support. The management area is, portant colonies of marine birds breed. legally established and includes marine re- The area was declared a National Park by serves, fishing priority areas, and multiple- the Dominican Republic in 1983. While the use areas, with a precise zoning system that area has not been managed as a protected seeks to respond to the various management area, neither has it been subject to much de- issues and achieve compatible conservation velopment pressure. and development objectives. It was estab- lished through a process of participatory Silver Bank (Banco de la Plata)Marine planning and conflict resolution that in- Sanctuary (Dominican Republic) volved all stakeholders and sought to define Silver Bank is located in the northern territo- a consensus among all the interest groups. rial waters of the Dominican Republic, long The management of the area is the responsi- known to navigators due to its multiple bility of a local nongovernmental organiza- "coral heads" that have caused ships to foun- tion, the Soufriere Regional Development der. It was not until the 1970s that Silver Foundation, acting under the authority of Bank was recognized as the main Atlantic the Department of Fisheries of the Ministry breeding ground for humpback whales. of Agriculture. Financial and technical sup- Studies by the Center for Coastal Studies port could allow the SMMA to expand and and the Center for Marine Biology (CIBINA- consolidate its management structure and ac- UASD) have verified that this is the most im- tivities, design and conduct a comprehen- portant breeding ground for the species. sive research and monitoring program, and 32 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas link the marine protected areas to planning bean is that local organizations do not have and management initiatives in adjacent ter- the human and financial resources to effec- restrial environments. The design of activi- tively implement their programs. An impor- ties in the SMMA should be carried out by tant share of the resources for local programs the Government of St. Lucia, Ministry of Agri- comes through international assistance. culture, Department of Fisheries, and Soufri- Much of this project assistance is adminis- ere Regional Development Foundation. tered by individuals who do not have a grasp of the scale of small islands. They find it diffi- Regional Strategy for Marine Biodiversity cult to relate to the requirements of resource Conservation management institutions that will never be larger than a handful of people. The smaller Although the focus of this report is on the island, the more acute the problem. MPAs, the areas of highest regional priority Many of the implementation requirements of identified for this report are common to development assistance programs are not ap- both the terrestrial and marine protected ar- propriate for staffs of five or ten. eas, particularly,' but not exclusively, be- The Caribbean islands collectively have cause some MPAs are a part of larger the human, and in some respects, the finan- systems that include terrestrial areas. cial resources to establish and manage a rep- resentative system of protected areas. They Institutional Capacity to Manage, do not have these resources on an individ- Not Gap Analysis ual basis, however, and therein lies the prob- lem. The multiplicity of national jurisdictions Worldwide, there is legitimate concern over in the region severely hampers the flow of tihe legal protection of representative sam- human and financial resources between is- ples of the earth's ecosystems. There is thus lands. Regional cooperation based on stable a preoccupation with identifying gaps in rep- regional structures for supporting national resentation and focusing resources in filling programs is absolutely essential. This is diffi- those gaps. While in theory this may be an cult to put into place, however, because the appropriate response, in the Caribbean situ-" costs are high, donors seldom work to- ation at least, it should be accompanied by a gether, and most technical assistance pro- program to ensure effective management of grams draw on human and financial protected areas. Two-thirds of the protected resources from outside the region. While areas in the Caribbean are not effectively this approach may temporarily solve some managed. International and regional assis- immediate problems at specific sites, it tends tance to local programs should focus on de- to block the development of longer-term so- veloping the local capacity to manage as lutions based on the use of the human and well as the identification and filling of gaps financial resources of the region. in theoretical representation. The reports in this series have identified Effective Cooperation and Unimpeded as priorities both existing MPAs that requife Information Flow improved management and potential new MPAs. In the Wider Caribbean the emphasis Effective cooperation can De obtained only is strongly on the former category. when there are effective mechanisms for stimulating and maintaining a flow of infor-' Issues of Scale mation between the islands. While consider- able exploratory work has been carried out One of the biggest problems facing pro- to develop databases and communication tected area programs in the insular Carib- networks linked by computers, these have Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 33 not worked satisfactorily. The most effective, stituency. Since it is clear that the potential and most expensive, mechanism for informa- for increased support to protected area man- tion transfer is periodic meetings of regional agement by governments is limited, the real park professionals. Next in effectiveness is key to improved management is the mobili- the transfer of information through a central zation of civil society through NGOs, com- communication point such as a traveling con- munity groups, and businesses. sultant, the offices of regional organizations, or computer links. Newsletters are perhaps Regional and National Environmental next in line in effectiveness, although they Funds tend to be focussed on only a few topics. Protected areas have the potential to con- Sourcesfor Increased Support serve much of the region's biodiversity, maintain many of its ecological systems, and None of the major actors in protected areas protect important water resources for human management-government agencies, intema- consumption. Because lack of funding is the tional organizations, nongovernmental con- main reason that two-thirds of the 218 pro- servation groups, local communities, or the tected areas (marine and terrestrial) of the business sector-can provide the full range Caribbean are undermanaged, a priority is and volume of resources needed to manage the establishment of mechanisms (such as a systems of protected areas. Government regional fund or system of national environ- budgets in the Caribbean are declining, not mental funds) to improve and stabilize pro- increasing. Thus, sources for increased sup- tected area management. Given the diversity port of protected areas will have to come of small governmental and nongovernmental from one or more of the other actors. organizations managing protected areas in the region, regional support and technical Balance between Planning, Implementation, cooperation between countries are essential and Evaluation for the success of national efforts. At both the regional and national levels, there has been an emphasis on planning, Training and Education much less of a focus on implementation, and almost no attention paid to evaluation. A fundamental building block of manage- Yet these three elements of the project cycle ment capacity is skilled manpower. None of are intimately linked and essential for success. the tools for protected area management can be applied effectively without trained and ca- pable staff. Yet even the most. capable peo- Other Recommendations ple cannot implement protected area programs on their own. The solutions to the Without the essential building blocks of man- training and education needs of the region agement, it is difficult to address critical is- are not simple. However, there is no way sues such as community participation and that protected areas can develop without awareness, involvement in the private sec- solving these problems. tor, development of buffer zones, applica- Trained staff for the management of pro- tion of science, amelioration of immediate tected areas, at any level, are in general not threats, and trans-frontier initiatives. available in the Caribbean region. This is evi- Perhaps the most important building denced by the Gardner survey that found block for the management and development that 80 percent of the protected area person- of Caribbean protected areas is the identifica- nel of the Caribbean region do not consider tion and mobilization of a committed con- themselves to be adequately trained for their 34 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

job. Details about the number of individuals . Identification of "centers of excellence" employed in the management of protected around the region to teach individual areas in the Caribbean is sketchy, but esti- specialized courses on their subject of mates run at about 150 professionals and excellence 600-700 technicians (Putney 1993). . Design of study programs that allow pro- The training needs of the region are com- fessionals to take series of courses at the plex, but the following are paramount: centers of excellence and earn a training . An institutional and financial framework certificate that allows for a regular and systematic * Negotiation of agreements with the civil park training program services of the region so that the training * Recognition of the training program by certificates are recognized for career ad- resource management institutions of the vancement and pay increases at protected region so that successful completion of area management agencies courses leads to career advancement for . Development of course materials and the trainees training of trainers for in-country training * Course content that recognizes the special of park guards. This is of paramount institutional requirements and biophysical importance. characteristics of insular Caribbean * Regular training programs available in English, Spanish, and French Conclusion * Practical program content that empha- sizes field work and actual case studies in Marine protected areas help maintain ecosys- the Caribbean island context tem productivity, safeguarding essential eco- * Low-cost training facilities. logical processes by controlling activities that disrupt them or that physically damage Recent meetings of the Caribbean Steering the environment. Some of these processes Committee of IUCN's Commission of Na- are physical, such as the movement of tional Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) water, food, and organisms by gravity, have endorsed these needs and have-recomi- waves, or currents. Others are chemical, mended the following actions for attaining such as concentration and exchange of the necessary training: gases and minerals, or biological, such as nu- * Definition of a regional nongovernmental trient transfer from one trophic level to an- institutional framework, set up with the other. Some, such as nutrient cycling, are of active participation of the region's park all three types. It is these processes that management agencies, tourist industry, maintain ecosystem integrity and diversity. other interested corporations, and bi- and Success of these systems depends on the ex- multilateral assistance agencies istence and implementation of appropriate * Development of a financial framework, legal frameworks, general acceptance by lo- such as trust funds at both the regional cal people through education and participa- and national levels, that guarantees a sta- tion, and an effective. and well-supported ble stream of income and that is accept- management system. able to governments, the private sector, Essentially a continuous, participatory, in- and bi- and multilateral assistance agencies terrelated, financially sustainable framework * Development of syllabuses and course is needed to achieve sustained capabilities modules for professionals and technicians of marine and other protected areas in the to provide specialized training on pro- region to continue their support of life sys- tected area management tems today and in the future. Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 35

APPENDIX 7.1 ECOLOGICAL FEATURES AND RESOURCE PROBLEMS OF CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES Small Islands Antigua/Barbuda Low flat volcanic island on coral Excessive sand removal destroying platforms and marrow submarine reefs; overexploitation of lobster shelves: white sand beaches, seagrass, population: resort building on beaches. bays, fringing reefs. Bahamas Large cluster of relatively flat islands; Exploitation of fisheries; pollution from extensive atoll-like reef systems. boats; boat anchor damaging reefs. Barbados Low flat volcanic island on coral Near-shore fisheries overexploited; platforms, narrow submarine shelves; coastal erosion from dredging and white sand beaches, mangroves, construction stressing reefs, changing seagrass, bays, fringing reefs. water circulation patterns and quality; pollution from sewage, wastes, fertilizers. British Virgin Islands Small clusters of low, hilly volcanic Mangroves cleared for tourism's islands: mangroves, seagrasses, salt development causing loss of habitats ponds, coral reefs. and increasing sedimentation in seagrass and reef areas; boat anchors damaging reefs; domestic sewage problems. Dominica High rugged volcanic mountains, no Hurricane devastation to reefs; coastal prain, numerous rivers and rain maintenance of primary coastal road forest cover. encouraging shoreline erosion, oil pollution and ship-based wastes. Grenada Numerous steep, volcanic islands; Overexploitation of all fisheries; beach mangroves, seagrass () beds. erosion near tourism centers and reefs. airport, coastal tree removal and sand mining increasing erosion; seabome and solid waste pollution. Montserrat High rugged, volcanic island; black Overexploitation of fisheries. sand beaches, rainforest. Netherlands Antilles Two island groups: leeward (Curacao, suffering from heavy Bonaire, Aruba), low hills and bays industrial and recreational use; with mangroves, seagras beds, fringing, .depletion of fisheries off Saba bank; reefs; windward (St. Maarten, St. sewage pollution and dumnping. Eustatius, Saba), high rugged, volcanic with coral reefs and seagrass areas. St. Kitts/Nevis High volcanic, narrow coastal shelves: Near-shore fisheries overexploited; coastal erosion from sand removal; sewage pollution from tourism activities; inadequate port facilities. St. Lucia High, rugged, volcanic island with Erosion from forest clearing and sahd extensive seagrass beds, coral reefs, few mining affecting reef and seagrass beaches. habitats; tourism-related construction stressing habitats. St. Vincent/Grenadines Volcanic, mountainous, reefs, black Seabome tar pollutiori on beaches; sand beaches; Grenadines have largest excessive sand mining for construction; shelf area in Lesser Antilles. waste from yachts. Trinidad/Tobago Tropical forests, swamps, white sana Pollution pressure and recreational beaches, reefs. misuse ofCaroni Swamp; coastal zone resource use conflicts; over collecting of turtles and shells. Large islands Cuba Largest archipelago, largest marine Domestic and'industrial pollution, platform, karstic and marine plains, illegal fishing, hunting and collecting of mountainous, 20 percent wetdands, corals; rapi tourism development. extensive mangroves forests. 36 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Dominican Republic Mountainous, extensive mangrove areas. Dependence on fisheries imports; new tourism development without environmental assessments; mangrove destruction for fuelwood; ciguatoxic reef fish; overfishing of lobster; illegal collecting of corals,birds, and turtles, sewage From tourism development. Haiti Westem third of Hispaniola Island, low Few inventories of marine resources; mountains, numerous beaches, bays, pollution near urban centers; mangrove mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs. destruction for fuelwood; overexploitation of fish, invertebrate and shell export trade. Jamaica Large mountainous island with coastal Extreme overfishing; domestic and plain areas; mangroves and coral reefs. industrial pollution; high sediment loading from bauxite mining; coastal erosion from sand removal; dredge spoils into mangrove areas; unregulated coastal activities including tourism and collection of reef curios. CentralAmerica Belize Second largest barrier reef in the world, Poaching of turtles, lobster and conch extensive flat swampy coast, cays and by foreigners; saltwater intrusion into offshore atolls. freshwater wells; unregulated coastal activities; seaborne pollution; sewage dumping in mangroves. Costa Rica Rugged mountains. extensive streams Mangove clearing for fuel and shrimp an rivers, wide coastal plain, fewer ponds; fewer disturbance than Pacific reef and mangrove areas than pacific side; some siltation and pollution from coast. pesticides and oil. Guatemala Coast dominated by beaches, Oil spills, inadequate training in marine mangroves, estuaries. resources. Honduras Mountainous, long coast with wide Tourism activity without prior submarine shelves; mangroves environmental assessments; abundant; coral reefs and seagrasses in fragmentation of coastal authorities; outlying island areas. tourist related sewage; overfishing. Mexico Few mangroves: wide lagoons with Extent of marine resources needs undisturbed seagrasses and reef areas. investigation. Nicaragua Large ; coastal areas Extent of marine resources needs uninhabited due to extensive jungles, investigation. rivers, and swamps. Panama Mountainous, long coast, wide shelf, Overfishing and collecting of turtles; sparse mangroves. limited information on coastal resources. South America Colombia Extensive coastal areas influenced by Few marine inventories; water and oil major rivers; island archipelagos pollution; sedimentation; collecting of offshore. endangered turtles species; mangroves filling. Venezuela Extensive coast that is one-quarter Conflicting demands on coastal areas; mangroves. destruction of natural habitats; construction causing coastal erosion; filling in of mangroves swamps; overfishing of turtles and lobsters; river dams altering hydrologic regimes Marine Region 7. Wider Caribbean 37

APPENDIX 7.2 DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THREATENED CARIBBEAN COASTAL AND MARINE SPECIES Species (common names) Status Country

Tricbecbus inunguis (Amazonian manatee, V Col, Ven S. American manatee) Trichechus manatus (Caribbean manatee, V Mex, Bah, Cuba, D.Rep, Haiti, Jam, P.Rico, N. American manatee) Trin/Tob, Belize, C.Rica, Guat, Hond, Nica, Pan, Col, Ven Pterodroma basitata(Black-capped petrel, V Haiti Diablotin) Caretta caretta (Loggerhead turtle, Toriuga V Mex, Antig, Bah, Cuba, D.Rep, Jam, Ne.Ant, verde del Atlantico and Pacifico, Tortuga P.Rico, Trin/Tob, C.Rica, Guat, Hond, Nica, Pan, Blanca) Col, Ven

Cbelonia mydas (Green sea turtles, Toriuga E Mex, AntiWBarbud, Bah, Cay.Is, D.Rep, Gren, verde del Atlantico and Pacifico, Tortuga Guad, Haiti Jam, Mart, Ne.Ant, P.Rico, St.Luc, Blanca) St.Vin, Trin/Tob, USVI, Belize, C.Rica, Guat, Hond, Nica, Pan, Col, Ven Eretmocbelys imbricata(Hawksbill turtle, E Mex, Antig/Barbud, Bah, Cay.Isl, Dorn, D.Rep, Carley, Toruga Carey, Tataruga verdaderia Gren, Guad Haiti, Jam, Ne.Ant, P.Rico, St.Luc, and de Pente) St.Vin, Trin/Tob, USVI, Belize, C.Rica, Guat, Hond, Nica, Pan, Col, Ven Lepidochelys kempi (Kem 's Ridley, Alt. Ridley E Mex sea turtle, Tortuga Lora) Lepidocbelys olivacea (Olive Ridley turtle, Pacific E Mex, Cuba, P.Rico, C.Rica, Guat, Hond, Nica, Ridley turtle, Totgaverde, Parlama) Pan, Col, Ven Dermatemys mawii (Central American river turtle) V Mex, Belize, Guat, Hond, Pan, Col, Ven Caiman crocodylus crocodylus (Spectacled V Trin/Tob, Col, Ven Caiman) Caiman crocodylusfuscus (Brown Caiman) V Mex, Cuba, Nica, Pan, Col, Ven Crocodylus acutus (American crocodile, .V Jam, Ne.Ant, Belize,,C.Rica, Guat, Hond, Nica, Crocodilo, Lagarto Negro) Pan, Col, Ven Ameiva polops (St. Croix ground lizard) E USVI Family Antipathidae (Black corals) CT Caribbean Region Strombus gigas (Queen conch) CT Caribbean Region Panulirusargus, P.Guttulus (Spotted spiny CT Caribbean Region lobster) Status Key E=endangered, V=vulnerable, CT-commercially threatened. Source: Wilson 1987. 38 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

APPENDIX 7.3 PARnCIPATION OF WIDER CARBBEAN REGION IN MAJOR INTERNATIONAL CONVENTONS AND PROGRAMS Counthy W17 NS RA RS BR WH1M CC BD

Anguilla (U.K.) X X Antigua and Barbuba X X X X Aruba (Netherlands) X X Bahamas X Barbados X X Bermuda X X Belize X X British Virgin Islands X X X Cayman Islands (U.K.) X X X X Columbia X X X X Costa Rica X X X X Cuba X X X X X Dominica x Dominican Republic X P X Grenada Guadeloupe X X P X Guatemala X X X Guyana X X X Haiti X X Honduras X X Jamaica X Martinique X X X Mexico X X X X Montserrat (U.K.) X X Netherlands Antilles X X X Panama X X X X St. Kitts-Nevis X X St. Vincent and The Grenadines X St. Lucia X P X X Suriname X X X Trinidad and Tobago P X Turks and Caicos X X X X Venezuela X X X U.S. Virgin Islands X X X WH Signatory to the World Heritage Convention. NS Has inscribed natural sites under the World Heritage Convention. RA Signatory to the . RS Has established Ramsar sites. BR Has established biosphere reserves under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme. CC Signatory to the Cartegena Convention's Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Protocol only. BD Signatory to the Biodiversity Convention. X Currently established. P Establishment being actively pursued. Source IUCN 1991; Harrison 1991. Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 39

APPENDIX 7.4 INSTMMONS PROV ING REGIONAL SUPPORT SERVICES

CON TEC REV MGT NGO SUB Institution PRO ASE NET AST MT INF GEN ID ID REG

InternationalOiganizations Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP) x x x ALL Food and Agricultural Organization of the x x x x x ALL United Nations (FAO) Organization of American States (OAS) x x x x ALL Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) x x x x L UNESCO x x x x x x ALL BilateralPrograms Smithsonian Institution x x x x ALL U.S. Agency for International Development x x x x x x ALL (USAID) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) x x x x ALL U.S. National Park Service (USNPS) x x x ALL Nongovernmental Organizations Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) x x x ALL Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI) x x x x x x x ALL Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y x x x x x G Ensenasa (CATIE) International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) x x x x ALL National Audubon (U.S.) x x x ALL RARE x x x x x ALL The Nature Conservancy (TNC) x x x x x x x ALL WIDECAST x x x x ALL World Wildlife Fund-US (WWF) x x x x x x x ALL CON PRO Conventions and protocols ASE Assessments and surveys NET Networking TEC AST Technical Assistance TRA Training INF Infrastructure development REV GEN Revenue generation MGT ID Institutional development of resource management agencies NGO ID Institutional development of nongovernmental organizations SUB REG Subregions (G-Greater Antilles; L-Lesser Antilles; ALL-Whole region) 40 A. Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

BmBIoG.RAPHy Caribbean marine and coastalprotected ar- eas. Washington, D.C.: OAS Department of Re- Birdsey, R., PR Weaver, and C. Nicholls. 1986. Tbe gional Development, NPS Internal Affairs. forest resources of St. Vincent, West Indies. Re- Ogden. 1987. Cooperative Coastal Ecology at Car- search Paper S0-229. U.S. Department of AgA- ibbean Marine Laboratories. Oceanus culture, Forest Service, Southern Forest 30(4)(Caribbean Marine Science 1987/88). Experiment Station. New Orleans, LA. Parker, T. A. III, B.K. Holst, L. H. Emmons, and British Virgin Islands National Parks Trust and J. R. Meyer. 1993. A BiologicalAssessment of Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CA- the Columbia River ForestReserve, Toledo Dis- NARI). 1986. A parks andprotected areassys- trict, Belize. RAP Working Papers 3. tem planfor the British Virgin Islands. St. Croix, Putney, A. 1982. Finalreport, survey of conservation VI: Caribbean Natural Resources Institute. prioritiesin the LesserAntilles. Car. Cons. Assoc., Central American Commission for Environment Car. Env., Tech. Rpt. 1. St. Croix, V.I.: ECNAMP. and Development (CCAD). 1990. Mangroves of Robinson, A. 1979. Identification and develop- the Wider Caribbean. ment of a national park system in Antigua and Conservation International (CI). 1992. 1992 Fact Barbuda. Unpublished project report, Govern- Sbeet: Conservation Internationalin Central ment of Antigua-Barbuda. America. Washington, D.C. Shanks, D., and A. Putney. 1979. Dominicaforest CMC. 1992. GlobalMarine BiologicalDiversity andpark system plan. St. Croix, V.I.: Dominica Strategy. Sixth Draft, December 23. For. and Wildlife Div. and ECNAMP. Cross, R. 1991. 35th Working Session, IUCN Com- Sprunt, A. 1984. Status and conservation of sea mission on National Parks and Protected Areas, birds of the Bahamas Islands: Status and con- Santa Dormingo, 29 April-3 May. Personal com- servation of the worlds sea birds. Craxell: munication. Evans, Schreiber. Departamento de Vida Silvestre. 1990. La diversi- Thoraug, A. 1981. Biology and Management of dad biologica en la Republica Dominicana. Seagrass in the Caribbean. Ambio 10(6). Santo Domingo: Sec. de Est. de Ag., Subsec. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). de Rec. Nat., Dept. de Vida Silv. 1991. Report of the ninth meeting of the moni- Dillon and others. 1987. Geology of the Carib- toring committee on the action planfor the Car- bean. Oceanus 30(4)(1987/88 Caribbean Ma- ibbean Environment Programme, Kingston rine Science). 12-14 June. UNEP (OCA)/CAR IG.8/5. Nairobi. Global Environment Facility (GEF). 1991. Work United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Program, Second Tranche. Report by the Chair- CCA, and University of Michigan. 1980. Survey man to the December 1991 Participants' Meet- of Conservation Prioritiesin the Lesser Antilles. ing (Part Two). Washington, D.C.: Nairobi. UNDP/World Bank/UNEP/GEF. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - . 1992. Work Program, Third Tranche. Re- and World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1988. port by the Chairman to the April 1992 Partici- CoralReefs Of the World (Volume 1: Atlantic pants' Meeting (Part Two). UNDP/World and Eastern Pacific). Nairobi. Bank/UNEP/GEF. van't Hof, T. 1993. ConsultantReport on Pro- Grenada Government and Organization of Ameri- tected Area Projects inJamaica, Dominica, can States (OAS). 1988. Plan andpolicyfora and Suriname. Saba, Netherlands Antilles. system of nationalparksand protected areas. Wilson. 1987. Caribbean marine resources: A re- Washington, D.C.: OAS Department of Re- port on economic opportunities. Oceanus gional Development. 30(4)(Caribbean Marine Science 1987/88). The Nature Conservancy (TNC). 1990. Parks in World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). peril. a conservationpartnership for the Ameri- 1991. Draft review of protected areas systems cas. Washington, D.C. in the Caribbean islands. Unpublished report, Organization of American States (OAS) and U.S. Protected Areas Data Unit, World Con. Monitor- National Park Service (NPS). 1988. Inventory of ing Centre, Cambridge, U.K. Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean 41

. 1991. Protected area summary statistics, . 1979. A strategyforthe conservation of Neotropical Caribbean. Unpublished report to living marine resources andprecesses in the WCMC, Cambridge, U.K. Caribbean region. Gland, Switzerland. World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1991. . 1992. Protectedareas of the world, a re- Oceans, A world conservation atlas. Gland, view of nationalsystems (Volume 4: Neartic Switzerland. and neotropical). Gland, Switzerland and Cam- bridge, U.K.

MARINE REGION 8 West Africa

Sue Wells and Chris Bleakley, editors

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARNE cludes a number of oceanic islands that BIODIVERSrFY have very different characteristics from the mainland. The West African Marine Region covers the south and west coast of Africa from the Oceanography Mozambique/ border to the Straits of Gibraltar. It includes the following Except as noted the following description is countries: Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Congo, drawn from Portmann and others (1989). Cote d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, On the west coast of Africa five distinct The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, and relatively persistent oceanic currents are Liberia, Mauritania, Morocco, Namibia, Nige- of importance in respect of the transport of ria, Senegal, , South Africa, substances, water temperature, meteorology Togo, and Western Sahara. It also includes and biological conditions. They are the Ben- the following groups of oceanic islands: Ca- guela Current flowing along the coast of the nary Islands (Spain), Cape Verdes (Portu- southwest African zone veering offshore at gal), Sao Tome and Principe, Ascension about 6°S; the Guinea Current flowing east- (U.K.), St. Helena (U.K.), Tristan da Cunha ward and southeastward along the coast of (U.K.), and Bouvet (Norway). the , almost to the equator, es- The region covers a huge area: the entire sentially constituting a continuation of the length of the West African coast, from the Equatorial Counter-Current; the South Equa- arid, sandy coastlines of Morocco and the torial Current that flows west some distance Western Sahara in the north, through the from the coast between about 10°S and the tropical, deltaic and mangrove-fringed equator and the Canary Current that flows shores of central Africa, to the southern arid southwestward along the coast in the north- coastlines of Angola and Narnibia. For the em part of the region feeding both the purpose of this report, the region also in- Guinea Current and the North Equatorial cludes the east coast of South Africa, up to Current. Both the Canary Current and the the border with Mozambique. It also in- Benguela Current transport cool water to-

43 44 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ward the equator with current speeds of since the last glaciation. Sandy beaches about 20 centimeters per second. The dominate much of the coastline, with exten- Guinea Current carries warm water toward sive lagoon systems sometimes found be- the coast at speeds of 1-3 knots with the hind them. Such sandy beaches are highest currents in the summer months. All constantly changing their profiles due to the currents are essentially wind-driven. beach erosion and build-up of sand. Rocky On the east coast of South Africa the outcrops occur at intervals; some of the warm surface waters of the most extensive and continuous rocky shores flow south to the southern tip of the African occur in the Cape Verde area where they continent. are volcanic in origin (Schwartz 1982). The prevailing regional winds along the The northwest coast from Morocco to west coast of the region generate an off- Senegal is sandy and relatively unindented. shore flow component in the surface layer From Dakar, southeast to Monrovia it be- of the sea through the combined action of comes very indented and there are a num- the wind stress and the rotation of the earth. ber of offshore islands. Further east, it is The offshore transport is compensated by more deltaic in nature, low lying and sandy, onshore flow at intermediate, 50-300 meters with large lagoons separated from the sea depths and vertical flow toward the surface by dunes, interspersed with rocky areas layer () in band of some tens of from Monrovia to Cape Palmas and in kilometers adjacent to the coast. This is a Ghana. The eastem area is dominated by very important feature along large parts of the delta of the Niger River, the second larg- the coastline: along the northwest part from est delta in the world, covering 36,260 October to April, along limited parts of the square kilometers (Hughes and Hughes northern Gulf of Guinea coast in summer 1992). The 3,000-kilometer coastline of months, and along the southern coastline in South Africa includes many habitats affected the Benguela current system with very by the different ocean currents running paral- strong upwelling in winter (August) and lel to the coast in the east (warm water) and weaker upwelling in summer (November to west (cold water). The southern region is a February). transition zone between these water masses, High precipitation and numerous rivers on having fauna and flora representative of the central West African coast result in large both systems as well as its own endemic spe- masses of warm (above 24°C) and low salin- cies. ity (less than 35°'0/) water, known as Much of Guinea-Bissau is below 100 me- Guinean waters circulating in the Gulf of ters and has a very indented submerged Guinea, that rest on colder water. These wa- coastline (274 kilometers, but measuring at ters are permanent off Sierra Leone and Libe- least 1,000 kilometers if all the inlets are in- ria and in the (Nigeria, cluded) with long, branched flooded valleys, Cameroon and Gabon), but occur seasonally estuaries and offshore islands harboring in other areas where they are replaced by large mangrove communities (Hughes and colder and more saline waters at certain Hughes 1992). This is the largest continental times of year due to other currents and up- shelf in West Africa covering an estimated wellings (UNEP/IUCN 1988). 53,000 square kilometers. Nigeria has a coast- line of 853 kilometers and includes some of Coastal Geography and Geology the most extensive and valuable coastal wet- lands in West Africa, few of which receive The western coast of Africa has been sufficient protection (Hughes and Hughes strongly influenced by the deposition of sedi- 1992; Robinson and de Graaff 1992). Ghana ments as sandbars and deltas during and has 540 kilometers of sandy coast backed by Marine Region 8: West Africa 45 a broad coastal plain, with an estimated 50. of rare and endemic species, some of which lagoons (Robinson and de Graaff 1992). are most closely related to Brazilian species The Micronesian Islands in the Northeast (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Atlantic include the Azores, Madeira and the Coral communities are present off the Salvages (see Region 5: Northeast Atlantic in Maputoland coast on the northeast coast of Volume I), the Canary Islands and the Cape South Africa. All of these areas fall within Verdes. The Cape Verde archipelago com- MPAs (UNEP/IUCN 1988; WCMC 1992). prises 14 islands off the west coast of Africa, with rocky coastlines; the Canary Islands Mangroves and Madeira also comprise a number of vol- canic islands. Over 25,000 square kilometers of mangroves The South Atlantic has relatively few is- extend along the West African coast from land groups compared with other major Senegal to Angola, in many areas forming a ocean areas. St. Helena and Ascension are band up to 50 kilometers wide between the both isolated volcanic islands with exposed seaward and landward faces and extending rocky shores. The Tristan da Cunha group far upstream on many rivers. Diversity is comprises three small volcanic islands (Tris- lower than in the Indian Ocean, and there tan, Inaccessible and Nightingale) in one are only six species of mangroves; these are group and Gough Island that lies 400 kilome- in the same group as those of western Atlan- ters to the southeast. They have rocky tic shores and the Caribbean. The cold wa- shores with kelp. (Bouvetoya) ters of the southern tip and Namibia have lies southwest of and is one of formed an effective barrier to migration be- the most isolated islands in the world. tween the east and west coasts of Africa. The islands of Sao Tome, Principe and An- The northern limit of mangrove distribution nobon (Equatorial Guinea) lie in the Gulf of is just north of Tidra Island in Mauritania; fur- Guinea. ther north the cold Canary Current and the lack of coastal alluvium due to the aridity of Ecosystem Diversity the hinterland inhibits mangrove growth (CEC 1992; Hughes and Hughes 1992). The Coral Reefs southern limit occurs around Lobito in An- gola (approximately 12°30'S) (Schwartz Due to the cool waters of the Benguela Cur- 1982). rent and the Canary Current, there are no Despite the lower diversity, the West Afri- true reefs along the. West African coast or in can coast has the best developed and most the archipelagos of the Gulf of Guinea and extensive mangroves in Africa. The most ex- Cape Verde, However, there are a number tensive areas are in Guinea and Guinea-Bis- of sites with rich coral communities where sau, both of which were formerly almost hard substrate and suitable clear water is entirely fringed with mangroves; although available, for example, around. the oceanic is- much has been cleared they still have some lands and along some of the rocky mainland 285,000 hectares and 100,000 hectares, re- coasts. Some of the main areas include the spectively. Nigeria has more than 35 percent Cape Verde Islands, the Islands in the Gulf of all West African mangroves (about 9.7 mil- of Guinea (Fernando Po, Principe, Sao lion hectares) and still has large stands, par- Tome, Annobon), and in isolated areas on ticularly in the Niger Delta (500,000 the mainland coast (including sites in hectares). There are some 300,000 hectares Ghana, Gabon and Cameroon). These com- in Cameroon, mainly in the north and a simi- munities need further investigation. Al- lar area in Gabon. Large areas are also though diversity is low, there are a number found in the Gambia and Sierra Leone (Stu- 46 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas art, Adams, and Jenkins 1990; Fisher and where the coastline is influenced by long- Spalding 1993; Hughes and Hughes 1992; shore drift. The Sahara desert reaches the CEC 1992). A detailed description of the coast along a broad front of the coasts of mangrove flora and fauna and vegetation Morocco and Mauritania. communities is given in Hughes and Hughes Between Monrovia and Cape Palmas and (1992). also in Ghana the coast is rocky and of high Despite the importance of this region for relief. Elsewhere along the Gulf of Guinea it mangroves, relatively few are protected, al- is low lying and sandy and characterized by though the Parc National Delta du Saloum a series of large and relatively deep lagoons was created specifically to protect man- that are separated from the sea by dune-cov- groves in Senegal, and Guinea now has a ered barriers (Schwartz 1992). mangrove management program (CEC 1992>. In the south the Namibian coast is domi- nated for long distances by sandy beaches Other Wetlands and sand dunes, broken by bare rocky shores. There are a number of regional reviews of West African wetlands: Hughes and Hughes Open Ocean, Deep Sea, UpweUings (1992), Altenburg (1987), Burgis and Sy- moens (1987). These provide a very good There are permanent areas of upwelling off basis for identifying regional and global sites Senegal, Zaire and Namibia, driven by the of importance for coastal wetlands, includ- Canary and Benguela currents. The areas of ing mangroves. upwelling are characterized by high produc- There are numerous deltas, including sev- tivity, and the southern part of the region is eral major ones. These deltas may have ex- a particularly rich fish production area. In tensive associated wetlands, such as those of the northern area the population the River Gambia where permanent tidal is dominated by Sardinapilcbardus, swamps extend in a semi-continuous belt whereas in the Benguela Current regime it is that reaches nearly 200 kilometers upstream, Sardinops ocellata. Two groups of pelagic and extensive mangroves in the lower species are found throughout the region: reaches. Examples of these deltas are: the Sardinella aunita mainly in the intertropical Volta River in Ghana that has a complex la- waters and various Trachurus sp. Demersal goon system including Keta and Songaw fish include a wide variety of species, but in (Songor) lagoons, surrounded by mangroves the equatorial zone fisheries their exploita- and important to migrants; Niger delta in Ni- tion is not important. Various species of crus- geria with an area of over 36,000 square kilo- tacea are found in the area and there are meters-the largest delta in the world; and important fisheries for lobsters in the north- Congo River in Zaire (Altenburg 1987; Stuart, ern and southern zones, deepwater shrimp Adams, and Jenkins 1990; Schwartz 1992). off the coast of Senegal and Angola, and prawns in the Gulf of Guinea. In the coastal Beaches, Dunes, Cliffs regions and in the lagoons unaffected by hu- man activities, exploitable marine resources Steep, sandy fringing and barrier beaches are abundant with fish species and prawns predominate in much of the region. Rocky and mollusks (Portmann and others 1989). headlands are more restricted and coastal dunes are rare except in the south. Species Diversity Sandy beaches are extensive along the coast of Morocco, Mauritania, the Western In contrast to the shores of East Africa and Sahara and the north coast of Senegal, the western Atlantic, the tropical Atlantic Marine Region 8: West Africa 47

coast of Africa has an impoverished biota. versity of fish life, as does the high primary Coral reefs and the rich and varied life they productivity based on of cold, nu- support are largely absent from the western trient-rich waters, off Senegal, Zaire, and Na- coast of Africa. Similarly lacking are the ex- mibia, and in the outflow of the tensive meadows of seagrasses that often oc- Congo/Zaire River drainage system. cur in the lee of fringing reefs. At the same The most important fish are the time, in many groups there are relatively (Sardinops ocellata) in the southern Ben- high levels of endemism. guela upwelling and the pilchard (Sardina The marine resources of the West African pichardus) in the north. The horse mackerel region play an important role in the local, na- (Tracharussp.) is found throughout the re- tional and regional economies, especially the gion, with the (Merlhiccius sp.) the densely populated areas. The region's climate most important demersal fish. Fishing for pe- tends to be damp and humid (especially the lagic fish such as tuna is an important indus- equatorial areas) and away from the beaches try in many of the oceanic islands including that are increasingly being developed, the the Cape Verdes and Canary Islands. coastal West African countries have limited Several of the oceanic islands have high facilities for tourism. Fauna and flora of the levels of endemism in their fish fauna. Of coastal wetlands, including mangroves, are the 80 shore fish found around St. Helena, described in Hughes and Hughes (1992). 10 (12 percent) are endemic to these waters alone, and 16 (20 percent) are found only in Seaweeds the waters of St. Helena and Ascension (Ed- wards 1990; Oldfield 1987). Relatively high The tropical west coast of Africa is one of levels of endemism are found in the fish fau- the least diverse regions for seaweeds. There nas of Ascension. is also low diversity around isolated oceanic The tropical west coast of West Africa has islands such as St. Helena. However, rela- an estimated 239 species of reef fish, of tively high levels of endemism are found in which over 70 percent are endemic (Nunan algae around the oceanic islands (St. Helena 1992). The Gulf of Guinea islands probably and Ascension), at the northern (Senegal) have a particularly high level of endemism and southern (Angola) limits of tropical within the shore fish (McAllister and others, West Africa, and around the southwest Cape in press). of South Africa (WCMC 1992; Norse 1993). Reptiles Invertebrates Several beaches provide important nesting Lobsters are fished throughout the region sites for the green and Olive Ridley turtles while deepwater shrimp and prawns are (Chelonia midas and Lepidochelys olivacea) trawled, with intertidal mollusks being har- as well as for three other turtle species. As- vested on a daily basis. These marine re- cension Island is a globally important nest- sources represent a significant source of ing beach for green turtles, with 1,800-2,000 protein-in Ghana, for instance, consump- females nesting each year; hawksbills also tion of marine products exceeds that of nest there (Mortimer-and Carr 1984). meat derived from terrestrial resources. Birds Fisb The West African mainland coast is visited The botanical wealth of estuaries and la- seasonally by millions of migratory birds (es- goons makes a major contribution to the di- pecially waders). Descriptions of important -48 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas sites can be found in Hughes and Hughes to Angola. Otherwise, both sirenians and ce- (1992). The characteristics--coastal silt depo- taceans, despite local protection in places, sition with mangrove development-that are threatened by hunting and trapping in make this area so important for waders shark nets. means that there are relatively few areas Fur seals and elephant seals occur around where seabirds can safely breed. The only the southern oceanic islands, such as Gough large concentrations of seabirds are in Mauri- and Bouvet. The endangered Mediterranean tania, the Gambia and Senegal where the Monk Seal occurs in the Madeiran archipel- hinterland is arid and coastal deposition of ago and as far south as northern Mauritania. sand creates predator-free islets (Cooper, Williams, and Britton 1984). Biogeographic Classification There are important seabird colonies off the coast of South Africa, the most important The work of Hayden and others (1984) has areas being Shark Island, Namibia and Bird been used to classify this region. It includes Island, Lambert's Bay and Marcus Island. five Oceanic Realms, four Coastal Realms Many of the oceanic islands have important (Western Subtropical divided into a northern seabird nesting sites, although in many and a southern component, Western Tropi- places populations are declining, for exam- cal, Western Intertropical, and Eastern Sub- ple, on the Cape Verdes and in several other tropical), and 5 faunal provinces (Lusitanian, Micronesian islands (Le Grand, Emmerson, West African, Southwestern African, Agul- and Martin 1984). The Canary Islands have has, and Western Indian Ocean). six breeding seabird species, including frig- ate birds and shearwaters-the four islands north of Lanzarote being particularly impor- ASSESSMENT OF EMSTING MPAS tant; the Salvages have major colonies (Le Grand, Emmerson, and Martin 1984). Description of National MPA Systems Ascension is the single most important sea- bird nesting site in the South Atlantic in There are substantial numbers of coastal pro- terms of both diversity and abundance, with tected areas in the region, although for Boatswain Bird Island being particularly no- many it has been difficult to determine how table. St. Helena used to support 15 breed- far the boundaries extend and to distinguish ing seabirds, but nine of these no longer whether marine elements are included. Nev- breed and two species (Pterodromarupi- ertheless, an attempt has been made to iden- narum and Bulweria bifax) are extinct (Wil- tify those having some marine focus and liams 1984). Tristan da Cunha, especially on which are primarily coastal land. Map 8 Nightingale and Gough, and Bouvet also shows the MPAs that have been recorded as have important seabird colonies. including a subtidal component (noted in On the Gulf of Guinea islands, the Tin- the national sections below). Other coastal hosas islets near Principe, are the most im- protected areas are also listed. Table 8.1 portant nesting sites, and the Sette Pedras shows the number of marine and coastal Islets of Sao Tome are also important (Wil- protected areas by country. liams 1984). There is very limited information available on the management of most areas. Marine mammals There are no marine or coastal protected areas in Benin, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nige- Cetaceans are fairly abundant, while the ria, Togo, Western Sahara. Several of these West African manatee (Tnchechus senegalen- countries, such as Ghana and Guinea, have sis) occurs in suitable habitat from Senegal designated Ramsar sites, although they have Marine Region 8: West Africa 49

Table 8.1 Number of Existing MPAs Additional coastal areas include: in the West African Marine Region * Mocamedes Partial Reserve: No evidence Country MIne*Areas CoastalAreas that this includes intertidal habitat (Robin- son and de Graaff 1992; World Bank Angola 3 1 1993d; IUCN/UNEP 1987). Cameroon 1 1 Congo 1 0. Cote d'lvoire 3 0 Benin Equatorial Guinea 3 0 Gabon 1 1 No existing marine or coastal protected areas The Gambia 3 1 Guinea-Bissau 1 4 are recorded. Mauritania 2 3 Morocco 2 9 Cameroon Namibia 0 4 Senegal 6 2 South Africa 22 96 There is one MPA that includes a subtidal Tristan da Cunha 0 1 component: Zaire 1 1 '_ Douala-Edea Faunal Reserve: At mouth Total 42 131 of Sanaga River (between Sanage and Nyong Rivers); (World Bank 1993s; Ro- binson and de Graaff 1992); estuarine, no formal protection. Apart from Gough Is- mangroves along coast and in coastal land in the Tristan da Cunha group (that in- lagoons; manatee; rainforest and terres- cludes intertidal areas but not subtidal trial vertebrates; site account in terrain), none of the island states (Ascen- IUCN/UNEP (1987). sion, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, Sao Tome and Principe, St. Helena) have Additional coastal areas include: designated MPAs. * Campo Faunal Reserve: This site may not include intertidal habitat; mentioned in Angola World Bank (1993a) and site account in IUCN/UNEP (1987). The following MPAs include a subtidal com- ponent: Congo "Ow Kisama National Park: Mangroves and marshes; manatees, green and logger- 'i nere are no MPAs with a subtidal. compo- head nesting turtles, Cape , wa- nent recorded. There is one coastal area terfowl (Robinson and de Graaff 1992; with intertidal terrain: World Bank 1993d); site account in * Conkouati Faunal Reserve: Littoral eco- IUCN/UNEP (1987). type with mangroves, sandy beaches, la- _ Ilheu dos Passaros Integral Nature Re- goons, manatee and other mammals; fully serve: A tidally inundated island of marine area to be added but funding mudflats and mangroves; important for lacking (Robinson and de Graaff 1992; waterbirds (Robinson and de Graaff World Bank 1993a; IUCN 1989; IUCN/ 1992; World Bank 1993d); site account UNEP 1987); site account in IUCN/UNEP in IUCN/UNEP (1987). (1987). Ow Iona National Park: high sand dunes: Cape fur seal, manatee, green and log- Cote d'Ivoire gerhead nesting turtles (Robinson and de Graaff 1992; World Bank 1993d); There are no MPAs with a subtidal compo- site account in IUCN/UNEP (1987). nent recorded. Other coastal areas include: 50 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

_O Parc National d'Azagny: Includes the Sette-Cama Hunting Area (200,000 hec- Bandama River and Ebrie lagoon; estu- tares) and Ouanga Plain Faunal Re- arine areas, swamps, mangroves and serve (20,000 hectares). Sandy coastal terrestrial habitat; manatee, crocodile plain with lagoon; important for mana- (low numbers) and terrestrial verte- tee and terrestrial fauna (IUCN/UNEP brates (IUCN/UNEP 1987; World Bank 1987; World Bank 1993a; Jones 1993); 1993a; Robinson and de Graaff 1992); site account in IUCN/UNEP (1987). site account in IUCN/UNEP (1987). _O Parc National du Banco: Rainforest and Additional coastal areas include: mammals, with coastal lagoons, al- . Wonga-Wongue Presidential Reserve though these may not include intertidal (spelling variable): May not include interti- habitat (Robinson and de Graaff 1992; dal habitat; Ramsar site; (World Bank World Bank 1993a); site account in 1993a; Jones 1993); site account in IUCN/UNEP (1987). IUCN/UNEP (1987). _O Iles Ehotile National Park: Southern half of main Aby Lagoon (World Bank The Gambia 1993a). The following MPAs include a subtidal com- Equatorial Guinea ponent: _O Niumi/Sine Saloum National Park: Is- There are no MPAs with a subtidal compo- lands, lagoons and coastal waters; im- nent recorded. Other coastal areas include: portant mangroves (especially * Estuario de Rio Muni Protected Area: Avicennia africana) and wetland, with Mangroves and riparian forest; only breeding waterbirds; nursery sites for known manatee habitat in country many fish species; manatee, hump- (World Bank 1993a; Stuart, Adams, and backed dolphin, olive ridley turtle, Jenkins 1990). green turtle, loggerhead turtle (IUCN * Estuario de Rio Ntem (Campo) Protected 1987; Stuart, Adams, and Jenkins 1990; Area: Estuarine habitat with mangroves, World Bank 1993c); cooperative conser- coastal areas, birds, crocodiles, and so on vation exercise with Senegal (see prior- (World Bank 1993a; Stuart, Adams, and ity areas under Senegal). Jenkins 1990). _O Gambia River National Park: Estuarine, * Isla de Annobon Protected Area: Probably five islands within the river; some ar- does not include intertidal habitat (World eas of mangrove and mudflat protected Bank 1993a). (World Bank 1993c; Hughes and Hughes 1992); site account in Gabon IUCN/UNEP (1987). _O Kiang West National Park: Estuarine, There is one MPA that includes a subtidal protects some areas of mangrove component: (World Bank 1993c; Hughes and _O Sette-Cama Reserves: Complex cover- Hughes 1992); site account in ing 700,000 hectares divided between IUCN/UNEP (1987). two Ramsar sites-Petit Loango com- prising Iguela Hunting Reserve Additional coastal areas include: (180,000 hectares) and Ngoue-Ndogo . WCMC database also lists Baubolon Hunting Reserve (250,000 hectares; Nature Reserve and Coastal Reserve: Petit Loango Faunal Reserve (50,000 Further details needed (for instance, hectares); and Sette-Cama comprising whether Abuko Nature Reserve is coastal; Marine Region 8: West Africa 51

not coastal according to World Bank >_ Banc d'Arguin National Park: Priority 1993c). site for conservation action; described below. Gbana w Diawling National Park: In Senegal delta, adjacent to Djoudj National No marine or coastal protected areas are re- Park in Senegal; includes significant corded. estuarine and intertidal areas, impor- tant breeding ground for fish and crus- Guinea taceans, for overwintering migrant birds; saline flats, dunes, mangroves No marine or coastal protected areas are re- (5 hectares) (Robinson and de Graaff corded. 1992); site account in IUCN/UNEP (1987). Guinea-Bissau Additional coastal areas include: There is one MPA that includes subtidal . Las Cuevecillas Integral Reserve: Contigu- elements: ous with Banc d'Arguin; important for >O Arquipelago dos Bijagos Hunting Re- waders (World Bank 1993c; Stuart, serve: This MPA is a high priority for Adams, and Jenkins 1990; Robinson and further conservation action and is de- de Graaff 1992). scribed below. Morocco Other coastal protected areas include: . Ilha de Cofra Hunting Reserve The following MPAs include a subtidal com- • Rio Mansoa Hunting Reserve: Within an ponent: area of high conservation importance and _ Baie de Khnifiss Biological Reserve described below. and Ramsar site: Shallow tidal coastal * Sector Administrativa de Boe Hunting Re- lagoon with salt flats, cliffs, open serve: Mangroves, manatees (IUCN 1987; water, mud flats and saltmarsh; abun- World Bank 1993b). dant fish due to offshore upwelling; im- * Lagoa de Cufada: Hunting Reserve: portant for migrant birds (Jones 1993). Mangroves, extensive tidal mudflats _ Meria Zerga Biological Reserve and along Rio Combal (although main area Ramsar site: Large coastal lagoon with consists of freshwater lakes and marshes); extensive intertidal mudflats and fring- important for migratory birds; also a ing marshes; important wintering area Ramsar Site (World Bank 1993b; Jones for more than 50,000 birds (Jones 1993). 1993).

Additional coastal areas include: Liberia . Souss-Massa National Park 9 Sidi Boughaba Biological Reserve and Per- No marine or coastal protected areas are manent Hunting Reserve; Meria Sidi recorded. Boughaba Ramsar Site (also listed as a proposed site by WCMC): Permanent Mauritania brackish freshwater lagoon, separated from sea by dune system (may not con- The following MPAs include a subtidal com- tain intertidal water); important for mi- ,ponent: grant birds (Jones 1993). 52 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

* Oualidia Lagoon Hunting Reserve: Also Senegal listed by WCMC as a proposed site. * Nador Nature Reserve The following MPAs include a subtidal * Oued Chebeika Nature Reserve component: . Sebkhet Sidi Bou Areg Nature Reserve _O Delta du Saloum National Park and * Sidi Moussa Nature Reserve: Also listed Biosphere Reserve: In the delta of the by WCMC as a proposed site. Sine and Saloum Rivers; four-fifths of . Ile de Skhirate Permanent Hunting Re- the 76,000 hectares MPA is marine; serve biosphere reserve covers lagoon; * Ile d'Essaouira (Ile de Mogador) Reserve 73,000 hectares is a Ramsar Site; mangroves predominate; also sand Robinson and de Graaff (1992) also list a islands, lagoons; manatee, dolphins, number of other areas: El Holba Nature Re- four turtle species, important fish serve, El Merja Nature Reserve, Marja Doujet spawning ground, major bird colonies Royal Reserve, Oued Loukkos Nature Re- on islands (World Bank 1993c; Robin- serve, Oued Massa Biological Reserve, Oued son and de Graaff 1992); site account Mouleya Nature Reserve, Rio Martine La- in IUCN/UNEP (1987) and Jones goon Reserve, Sebkhet Zima Nature Reserve, (1993); see below for recommenda- Sidi Rahat Nature Reserve. WCMC list Oued tions. M'ter and Sabkhet Bou Arg Lake as pro- 'O Langue de Barbarie National Park: In- posed MPAs. cludes 20-kilometer long sand dune spit with marine waters, intertidal flat Namibia across the mouth of the Senegal River and three sandy islands; seabird colo- There are no MPAs with a subtidal compo- nies (especially Little Tems, Gull-billed nent recorded. Other coastal areas include: tems and Royal Tems), four species of * Namib Naukluft Game Park: Extensive nesting turtles, manatee, dolphins sand dunes along coast; includes Sandvis (World Bank 1993c; Robinson and de (Sandwich Harbor), internationally impor- Graaff 1992); site account in tant wetland with saline lagoons and over- IUCN/UNEP (1987). wintering migrants and 20,000 Cape "a Iles de la Madeleine National Park: Cormorants; also flamingoes, gulls, her- Three volcanic islands, and the area ons and other birds (Robinson and de within 50 meters of the shore; diverse Graaff 1992); site account in IUCN/UNEP avifauna, nesting seabirds; three dol- (1987). phin species; breeding loggerheads * Skeleton Coast Game Park: Sandy (World Bank 1993c; Robinson and de beaches, rocky shores, high dunes in Graaff 1992); site account in north; seals; interesting marine fauna due IUCN/UNEP (1987). to overlap of cold and warm water _0 Gueumbeul Special Faunal Reserve: masses (Robinson and de Graaff 1992); Saline lagoon with relict mangroves; site account in IUCN/UNEP (1987). important for waders and migrants; * Cape Cross Seal Nature Reserve: National Ramsar Site (World Bank 1993c; Robin- West Coast Tourist Recreation Area. son and de Graaff 1992); site account in Jones (1993). Nigeria '_ Basse-Casamance National Park: 5,000 hectares with numerous tidal channels, No marine or coastal protected areas are mangroves, bare salt flats; manatee recorded. (World Bank 1993c; Robinson and de Marine Region 8: West Africa 53

Graaff 1992); site account in step forward toward regulated and efficient IUCN/UNEP (1987). coastal zone management in South Africa. _ Kalissaye Special Reserve: Headland The Council is advised by a number of dedi- and two sandy islands at mouth of R. cated committees, including the Committee Kalissaye; seabird colonies, nesting for Coastal and Marine Systems. green and loggerhead turtles, manatee There are some 118 protected areas along (World Bank 1993c; Robinson and de the South African coast. The degree to Graaff 1992); site account in which they conserve the marine environ- IUCN/UNEP (1987). ment varies; with a few exceptions most Na- ture Reserves (that are proclaimed at the Additional coastal areas include: national level) do not extend below high . Popenguine Special Faunal Reserve: In- water mark. The Seashore Act (1935) pro- cludes 2.5-kilometer shoreline of eroded vides ownership of the coast below high cliffs; not clear if intertidal habitat in- water mark to State Authorities. Conserva- cluded (World Bank 1993c). tion of the marine environment can be . Island of Goree: World Heritage Site; fur- achieved through the National Parks Act ther information needed; not listed in (1976) or by designation as a Marine Re- World Bank (1993c). serve under fisheries legislation. There are site accounts for some areas in Robinson and de Graaff (1992) include IUCN/UNEP (1987) and many more site ac- the Djoudj National Park and the Ndiael Fau- counts in Robinson and de Graaff (1993). nal Reserve, but it is not clear whether these The more important MPAs are: contain intertidal areas-a dike has been built all round the Djoudj NP and the map West Coast Province: in Jones (1993) suggests they both lie inland. _ Cape of Good Hope Marine Reserve Both Robinson and de Graaff and WCMC list _O Elephant Rock Marine Reserve the Foret Classee de,Samba Dia as an MPA, _O Glencaim Marine Resenre but there is no data to indicate this includes "_ Gxulu Marine Reserve intertidal areas. _O Kalk Bay Marine Reserve w Miller's Point Marine Reserve Sierra-Leone 'O Kommetjie Rock Lobster Reserve _ McDougall's Bay Rock Lobster Reserve There are no MPAs with a subtidal compo- _O Rock Lobster Sanctuary nent recorded. Other coastal areas include: _' St. Helena Bay Rock Lobster Sanctuary . Western Forest Reserve (described in _O Rock Lobster Sanctuary Schwartz 1992). _ Orange River Mouth Wetland Ramsar _w Verlorenvlei Wetland (Elands Bay) South Africa Ramsar _ West Coast National Park A full description of the MPAs of South Af- rica can be found in Robinson and de Graaff South Coast Province: (1993). _ De Hoop Marine Reserve Although South Africa has a long record _O Gonubie Nature (Marine) Reserve of terrestrial nature conservation, protection "_ Robberg Marine Reserve of coastal and marine habitats has only com-. _O Tsitsikamma National Park paratively recently received noteworthy at- _ East Coast Province: tention. The recent establishment of a _ National Park Council for the Environment was a major w St. Lucia Marine Reserve 54 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

'_ Trafalgar Marine Reserve St Helena "O Umdoni Park Marine Reserve No marine or coastal protected areas are re- Togo corded.

No marine or coastal protected areas are re- International and Regional Initiatives corded. Relating to MPAs

Western Sabara World Heritage Convention

No marine or coastal protected areas are re- Thirteen countries in the region are party to corded. this convention: Benin, Cameroon, Cape Ver- des, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Gabon, Gambia, Zaire Ghana, Guinea, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal and Zaire. However, there are only two ma- There is one MPA with a subtidal compo- rine/coastal World Heritage Sites: the Island nent recorded: of Goree in Senegal, and part of the Banc w Parc National Marine d'Arguin National Park in Mauritania. Only the latter includes subtidal elements. Gough There is one other coastal area: Island, in the Tristan da Cunha group, is to Mangrove Nature Reserve or Marine be nominated as a World Heritage Site. Park: Listed by WCMC as established in 1992. Ramsar Convention

Tristan da Cunba Eight countries are party to this convention: Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mau- The are no MPAs with a subtidal component ritania, Morocco, Senegal, South Africa. St. recorded. Other coastal areas include: Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha are Gough Island Wildlife Reserve: Intertidal included in the U.K.'s ratification of Ramsar, terrain. but sites have yet to be designated (Hep- burn, Oldfield, and Thompson 1992). A Ascension large number of Ramsar sites have been des- ignated on the mainland coast and many oth- No marine or coastal protected areas are re- ers recommended for designation. However, corded. many do not yet have full protection under national legislation. Canary Islands The following Ramsar sites have been es- tablished along the West African Coast: No marine or coastal protected areas are re- * Gabon: Wongha-Wonghe (Petit Loango corded. and Sette Cama). . Ghana: Owabi (Muni Lagoon, Densu Cape Verde Islands Delta, Sakumo Lagoon, Songor Lagoon, and Anlo-Keta Lagoon Complex). No marine or coastal protected areas are re- * Guinea: Owabi (GuineaIle Alcatras, Iles corded. Tristao, Rio Kapatchez, Rio Pongo, Konk- oure, and Ile Blanche). Sao Tome and Principe * Guinea-Bissau: Lagoa de Cufada. . Mauritania: Banc d'Arguin. No marine or coastal protected areas are re- * Morocco: Meria Zerga, Merja Sidi corded. Boughaba, and Baie de Knifiss. Marine Region 8: West Africa 55

* Senegal: Delta du Saloum and Gueum- Table 8.2 MPAs in Major Coastal beul. Realms of the West African Marine * South Africa: De Hoop Vlei (De Mond Region (Heuningnes Estuary), Turtle CoastalRealm NumberofMPAs Beaches/Coral Reefs of Tongaland, St. Lu- cia System, , Wilderness Lakes, Western Tropical 0 Verlorenvlei, Orange River Mouth, Kosi Western Intertropical 2 Bay, and Lake Sibaya). Western Subtropical (North) 14 Western Subtropical (South) 17 It has not been possible to determine which Easter Subtropical 9 of these sites include a marine component. Total 42

MARPOL zones proposed by Hayden and others No areas in the region are listed under (1984) is discussed below. (Table 8.2 pro- MARPOL. vides an overview of MPA distribution.) This assessment considers only those areas re- Biosphere Reserves corded with a subtidal component. The two largest coastal realms, the north- Part of the Delta du Saloum National Park in em and southern components of the West- Senegal is a Biosphere Reserve. St. Helena em Subtropical Realm, include 31 MPAs has been recommended as a Biosphere Re- (about 74 percent of the total number). serve (Report 1993). These two components include more than 60 percent of the coastline in the region. For UNEP Regional Seas Program the latter component it should be noted that 13 of the 17 areas lie along the South Afri- The Convention for Cooperation in the Pro- can coast; there are no marine areas in Na- tection and Development of the Marine and mibia (although long stretches of coastal Coastal Environment of the West and Central land are protected in Game Parks), three in African Region, and its associated Protocol Angola and one in Zaire. The northern com- on Combating Pollution in Cases of Emer- ponent is better represented by MPAs in gency, came into force in 1984. The Action Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, the Gambia, Maurita- Plan has been adopted and a number of in- nia and Morocco, although there are no itiatives have been undertaken that focus MPAs along the coast of Western Sahara. mainly on combatting pollution and develop- Marine areas in the Western Tropical and ing the infrastructure, legislation and training Intertropical Realrns are very poorly repre- for management of the marine environment. sented with none in the former and two in The Convention has been ratified by the latter (in Cameroon and Gabon). There Cameroon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Cote are no MPAs along the tropical stretch of d'lvoire, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo (UNEP coast running from Guinea to Nigeria, a dis- 1989). Robinson and de Graaff (1992) also tance of more than 3,000 kilometers. list Congo, Gabon, Mauritania, Morocco, Si- The southern and eastern part of the re- erra Leone, Liberia, Angola, Cape Verdes gion, which falls in the Eastern Subtropical and Sao Tome as participating. Realm, is included in 9 South African MPAs. A substantial length of the South African Assessment of Representation coast is protected in some form, although in of Biogeographic Zones within MPAs only relatively few instances does this protec- tion extend to intertidal and subtidal areas. The degree to which MPAs in the West Afri- South Africa, with 22 MPAs, accounts for 50 can region represent the biogeographic percent of the MPAs in the region 56 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

The marine areas around offshore islands open water, 26,500 hectares seasonal in the region are not well represented; no wetland): Estuarine, diverse fish and subtidal MPAs were recorded in any of the birds; sitatunga may survive (Stuart, island groups, with the exception of the Bi- Adams, and Jenkins 1990; World Bank jagos Archipelago. 1993a; Robinson and de Graaff 1992); semi-continuous line of narrow, weakly tidal lagoons and swamps that PRIORITY AREAS AND RECOMMENDAIIONS connect at the mouth of the Mono River on the Togo border with those National Priorities for the Establishment that surround lakes Nokoue and Lake and Management of MPAs Porto-Novo on the Nigerian border; lower swamps are tidal and support Angola scattered mangroves: Several marine fish species and prawns enter the la- Existing MPAs that require management goons to breed and juveniles use the support: area as a nursery; site description in There is no information concerning man- Hughes and Hughes (1992). agement requirements for the three existing Lake Nokoue and Porto Novo (6°25'N, MPAs. 2°27'E); (proposed MPA 103,600 hec- tares including 17,600 open water): Proposed new MPAs: Lake opens to sea via 5-kilometer long "I- Bengo River Delta (8°47'S, 13°82'E): channel; surrounded by brackish fresh- One of the major mangrove areas in water marshes and some mangroves; the country (World Bank 1993d; important for waders and waterfowl Hughes and Hughes 1992). (Altenburg 1987; Schwartz 1992); site P Chicamba Mangroves (5°01'S, 12°08'E): description in Hughes and Hughes Well-developed mangroves in Chis- (1992). sambe Lagoon (World Bank 1993d; Hughes and Hughes 1992). Cameroon Zaire River Delta (6°00'S, 12°40'E): Mangroves, manatee and other diverse Existing MPAs that require management fauna (World Bank 1993d; Hughes and support: Hughes 1992). _ -Douala-Edea Faunal Reserve

Benin Proposed new MPAs:

'* Bakossi Peninsula Mangroves (4°32'N, Existing MPAs that require management 8°35'E): Extensive areas of mangroves support: at mouth of estuary of Rio del Rey and There are no existing MPAs. Akwayafe River (IUCN 1987; World Bank 1993a). Proposed new MPAs: ; Rio del Rey (4°20'-4°56'N, 8032'- - Proposed Reserve de la Biosphere du 9°02'E): 180,000 hectares mangrove Djessin (10,000 hectares): A littoral eco- and 4,000 hectares mudflats; impor- type with stands of mangrove (World tant estuary for waders and water- Bank 1993a; Schwartz 1992). fowl, major mangrove fauna, fish "0' Wetlands of the coastal plains (6°4'N (Altenburg 1987; Stuart, Adams, and 206'E) (proposed MPA; 2,500 hectares Jenkins 1990). Marine Region 8: West Africa 57

Congo Other sites include: w Bandama River lagoons (5°11'N, Existing MPAs that require management 5013'W): Interconnected brackish la- support: goons of Tadio, Make, and Tagba; ex- There are no existing MPAs. tensive mangrove, swamp forest; important for waterfowl (Altenburg Proposed new MPAs: 1987; World Bank 1993a). -O Kouilou Estuary Mangroves (4°25'S, _ Basse Dodo: Intact mangroves (World 11°56'E) (World Bank 1993a) Bank 1993a; WCMC 1991). Canal d'Asagni wetlands: May not in- Cote d'Ivoire clude intertidal terrain (World Bank 1993a). Schwartz (1992) noted that the Cote d'Ivoire _ Dagbego Lagoon: Notable mangrove protected area system is well developed stands and diverse fauna (WCMC 1991; with the exception of marine ecosystems World Bank 1993a). that are at risk and need to be included in Fresco Lagoons (5°05'N, 5027'W): La- conservation priorities. goons and inlets fringed by mangroves, marshes and so forth; important for Existing MPAs that require management birds, fish, shrimp (nursery area) support: (WCMC 1991; World Bank 1993a). There are no existing MPAs. _ Niega de la Embouchure (WCMC 1991; World Bank 1993a). Proposed new MPAs: Hughes and Hughes (1992) describes Equatorial Guinea the series of lagoons and marshes on the eastern coast composed of four large com- Existing MPAs that require management plexes: Fresco, Tadio, Ebrie and Aby La- support: goons. In other publications important sites There are no existing MPAs. are identified as follows:

"_ Azagny National Park: This area could Proposed new MPAs: be expanded to include marine ele- "_' South coast of Isla de Bioko (3°10'- ments; a management plan should be .3°50'N, 8°25'-9°00'E): Coast with adjacent developed and infrastructure strength- volcanic caldera and forests proposed ened (Schwartz 1992). for protection; nesting green and hawks- 4-~ Aby Lagoon (5°18'N, 3013'W): Large bill turtles; important endemic terres- brackish lagoon fringed with freshwa- trial fauna (World Bank 1993a; Stuart, ter marshes, swamp forest and man- Adams, and Jenkins 1990; IUCN 1987). groves; important for waterfowl (World Bank 1993a; Altenburg 1987; Robinson Gabon and de Graaff 1992). _~ Azuretti Mangroves (5°12'N, 3°48'W): Existing MPAs that require management Extensive mangrove and swamp for- support: ests around mouth of Ebrie lagoon; im- "_ Sette-Cama Hunting Area portant for waterbirds (Altenburg 1987; World Bank 1993a). Proposed new MPAs: >_ Cape Palmas (4°21'N, 7°31'W): Coral _ Akanda Mangroves (0°35'-0°40'N, reefs (World Bank 1993a). 9026'-9 033'E): 7,500 hectares network 58 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

of mangrove-covered islands and tidal Proposed new MPAs: channels with forest on higher ground; The following areas have been designated diverse fauna, including waterbirds as Ramsar sites (several of them intercon- (World Bank 1993a; IUCN 1990). nected lagoons in the Volga River delta), but _~ Elobey Islands (1000'N, 9031'E): Coral protective legislation has not yet been en- reefs (World Bank 1993a; acted. Highest priority is given to the Anlo- IUCN/CNPPA 1991). Keta area. 0 Mondah Reserve (0°34'N, 9°20'E): In- m Anlo-Keta Lagoon Complex (5055'N, cludes Cape Esterias that has coral 0050'E): Designated 1992; good stands reefs'; proposed as a site for scientific of mangrove; of all coastal wetlands of study and education (IUCN 1990; Ghana this lagoon supports the largest World Bank 1993a). populations of shorebirds (40,000 wad- _ Ozouri (1°02'-1022'S, 8053'-9°08'E): ers, 3,000 terns, 8500 herons and water- Recommended as a national park fowl during peak periods) (World (IUCN 1990); 44,000 hectares; includes Bank 1993b; Robinson and de Graaff lagoons, mangroves and other coastal 1992; Jones 1993). habitats; diverse waterfowl; breeding - Densu Delta (5°33'N, 0°18'E) (Jones leatherback turtles (World Bank 1993a). 1993). - Muni Lagoon (5°22'N, 0040'E): coastal The Gambia saline lagoon and marsh (Jones 1993). 0 Sakumo Lagoon (5°40'N, 0°10'E): Previous analysis have identified the need to coastal lagoon (Jones 1993). address shortcomings in the development of n Songor Lagoon (5°45'N, 0030'E): protected areas policy and legislation, includ- coastal lagoon (Jones 1993). ing for MPAs (Scwartz 1992). More effective surveillance and management of coastal and The management of this area is being ad- estuarine fisheries is also a priority. dressed under a GEF funded project Ghana Coastal Wetlands Management Project (GEF Existing MPAs that require management 1992). Little is known about the manne envi- support: ronment in Ghana and high priority should _Ow Niumi-Sine Saloum National Park: Im- be given to an inventory of marine flora and proved management is required. Con- fauna (Schwartz 1992). sideration should be given to establishing a cross-border Biosphere Guinea Reserve and Ramsar site with Senegal's _s*' Sine Saloum Delta National Park Existing MPAs that require management (Schwartz 1992) support: There are no existing MPAs. Proposed new MPAs: No new areas are proposed. Proposed new MPAs: Several sites have been designated as Ram- Gbana sar sites although there is no formal protec- tion yet: Existing MPAs that require management _s Ile Alcatraz (10°38'N, 15°23'W): Rocky support: islet of 0.75 hectares with sandy interti- There are no existing MPAs. dal areas; Ramsar site includes Ile de Marine Region 8: West Africa 59

Naufrage (1 hectare); one of few breed- Guinean coast); important for water- ing sites in West Africa for Atlantic race fowl, manatee and other fauna (Alten- of the brown booby Sula leucogaster- burg 1987; World Bank 1993a; about 3,000 pairs, also six species of Robinson and de Graaff 1992; Jones tern; also important nesting colony on 1993). Ile de Naufrage; dolphins, manatees, marine turtles (Altenburg 1987; IUCN Other important areas that have been 1987; WIWO 1989; World Bank 1993a; identified include: Schwartz 1992). * Rio Komponi (Kogon) and Rio Nunez "0- Blanche Island (9°26'N, 13°46'W): Pos- Mangroves (10°51'N, 14 42'W): 124,000 sible breeding ground for two species hectares of tidal forest, with mangroves of marine turtle. and diverse fauna; potential Ramsar Site Iles Tristao (10053'N, 15°03'W): (Altenburg 1987; Hughes and Hughes 85,000 hectares; estuarine complex at 1992; World Bank 1993a; Robinson and mouth of River Kogon, with two main de Graaff 1992 (as Kapatchez Delta). islands; mangroves, dunes, 2,300 hec- . Forecariah Mangroves (9015'N, tares of mudflats at low tide; large 13°17'W): Large areas of swamps, mud- breeding populations of spoonbills, flats, mangroves; probably important ibis and Caspian tern; many other fauna (Altenburg 1987; World Bank birds; manatee, hippopotamus (Alten- 1993a). burg 1987; IUCN 1987; WIWO 1989; World Bank 1993a; Jones 1993); has Guinea-Bissau also been recommended as a Bio- sphere Reserve. Existing MPAs that require management "0- Konkoure Estuary (9°45'N, 13°41'W): support: 90,000 hectares; part of delta of Konk- _O Bijagos Archipelago Hunting Reserve oure River; extensive intertidal (see below) mud/sandflats and mangroves impor- tant for resident and wintering shore- Proposed new MPAs: birds; dolphins, manatees; Sangareya Bijagos Archipelago Hunting Reserve Bay mangroves cover 28,000 hectares and Proposed Biosphere Reserve on southern bank of estuary and (11°3'N, 16°0'W): Including the exist- around bay; diverse fauna, especially ing Bijagos Hunting Reserve: a group feeding avocets (Altenburg 1987; of islands extremely rich in organic ma- Hughes and Hughes 1992; World Bank terials and plankton and supports a 1993a; Robinson and de Graaff 1992; highly diverse fauna, in addition to be- Jones 1993). ing an important breeding and nursery '01- Rio Kapatchez (10°25'N, 14°33'W): zone for fish and crustaceans (critical Complex of mangroves, intertidal importance for the ); mud/sandflats, marshy coastal plain, mangroves, including a rare species sand dunes, nesting birds, flamingoes Lagunculana racemosa, cover almost (Jones 1993). one-third (35,000 hectares) of the total -'1- Rio Pongo (Boffa Mangroves) surface of the islands; mudflats cover (10°10'N, 14°02'W): 46,000 hectares of 76,000 hectares; area largely un- almost pristine mangroves on Pongo touched except by local inhabitants, River estuary (among the best on the the Bijagos culture, who are also at 60 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

risk. The archipelago is an important Rio Cacheu (12°02'-12 020'N, 15013'- feeding and resting place for wintering 16°42'W): Area extending to Ilha de shorebirds, over one million using this Jeta with 9,500 hectares of mudflats, area, making it the most important 52,000 hectares estuarine mangroves, West African wintering ground for 24,000 hectares swamp and marsh; im- Palearctic shorebirds after the Banc portant for Palearctic waters and other d'Arguin in Mauritania; also 10,000- waterfowl, shrimp production; has 15,Q00.pairs of breeding waterbirds. been proposed as a national park The presence of sea-going hippopota- (World Bank 1993b; Altenburg 1987; mus (Hippopotamus ampbibius) has WCMC 1991b; Schwartz 1992; Robin- been recorded. The phytoplankton-rich son and de Graaff 1992) coastal waters support a large marine fauna, including species such as mul- Other important sites include: let, shrimp, shad, sea catfish, barra- . Rio Geba Estuary (11°43'N, 15°14'W): cuda, grouper, snapper, corvina, 17,500 hectares mudflats, 3,000 hectares mollusks; regionally important stocks mangrove 13,000 hectares marshes; impor- of five turtle species (green, logger- tant for waterbirds (Altenburg 1987; head, olive ridley, hawksbill, leather- WCMC 1991b; World Bank 1993b). back); Ilhau do Poilao is possibiy . Rio Grande de Buba Basin (11 025'N, largest breeding ground for green tur- 15°23'W): 13,000 hectares rocks and mud- des in West and Central Africa; croco- flats 17,000 hectares mangroves, impor- diles and marine mammals such as tant for resident and migrant waders bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops trunca- (Altenburg 1987; WCMC 1991b; World tus), humpback dolphin (Sousa teuzii), Bank 1993b). and manatee (the largest population in * Rio Mansoa Basin (11°54'N, 16000'W): West Africa is found here) (World River and islands lined by 11,000 hectares Bank 1993b; Stuart, Adams, and mudflats, 50,000 hectares mangroves (up Jenkins 1990; WCMC 1991b; Robinson to 50 kilometers inland); international im- and de Graaff 1992). portance for W. European populations of Possible future overfishing would black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa and seem to be the greatest threat to this other birds; incorporates Rio Mansoa area. Expansion of artisanal and com- Hunting Reserve (Altenburg 1987; WCMC mercial fisheries, could interfere in re- 1991b; World Bank 1993b). cruitment and migration of fish and . Rio Tombali (11°11'N, 15°05'W): Includes upset the ecological balance that now estuaries of Rio Cumbija and Rio Cacine, exists in this area. At the present time with 32,500 hectares coastal mudflats, fishing is by local inhabitants and is 78,500 hectares mangroves; biologically subsistence-based. The Biosphere pro- the richest area in the country, important posal includes a draft zoning system for numerous birds, resident and Pa- and recommendations for further inven- laearctic waders (WCMC 1991b; World tory and study within the area. Within Bank 1993b). the archipelago the Orango islands, comprising an area of around 68,000 Liberia hectares (including a 1-kilometer ma- rine zone around the islands), probably Existing MPAs that require management harbors the greatest biological diversity support: and requires special protection. There are no existing MPAs. Marine Region 8: West Africa 61

Proposed new MPAs: aquatic birds (white pelicans (Pele- - Cape Mount proposed National canus onocrotalus), grey heron (Ardea Park (6'°4'N, 11°21'W): 55,400 hec- cinerea monicae), spoonbill (Platala tares: lagoons and mangroves, impor- leucorodia), reed cormorant (Pbalacro- tant turtle nesting beach; Lofa mouth corax) and others; marine turtles and mangroves to east are important (green, loggerhead, hawksbill, leather- roosting place for waders and water- back); marine mammals including the fowl; Lofa is the only large estuary in (Orcinus orca), Atlantic Liberia with no villages (Stuart, Adams, humpback dolphin (Souza teusziO), bot- and Jenkins 1990; World Bank 1992b, tlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), Gatter 1988; Robinson and de Graaff Risso's toothed dolphin (Grampus 1992). griseus), fin whale (Balaenoptera _ Cestos-Senkwen proposed National physalus), common porpoise (Pho- Park (various spellings-Sankwen, .coenapbocoena). Largest known col- Saukwen, Sehnkwehn) (5020'N, ony (150 individuals; 25 percent of 9°25'W): 145,000 hectares to include es- world population) of Mediterranean tuaries with 1,200 hectares mangroves; Monk seal (Monachus monachus) (Ro- diverse mammal and bird fauna (Gatter binson and de Graaff 1992; Jones 1993; 1988; Hughes and Hughes 1992; World Bank 1993c; IUCN/UNEP .1987 IUCN/UNEP 1987; World Bank 1993b; [site account]). Lack of effective protec- Robinson and de Graaff 1992). tion, although little human disturbance in terrestrial areas. However, poaching Mauritania of marine turtles results from lack of constant patrolling within and around Existing MPAs that require management the Park. Overfishing by international support: fishing fleets in the waters off the Banc >_ Banc d'Arguin National Park: 1,173,000 d'Arguin may present.an important hectares of which 50 percent is marine, threat to the fish populations and thus consisting mainly of large stretches of bird populations; status of monk seal coastal seas 14 islands, mudflats; 3,100 critical following collapse of breeding hectares of mangrove (the most north- caves in 1982. Financing is required to erly in West Africa); designated as a improve management in these areas Ramsar site in 1982 and part as a and to develop a research plan for the World Heritage site in 1989; shallow park; Netherlands is supporting a ma- coastal waters between Cap Blanc and jor research program and may supply a Cap Timiris benefit from an upwelling seagoing vessel for fishery patrol and that greatly increases their biological research (World Bank 1993c; Schwartz productivity; shallow tidal flats impor- 1992; Price and de Grissac). tant as breeding and nursery areas for >_ Diawling National Park: Potential for es- fish and crustaceans; seagrass beds tablishment of cross-border park with (Zostera spp.) cover about 70,000 hec- Senegal (Schwartz 1992). tares, mostly around Tidra Island and Argui Bay; the most important site-for Proposed new MPAs: over-wintering migrants (30 percent of Aftout es Saheli: 120,000 hectares seven million wading birds that use At- coastal lagoon extending 165 kilome- lantic flyway) in West Africa, and ters. from Nouakchott to St. Louis in breeding ground for thousands of Senegal; northern part of Senegal R. 62 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Delta; important for fish and water- Swakopmund Saltworks: Recom- fowl; recommended as a Ramsar site mended as Ramsar Site (Robinson and (World Bank 1993c; Scwartz 1992; de Graaff 1992) Hughes and Hughes 1992). Orange River Mouth: The South Afri- can side of this is already a Ramsar site Morocco (see below) - Cape Cross lagoons. Existing MPAs that require management support: Nigeria _0- Khnifiss/Puerto cansado Biological Reserve Existing MPAs that require management "_> Merja Zerga Biological Station support: There are no existing MPAs. Proposed new MPAs: Morrocan authorities envisage the estab- Proposed new MPAs: lishment of Dakhla National Park to include The three main wetland areas along the marine areas covering the complete shore of coast of Nigeria are characterized by the Dakhla province for the protection of the presence of mangroves and are important monk seals. breeding and nursery grounds for fish and crustacean species typical of those in West Namibia Africa. They are some of the most extensive and valuable coastal wetlands in West Af- Existing MPAs that require management rica. Some rare fish species are present support: (Polyteruspalmascongicus, Tetraodonpustu- There are no existing MPAs although long latus) and the fish fauna in general may be stretches of coastal land are included in the particularly diverse. These three areas Skeleton Coast and Namib Naukluft Game should be priorities within Nigeria for the es- Parks. tablishment of protected areas. The Lagos and Lekki lagoon system and the delta of Proposed new MPAs: the Niger River are both under strong pres- Robinson and de Graaff (1992) identify sure from the surrounding human popula- Wetlands along the Namibian coast (6°5'N, tion. Land conversion, overfishing, pollution 2°7'E) as a high priority. There are some 14 and deforestation are all major threats. areas of sheltered, shallow saline waters be- .0 Lagos and Lekki lagoons and system tween and inclusive of the Orange (in the (6022'-6 038'N, 2048'-4 06'E): Proposed south) and Cunene (in the north) rivers. protected area of 155,355 hectares with They support sub-continentally and globally 99,875 hectares open water and 55,460 important migratory bird populations and hectares mangrove; entire system un- five are considered candidate Ramsar sites der tidal influence; 79 species of pe- (Nole-Peard and Williams 1991). lagic and riverine fish recorded "*' Sandwich Harbor: Recommended as (Altenburg 1987; Robinson and de Ramsar Site (Robinson and de Graaff Graaff 1992; World Bank 1993b). 1992) _0 Niger Delta (4'16'-4'40'N, 5°30'- _6 Walvis Bay wetland: Recommended as 7035'E): Large mangrove areas espe- Ramsar Site (Robinson and de Graaff cially at Taylor's Creek and Stubb's 1992) Creek (both proposed game reserves, Marine Region 8: West Africa 63

wildlife sanctuaries); diverse mammal for a joint Ramsar site and Biosphere and bird fauna; proposed protected Reserve to be established between area of 3,226,000 hectares (Stuart, the two parks. Joint management of Adams, and Jenkins 1990; World Bank mangrove, fish and shrimp stocks and 1993b; Schwartz 1991). (N.B.: accord- joint surveillance of the parks (particu- ing to map in World Bank 1993b, larly the marine areas) should be en- Stubb's Creek is not in the Delta). couraged. _ Cross River wetlands and delta w Langue de Barbarie National Park: A re- (6°27'N, 7°27'E): Recommended as vised management plan should be de- Ramsar site, 45,000 hectares; man- veloped for this park and training groves; fauna richer than in other parts should be supplied to Park staff. The of West Africa, and more like that of development of ecological tourism in Cameroon (Schwarz 1991; Robinson the area in collaboration with local and de Graaff 1992); not listed in populations could alleviate some of World Bank 1993b. the financial strains on the Park (Schwartz 1992). Other sites listed in World Bank (1993b): _ Gueumbeul Special Reserve: Efforts Benin River mangroves, Calabar Estuary should be intensified to integrate the re- (80,000 hectares mangrove and 4,000 hec- serve with the improved natural re- tares mudflats, important for waterfowl (Al- sources management being invested in tenburg 1987)). the surrounding area. Its educational value should also be developed Senegal (Schwartz 1992).

._ Iles de la Madelaine: As part of a gen- Senegal possesses five MPAs along its coast. eral plan to establish suiveillance of Schwartz (1992) noted that despite this there fishing activities along the Senegalese is no appropriate surveillance of offshore coast, the park should be a priority and estuarine fisheries and fish species and area for strict control of both commer- stock sizes are not well known. Existing cial and sports fishing (particularly by MPAs lack effective management and should tourists). A new boat is needed for be given highest priority treatment. park management in addition to a cam- paign to educate local fishermen. The Existing MPAs that require management area offers potential for ecological tour- support: ism (Schwartz 1992). "O Delta of the Sine and Saloum Rivers: "O Basse-Casamance National Park: It has On the border between Senegal and been suggested that protection should The Gambia; includes the Delta du Sa- be extended to a much wider area loum National Park and Biosphere Re- than is currently covered by the Basse serve in Senegal and the Niumi/Sine Casamance National Park (World Bank Saloum National Park in Gambia (both 1993c). Local populations need to par- described above). The former is threat- ticipate more effectively in Park man- ened by excessive fishing, destruction agement and in the development of of bird colonies, culture and cut- ecological tourism (Schwartz 1992). ting for fuelwood. The development of a management plan is urgent Proposed new MPAs: (Schwartz 1992). It may be appropriate No new MPAs are proposed. 64 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Sierra Leone hectares of mangrove; and Kagboro Creek () proposed Game Re- Existing MPAs that require management serve (7°48'-8°37'N, 12036'-13°05'W): support: 60,000 hectares mangroves and 7,500 hec- There are no existing MPAs. tares mudflats, important for wintering Pa- laearctic waders (over 20,000); area of Proposed new MPAs: 5,000 hectares proposed for protection _~ Bunce River (Sierra Leone River Sys- within the sanctuary (Altenburg 1987; tem) (8050'-8075'N, 12083'-13025'W): World Bank 1993b; Robinson and de Extensive mangrove forests; over Graaff 1992). 20,000 migrant wading birds; the . Lake Mape and Lake Mabesi proposed Na- Bunce River has a rich flora and fauna tional Park (7°10'N, 11°43'W): 7,511 hec- and is a spawning ground for marine tares mainly freshwater, but adjacent to organisms; manatees may still occur; proposed Kpaka-Pujehun Game Reserve the area is threatened by local fishery covering 2,500 hectares mangroves; im- exploitation and cutting of mangroves portant for waterfowl, manatees and to supply fuelwood; proposed as a Bio- other fauna (Gatter 1988; IUCN 1987; Stu- sphere Reserve (perhaps on the model art, Adams, and Jenkins 1990; World being developed for the Bijagos Archi- Bank 1993b; Robinson and de Graaff pelago) (Schwartz 1992). 1992 (give different area)) _ Yawri Bay-Shenge/Kagboro Creek . Scarcies River Estuary (8°32'-9°05'N, Area: A protected area is proposed to 12°51'-13°18'W): 19,000 hectares man- include around 20,000 hectares of groves, 4,000 hectares mudflats or sand- coastal land and 9,000 hectares of inter- banks; important for wintering waders, tidal terrain. This could be expanded especially avocets (Altenburg 1987; Stuart, to include the coastal waters. Adams, and Jenkins 1990; World Bank Turtle Islands (7°38'N, 13°02'W): Small 1993b). islands including Mut and Yele, off the . Sewa-Waanje Game Reserve (7°22'N, tip of the Sherbro Peninsula; important 12°05'W): 10,000 hectares mangroves and marine turtle nesting area (Stuart, lakes, manatees (Stuart, Adams, and Adams, and Jenkins 1990; World Bank Jenkins 1990; World Bank 1993b). 1993b). . Sierra Leone River and Freetown Penin- sula (8°10'-8°47'N, 12°48'-13°18'W): Other areas include: 42,000 hectares mangroves, 50 kilometers Bonthe Mangrove Swamp proposed sandy beaches on western side of penin- Strict Nature Reserve (7°33'N, 12°40'W): sula, 2000 hectares mudflats; important 10,101 hectares covering the greater area for wintering waders (Altenburg 1987; Stu- of the Sherbro River Delta; 120,000 hec- art, Adams, and Jenkins 1990; World tares of mangroves 10,500 hectares of Bank 1993b). mudflats and 65 kilometers of sandy * Sulima Mangrove Swamp proposed Strict beach; important for wintering Palearctic Nature Reserve: 2,590 hectares (World waders (Altenburg 1987; IUCN 1987, Stu- Bank 1993b). art, Adams, and Jenkins 1990; World . Yelibuya Island proposed Strict Nature Re- Bank 1993b). serve (8058'N, 13028'W): 3,885 hectares; Bumpe Mangrove Swamp proposed mangroves (Stuart, Adams, and Jenkins Game Sanctuary (8°07'N, 12°54'W): 4,921 1990; World Bank 1993b). Marine Region 8: West Africa 65

South Afrca ary of the Tsitsikamma Coastal Na- tional Park, including the Outeniqua Existing MPAs that require management and Tsitsikamma mountain ranges. support: " The Woody Cape Coast: The area No areas identified. from the mouth of the Sundays River east to Kenton-on-Sea and including Proposed new MPAs: the Alexandria Forest, Bird and St. Robinson (1991) listed marine and adja- Croix islands. cent onshore conservation areas that have > The Southeast Coast: The area between been recommended as prime candidates for the Kwenxura and Quko rivers, just special protection and management, with north of East London; important estuar- marine boundaries at least 12 nautical miles ies in a natural state. offshore. The Committee on Coastal and Ma- $ The Mtamvuna Coast: The Estuary on rine Systems noted the desirability of estab- the border of Transkei and Natal, and lishing areas large enough to withstand the coastline to the east. Representative external pressures, and that consequently a of Natal's marine flora and fauna. few large areas are better than a large num- " The Maputuland Coast: The area north ber of small ones. The areas identified by of the Umfolozi Estuary in Zululand to the Committee are listed below: the Mozambique/Kwazulu border at The Richtersveld: Mainly the Richters- Ponta do Ouro, including Lake St. lucia veld area, including the estuary of the and the Sibaya and Kosi Bay systems. Orange River and the alluvial mining Unique and the most tropical marine operations along the coast. area in South Africa, with highest spe- _'w The Namaqualand Coast: Mainly the cies diversity; Kosi Bay system rich in coast between the Spoeg and Groen fish fauna. rivers, including the adjoining terres- trial environments. The committee also identified the Prince The Elands Bay coast: Including Elands Edward Islands (the island Bay, Wadrifpan and Verlorevlei. group southeast of Southern Africa) as a ma- The Longebaan Coast: Langebaan rine conservation area. It was proposed that Lagoon, Saldahana Bay and adjacent the 200 nautical miles exclusive fishing zone islands, including Dassen Island, south would form the seaward boundary of the to Bok Bay and inland fossil beds. area. These islands fall within the CNPPA * The Coast: Table Moun- Antarctic Marine Region but are mentioned tain, the Cape Peninsula, Robben Is- here for information. land, , and east to the Bot River estuary. Togo The De Hoop Coast: The area and the coastline as far as west as Existing MPAs that require management Quoin Point, including the coast to the support: east of the present De Hoop Reserve. There are no existing MPAs. A reference area on the would be incorporated in the marine Proposed new MPAs: component of this site. -_ Lakes Togo and Vogan and coastal la- -Ow The Garden Route Coast: The area be- goons: 6,400 hectares open water, tween George and the eastern bound- 38,000 hectares seasonally inundated 66 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

land; small areas of mudflat and man- the South Atlantic, Ascension needs ap- grove; important for waterfowl and propriate management. Measures are waders (Schwartz 1992; World Bank underway and a management plan is 1993a; Altenburg 1987). to be developed as part of the ODA funded project to manage St. Helena Western Sabara (see below).

WCMC lists three proposed MPAs: Cap Bo- Canary Islands jador, C6te des Phoques, and Laadeim Coast. Further information on these sites is Le Grand, Emmerson, and Martin (1984) rec- needed. ommended that the four islets north of Lan- zarote (Graciosa, Roque del Este, Montana Zaire Clara, Allegranza) should be protected for the islands' seabird colonies. Existing MPAs that require management support: Cape Verde Islands '_ Parc National Marine: Extensive man- groves; possibly nesting turtles (Robin- Existing MPAs that require management son and de Graaff 1992; World Bank support: 1993d). There are no existing MPAs.

Proposed new MPAs: Proposed new MPAs: No areas have been identified. Several islands have been recommended as reserves for seabird colonies. A number Tristan da Cunha of other areas have been recommended but are not listed here although they are No areas have been identified. nesting sites for seabirds (steep cliffs) and are situated inland; WCMC's database also Ascension lists a number' of sites but it is not clear whether these are existing or proposed Existing MPAs that require management MPAs. A number of these sites are also support: important for endemic West African coral There are no existing MPAs. species: *4- Ilheus Branco and Raso (16°38'N, Proposed new MPAs: 24°37'W): Small islands with endemic Several beaches provide important nest- terrestrial species; also possible turtle ing sites for the green and olive Ridley tur- nesting on Branco and important sea- tles (Cbelonia midas and Lepidocbelys bird nesting sites with endemic sub- olivacea) as well as for three other turtle spe- species of shearwater and storm-petrel cies). Ascension Island is a globally impor- (Stuart, Adams, and Jenkins. 1990; tant nesting beach for green turtles, with Miller 1989; World Bank 1993c): 0 1,800-2,000 females nesting each year; -- Ilheu Rombos (14 58'N, 24°40'W): hawksbills also nest there (Mortimer and Small islands recommended as total na- Carr 1984). ture reserves; nesting marine turtles; -Ow Boatswain Bird Islet: Total protection breeding seabirds include Bulwer's pet- required (Williams 1984); as the single rel Bulweria bulwerii, Madeiran storm most important seabird nesting site in petrel Oceanodroma castro, white- Marine Region 8: West Africa 67

faced storm petrel Pelagodroma ma- into consideration and is identifying impor- rinaeadesi and brown booby; en- tant marine and coastal sites and issues. demic terrestrial species (World Bank 1993c; Miller 1989). (WCMC database suggests that Iheus Secos ou do Regional Priorities for the Establishment Rombo was declared a Nature Reserve and Management of MPAs in 1990). -o Ilheu Sal (16°40'N, 22°55'W): Marine The identification of regional priority areas park recommended at Pedra Lume to has proved difficult in the West Africa Ma- protect coral communities and logger- rine region. The information available sug- head turtle nesting beach (Miller 1989; gests that little is known about coastal World Bank 1993c). marine areas. There are more data on prior- -Imp Sal Rei, Boavista Island (16°0 5'N, ity wetlands and other sites of importance 22°55'W): Baia de Sal Rei is locally im- for birds, and on mangroves, but this level portant for migrants; important vege- of information does not often extend to the tated dunes; nesting turtle beaches and subtidal marine environment and offshore. coral communities on north coast of is- Consequently, for some countries there is land; -small islands of Baluarte and Cural little information available concerning Velho have the only nesting colonies of coastal marine areas' of priority for biodiver- the brown booby Sula leucogasterand sity conservation. Further, it has not been magnificent frigate bird Fregatamagni- possible to conduct a thorough review of pri- ficens in the western Atlantic (Miller orities with regional and national experts 1989; World Bank 1993c). (WCMC data- and consequently more intense consult- base suggests Ilheu Baluarte was created ations will be required before a comprehen- a nature reserve in 1990). sive list of priorities can be determined. 4. Sao Vincente Island (16°50'N, 25000'W): However, based on available information Coral communities in the Baia das available, there are a number of areas de- Gatas recommended for protection serving regional priority for the conservation (World Bank 1993c; Miller 1989). of marine biodiversity. The priority sites were selected on the basis of the criteria out- Sao Tome and Principe lined in the introduction and the 'suggestions should be considered as preliminary. A num- The Tinhosas Islets near Principe and Sette ber of information gaps can also be high- Pedras Islets of Sao Tome have been recom- lighted. No areas have been identified along mended for protection of their seabird colo- the South African coast because this is rela- nies (Williams 1984). tively well protected by existing measures.

St. Helena Existing MPAs that require management support: To date, most conservation efforts have been a_ 'Banc d'Arguin National Park on behalf of the island's unique terrestrial (Mauritania) fauna and flora. 'However, it is proposed >O Delta of the Sine and Saloum Rivers that the entire island should be designated (2 adjacent MPAs) (Senegal/Gambia) as one of international importance, perhaps "O Niumi/Sine Saloum National Park as a Biosphere. The Sustainable Environment (Gambia) and Development Strategy being produced >_ Delta du Saloum National Park (Report 1993) takes the marine environment (Senegal). 68 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Proposed new MPAs: Cooper, J., Aj. Williams, and P.L. Britton. 1984. "Ow Bijagos Archipelago (Guinea-Bissau) Distribution,population sizes and conservation m4w Wetlands of Nigeria (three sites): Lagos of breedingseabirds in the Afrotropical region. and Lekki Lagoons, Niger Delta, and In J.P. Croxall, P.G.H. Evans, and R.W. Cross River wetlands. Schreiber, eds., Status and conservation of the world's seabirds. ICBP Technical Publication 2. (n nd Edwards, A. 1990. Fish and Fishenies of Saint (BeVn r I Helena Island. University of Newcastle upon Cape Verde Islands Tyne, U.K. m*-Aby Lagoon (Cote d'lvoire) Fisher, P., and M.D. Spalding. 1993. ProtectedAr- "0- Bunce River (Sierra Leone). eas with Mangrove Habitat. Unpublished re- port to WCMC, Cambridge, U.K. Information Gaps Gatter, W. 1988. Coastal wetlands of Liberia: Their importancefor wintering waterbirds. The areas above do not adequately repre- Cambridge, U.K.: ICBP. sent all the biogeographic zones in the re- Global Environment Facility (GEF). 1992. Ghana gion. There are major gaps in the far coastal wetlands management project. Project northern (Morocco/Western Sahara) and Document, August. Washington, D.C.: World southern (Angola/Namibia) parts of the re- Bank. ginsoThern (anola/naii pt oft pre-i. Hepburn, I., S. Oldfield, and K. Thompson. 1992. giOnI. There iS also a need to identifr pfloritY (cUKDependent Temtories Ramsar Study: Stage sites in the eastern Gulf of Guinea in the 1. FinalReport. Report to Department of Envi- area of Cameroon and Gabon, where there ronment, U.K. International Waterfowl and are likely to be a number of important sites Wetlands Research Bureau/NGO Forum for Na- for rare and endemic West African coral spe- ture Conservation in UK Dependent Territories. cies and associated marine life. Although Hughes, R.H., and J.S. Hughes. 1992. A Directory sites of national importance have been iden- of African Wetlands. Gland, Switzerland and tified in these areas, it has not been possible Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN; Nairobi: UNEP; Cam- to determine if these should be considered bridge, U.K.: WCMC. to be of regional priority. Further review of Jones, T.A. 1993. A Directory of Wetlands of Inter- existing literature or consultation with na- nationalImportance (Part1: Africa). Gland, tional representatives will be required. This Switzerland: Rarmsar Convention Bureau. work should be carried out as a high prior- Le Grand, G., K. Emmerson, and A. Martin. 1984. itywtork establish sicaiedtinformatihpio toplThe r- status and conservation of seabirds in the ity to establish sufficient information to plan Macaronesian Islands. In J.P. Croxall, P.G.H. the development of a system of MPAs to ade- Evans, and R.W. Schreiber, eds., Status and quately represent mrarine biodiversity in the conservation of the world's seabirds. ICBP Tech- region. nical Publication 2. McAllister, D.E., F.W. Schueler, C.M. Roberts, and J.P. Hawkins. N.d. Mapping and GIS analysis BIBLIOGRAPHY of the global distribution of coral reef on an equal-area grid. In R. Miller, ed., Map- Altenburg, W. 1987. Waterfowl in West African ping the diversity of nature. Chapman and coastal wetlands. WIWO Report 15. Hall. Forthcoming. Burgis, MJ., and Jj. Symoens. 1987. African Wet- Miller, R.L. 1989. Regions identifedfor considera- lands and Shallow Water Bodies. Directory. tion as protected areas: Republic of Cape Verde. Paris: ORSTOM. National Parks and Protected Areas Project, In- Commission of European Communities (CEC). stitudo Nacional de Investigacao Agraria. 1992. Mangroves of Africa and Madagascar. Mortimer, J.A., and A. Carr. 1984. Reproductive Brussels, Belgium: Directorate-General for De- behaviour of the Green Turtle (Chelonia my- velopment, Commission of the European Com- das) at Ascension Island. Nat. Geog. Soc. Re- munities, ECSCC-EEC-EAEC. search Rept. 17:257-70. Marine Region 8: West Africa 69

Nunan, G. 1992. Ph.D. Thesis. University of New- Eastern Pacific reefs). UNEP Regional Seas Di- castle upon Tyne. rectories and Bibliographies. Gland, Switzer- Nole-Peard, K.R., and Aj. Williams. 1991. Wetlands land and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN; Nairobi: of the Namib coast. Madoqua 17(2): 147-53. UNEP. Norse, E.A. 1993. Global marine biological diver- Williams, Aj. 1984. Breeding distribution, num- sity strategy. bers and conservation of tropical seabirds on Oldfield, S. 1987. Fragmentsofparadise: A guide oceanic islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. In for conservation action in the UK. Dependent J.P. Croxall, P.G.H. Evans, and R.W. Schreiber, Territories. British Association of Nature Con- eds., Status and conservation of the world's servationists/WWF-UK. seabirds. ICBP Technical Publication 2. Cam- Portmann, J.E., C. Biney, A.C. Ibe, and S. Zabi. bridge, U.K. 1989. State of the marine environment in the WIWO. 1989. Etude omithologique preliminaire West and CentralAfrica Region. UNEP Re- de la zone cotiere du nord-ouest de la Guinee. gional Seas Reports and Studies No. 108. Nai- Cambridge, U.K.: ICBP. robi. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). Report on Sustainable Environment and Develop- 1991a. Cote dI'voire: La Conservation de la Di- ment Strategy and Action Planfor St. Helena. versite Biologique. Cambridge, U.K. 1993. Executive summary, plus 3 volumes. . 1991b. Guinea-Bissau: Conservacao da Kew, U.K.: Royal Botanic Gardens and IIED. DiversidadeBiologica.Cambridge, U.K. Robinson, G.A., and G. de Graaff. 1992. The . 1992. Global biodiversity. Status of the IUCN-CNPPA-Network of Marine ProtectedAr- earth's living resources. London: Chapman and eas (MPAs) Report on Area 6 (West African Ma- Hall. rine Realm). Report prepared f6r CNPPA. . 1993a. Ecologically sensitive areas in Af- 1993. Marine ProtectedAreas of the Re- rica (Vol. I: Occidentaland CentralAfrica). public of South Africa. Pretoria, Republica of Washingtbn. D.C.: World Bank. South Africa: National Parks Board. . 1993b. Ecologically sensitive areas in AJ- Schwartz, B. 1992. Identification, establishment rica (Vol. IV: West Africa). Washington, D.C.: and management of speciallyprotected areas World Bank. in the WACAF Region. Report prepared for . 1993c. Ecologically sensitive areas in Af- UNEP Ocean and Coastal Program Activity Cen- rica (Vol. V Sahel). Washington, D.C.: World tre. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Bank. Stuart, S.N., Rj. Adams, and M.D. Jenkins. 1990. . 1993d. Ecologicallysensitive areas in Af- Biodiversity in Sub-SaharanAfrica and its is- ,I.a (Vol. III: South CentralAfrica and Indian lands. Occasional Paper 6. Gland, Switzerland: Ocean). Washington, D.C.: World Bank. IUCN/SSC. World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1987. Action Tilot, V. 1993. Description of the different large strategyforprotecied areas in the Afrotropical marine ecosystems of West Africa. IUCN, Ma- realm. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. rine Programme. Project No 9897-LME. Gland, - . 1989. La Conservation des Ecosystemes Switzerland. forestiers du Congo. Gland, Switzerland and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Cambridge, U.K. 1989. The West African Action Plan: Evalu- . 1990. La Conservation des Ecosystemes ation of its development and achievements. forestiers du Gabon. Gland, Switzerland. UNEP Regional Seas Studies 101. World Conservation Union (IUCN) and United United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). and World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1988. 1987. IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Coral reefs of the world (Vol. 1: Atlantic and Areas. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.

MARINE REGION 9 South Atlantic

Antonio Diegues, Guillermo Harris, and Andre de Castro Moreira

r~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2

,,~~ _ - ' I-

BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARINE ters per hour. Prevailing westerly winds pro- BIODiVERSrTY duce upwelling of cold Antarctic water along the edge of the shelf that lowers the The South Atlantic Marine Region include surface temperatures. Most of the shores of marine areas under the jurisdiction of four Patagonia are washed by an inshore compo- countries: Argentina, Brazil, United Kingdom nent of the Falkland Current. The northward (Falkland/Malvinas Islands, the sovereignty extent of this current is variable; it generally over which is disputed with Argentina), and reaches the latitude of the province of Bue- Uruguay. The region spans a wide range of nos Aires in Argentina, but its influence can environments, including diverse subtropical be felt as far north as Rio de Janeiro. At Rio and tropical areas in the north and produc- de La Plata the Falkland Current meets the tive temperate areas in the south. warmer Brazil Current that flows in a south- westerly direction along the coast of Brazil Oceanography from about 100S. Highly productive areas oc- cur where there is mixing of inshore and In the south the region is characterized by deeper northbound drifts of water with an extensive continental shelf off the coast those of the southward-moving warm Brazil- of Argentina. In the north Brazil's continen- ian current. The Brazil Current is strongest tal shelf shows a variety of widths, being off Brazil from Abrolhos Archipelago to the wider in the north of the country and becom- latitude of Rio de Janeiro. From the tropic of ing narrower in the northeast and again in Capricorn south it becomes progressively the southeast and south (Diegues 1987) weaker. The Rio de La Plata forms an impor- The cold Falkdand (Malvinas) Current tant biogeographic barrier between the cold flows slowly north along the coast of Argen- Falkland Current and the warm Brazilian Cur- tina from the extreme south. It is strongest rent systems. along the outer edge of the continental shelf The warm and shallow Guiana Current where it travels at speeds of about 2 kilome- flows along the north coast of Brazil and

71 72 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

links with the Caribbean circulation system. ward to the Bahia de Sao Marcos, the fine- Both the Brazil and Guiana Currents are fed grained sediments blanket the shoreline and from the east by the westerly flowing South are cloaked with mangrove. East of the Ba- Equatorial Current that enters the region and hia de Sao Marcos the shoreline begins to branches to the north and south, with the be characterized by sandy beaches lying be- southerly branch becoming the Brazil Cur- fore low hills. The sand beaches are inter- rent and the northerly branch becoming the spersed with mangrove stands. Guiana Current. Beginning in Rio Grande do Norte and Tides along the Brazilian coast are gener- continuing southward to the coastal margin ally weak, growing in amplitude from south of Alagoas state, the beach zone is severely to north, being approximately 2 meters attenuated. The dry climate and the short around Cabo Frio (Rio de Jeneiro State) and drainage systems limit the transport of sedi- reaching a maximum of 12 meters in the ment to the ocean margin. This portion of Amazon estuary. Tides in Argentina become Brazil is bordered by fairly extensive coral pronounced, particularly along the coast of reef formations. Patagonia where tidal range can be as much South of Recife the coast is cliffed. The as 7 meters. combination of cliffed coast and the pres- ence of coral reef extends for about 500 kilo- meters. Sandy beach backed by an Coastal Geography and Geology escarpment begins near the Alagoas-Sergipe border and continues south to Rio Grande The following information is summarized do Sul State. The beach often broadens in from Chapman (1977) and Schwartz (1982). large curvilinear embayments, and there The region includes a diverse range of may be local mangrove stands, beach ridges, coastal formnations ranging from the inter-- and deltaic buildout. In the state of Parana tropical and tropical regions in the north of there is an extensive area of beach ridge de- Brazil, including the Amazon estuary and velopment associated with the Maciel River. coral reefs, to the temperate and productive The beach ridges attain elevations of 10 me- marine areas of Argentina. ters in their interior location and gradually , The. great size of Brazil allows for consid- decrease to elevations of 2-3 meters near erable diversity of coastal exposure and geo- the shore. morphologic development. There are three The coastal margin of the state of Rio principal portions of the shore. The first is Grande do Sul is distinct from the rest of Bra- the area in the north that is influenced by zil, consisting of a classic barrier island-la- the Amazon River and its sediments; the sec- goon sequence. Broad sandy beaches ond is the narrow coastal margin fringing extend along the coast for 640 kilometers the huge Brazilian Shield, creating an escarp- and incorporate wide beach ridge systems ment nearly adjacent to the ocean; the third and large coastal dunes reaching 25 meters is the southem area where considerable in elevation. The northern margin of this quantities of sediments have accumulated to coastal plain comes against a terrace surface provide a barrier island formation. with elevations of 15 meters. The mouth-of the Amazon River is a great The coast of Uruguay is diverse for such a estuary stretching for about 1,500 kilometers relatively short coastline. The northern area inland. Large quantities of sand and espe- consists of an extension of the barrier island cially silt and clay are discharged by the system of southern Brazil. The sand beach river and accumulate along the shore mar- continues in Uruguay but narrows and be- gins. .From the border with Surinam east- comes discontinuous, forming a series of Marine Region 9: South Atlantic 73 sandy embayments. In several places the em- Ecosystem Diversity bayments contain small lagoons behind a sand barrier. From Maldonado westward the Coral Reefs shoreline is the margin of the Rio de La Plata estuary. For nearly this entire length The distribution of coral reefs in the South there is a cliffed shoreline with a sand beach Atlantic is limited to tropical areas along the lying at its base. Occasionally, mud flats oc- coastline and offshore islands of Brazil. Ac- cur along the cliffed shoreline. cording to UNEP/IUCN (1988) the Brazilian Argentina is characterized primarily by a coral fauna has long been considered of in- cliffed shoreline with a narrow beach zone terest on account of its high proportion of before it. The cliffs vary from only a few me- endemic species. Some 3,000 kilometers of ters to the spectacular elevations of greater coast has reefs, although not all of these are than 500 meters south of Comodoro Ri- true coral reefs. Ten of the 18 hermatypic vadavia. coral species known from Brazil are endem- The Rio de La Plata estuary dominates the ics. northern portion of the Argentinean shore- Two main coral reef formations may be line. From the mouth of the river at Cabo identified on the Brazilian coast. The first is San Antonio, the shoreline is tidal mudflat. Grupo Recifal do Cabo Sao Roque that un- From Mar del Plata to Bahia Blanca the folds from Cabo de Sao Roque until Natal in coast consists of a low cliffed shoreline Rio Grande do None State, along which are fronted by a narrow beach. Occasionally, the Fernando de Noronha archipelago and there are large dune fields leading from the the Rocas atoll; the second is the assem- beach. blage of coral reefs situated in the Bahia South of Bahia Blanca, the Negro and State's south coast (the Abrolhos archipel- Colorado rivers transport considerable quan- ago), which is the richest ancl most devel- tities of sand to the shoreline, and the oped coral reef formation in the region. In beaches are extremely broad. Broad mud- addition to these main formations, coral flats, low islands and sandbars occur be- reefs also occur between Natal and the Sao tween these two river mouths. The Colorado Francisco river mouth and on the latitude of River delta is extensive. Salvador Bahia (both usually associated with With the exception of well-developed calcareous reefs). beaches and associated landforms at the The northeast coast formations are rocky Gulf of San Matias and the Gulf of San calcareous outcroppings forming reefs and Jorge, the southern half of continental Argen- hence differ from the coral reef formations tina is mainly comprised of a cliffed shore- such as those of the Abrolhos archipelago. line. Terraces ranging to 140 meters have been noted in Patagonia. From Santa Cruz to Mangroves the eastern tip of Tierra del Fuego the cliffs are cut into glacial morainic material. Occa- The following species of mangrove are sional outcrops of bedrock are noted, as are found along the coast of the South Atlantic: pocket beaches. At Punta Dungeness there R. mangle, A. germinans, L. racemosa, Cono- is a series of beach ridges created where cur- carpus erectus, R. harrisonji, R. racemosa, rents converge at the point. Bahia San Se- and A. scbaueriana.The northern limit of bastian on the northeastern shore of Tierra mangroves on the American continent is del Fuego is a shallow bay partially sepa- found in Florida (U.S.), at around 29°53'N. rated from the ocean by a low, narrow pen- Mangrove formations extend to Santa Ca- insula. tarina state in southern Brazil. Low stands of 74 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas both Avicennia schauerianaand Rhizo- In Argentina the largest tidal marshes oc- phora mangle terminate at Florianopolis cur along the muddy shores of Samborom- (27°30'S), but Lagunculariaracemosa ex- b6n Bay (about 200 kilometers south of tends southward to the poleward limit of Buenos Aires) and in the vicinity of Bahia mangrove at the mouth of the Aranangua Blanca, the Colorado River delta (Bahia River (29°S) (Chapman 1977). Anegada), and San Blas Bay at the southern The most extensive areas of mangrove are margin of the Pampas region. There are associated with the mouth of the Amazon mudflats that are important to shorebirds at River in the north of Brazil; well-developed San Antonio Oeste, Golfo San Jose, Bahia communities extend from the northern Bustamante. Smaller river estuaries and an- boundary of the region until the border be- cient river beds, such as Ria Deseado, San tween Maranhao and Paui states at around Julian and Rio Gallegos have small associ- 2°30'S. Less extensive areas of mangrove are ated wetlands. Bahia San Sebastian on Tierra present along the coast until saltmarshes be- del Fuego has large mudflats that are impor- come dominant in Santa Catarina and Rio tant wintering grounds for shorebirds from Grande do Sul States in the south. the northern hemisphere.

Other Wetlands and Saltmarsh Beaches, Dunes, Cliffs

The dominance of cliffed coast, extensive The best-developed beaches and dunes are sand beaches and dune fields along the found on the coast of Brazil. In the north Atlantic coast from southern Brazil to much of the shoreline is formed by sandy Tierra del Fuego has limited the develop- beaches interspersed with mangroves lying ment of tidal marshes to small deltaic plains before low hills. Sandy beaches continue and river mouths. South American species from Alagoas State to the south where large of Spartina, Disticblis, Juncus and Sali- dunes and barrier island formations occur. cornia dominate the tidal marshes of Uru- Beaches in Argentina are sandy or stony and guay and Argentina north of approximately interspersed by cliffs. 44°S (Chapman 1977). South of this, low The Brazilian coast is rocky and cliffed in salt-tolerant shrubs become dominant in its central regions (for about 500 kilometers small disjunct marshes along the coast of south of Recife) while much of the Argentin- Patagonia. ean coast falls in this category. In Brazil tidal marshes occur as a pioneer community and as a secondary formation on Islands and Submerged Banks disturbed areas within mangrove woodland along the coast. Tidal marshes become more Atol das Rocas lies about 200 kilometers prevalent on the southern coast of Santa Ca- northeast of the coast of Rio Grande do tarina and Rio Grande do Sul where exten- Norte State. The atoll is an almost circular sive saltmarsh formations are found, the reef possibly lying on the same submarine most important.being associated with the Pa- shelf (the platform of the Rio Grande do tos, Mirim and Mangueira lagoons in Rio Norte) as Fernando de Noronha. Fernando Grande do Sul. de Noronha is a volcanic archipelago consist- In Uruguay tidal marshes are limited ing of a principal island of 17 square kilome- mainly to the areas east of Punta el Tigre ters and eighteen islets of varying sizes. The near Montevideo, with the largest occurring archipelago lies 350 kilometers northeast of along the banks of the Santa Lucia river Cabo de Sao Roque and has a similar flora (Chapman 1977). and fauna to the Atol das Rocas. The islands Marine Region 9: South Atlantic 75 of Sao Pedro and Sao Paulo (St. Paul's been possible to fully review the literature Rocks) are situated in the Atlantic about 500 on this subject. Brief information is pre- kilometers northeast of Fernando de sented below. Noronha (UNEP/IUCN 1988). The West Indian (Antillean) and Ama- There are few islands off the east coast of zonian manatees Trichecus manatus ma- Argentina. These are restricted to the south- natus and T. inunguis are found along the east coast of Tierra del Fuego and small northern coast of Brazil. The Antillean mana- groups of islands near the shore associated tee can be found from Central America to with coastal wetlands, or small volcanic out- northeastern Brazil, as far south as Bahia crops in parts of Chubut and Santa Cruz. state. There are areas where these two spe- These areas are important for marine birds cies can potentially overlap such as the Par- and mammals. que Nacional do Cabo Orange and Reserva Biol6gica do Lago Piratuba (Borobia, per- Open Ocean, Deep Sea, UpweUings sonal communication). The loggerhead (Caretta caretta), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys On the Brazilian coast, areas of upwelling coriacea) nest in small numbers in scattered are rare due to stratification of the water localities from Maranhao state to Espirito masses that prevents the surface layers from Santo state in Brazil, while a large popula- receiving nutrients from bottom layers. The tion of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) feeds main exception is areas of upwelling in the in coastal waters and up to a few thousand Cabo Frio region (near Rio de Janeiro). The nest annually (UNEP/IUCN 1988). The leath- main areas of higher productivity are the es- erback (Dermochelys coriacea) and hawks- tuarine and mangrove areas, which receive bill (Eretmocbelys imbricata) turtles also nest larger amounts of nutrients from continental in some areas of Brazil. runoff (Diegues 1987). At least 37 species of marine mammals are Important areas of coastal upwelling oc- known to occur in Brazilian waters, includ- cur along the edge of the continental shelf ing dolphins, whales, sea lions, fur seals and of Argentina. This ecosystem provides much occasional Antarctic visitors such as cra- of the nourishment that sustains the Argen- beater, elephant and leopard seals (Borobia, tine marine environment. personal communication). The Argentine marine system is charac- Kelp Forests terized by large biomass. Although the num- ber of species is comparatively low, the Kelp beds are found off the shelf of Patago- importance of the system lies in volume nia and Tierra del Fuego in Argentina. These rather than variety. Large numbers of indi- form some of the largest seaweed ecosys- viduals of each species live in an interde- tems in the world. The giant Macrocystis is pendent system. Several species are the dominant algae. These beds form habitat prominent indicators of the overall health of and feeding grounds for numerous species the ecosystem. Penguins, for example, re- (Elder and Pernetta 1991). flect changes in food availability at sea by variations in their breeding success rates. Sea lions, fur seals, elephant seals, right Species Diversity whales, dolphins, Magellanic penguins, cormorants, terns and gulls are the principal Only limited information has been available marine birds and mammals. Some species on species diversity for this report. Due to are resident in the region year-round, others the limitations of time and funding it has not migrate at sea for several months each year. 76 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

The marine birds and mammals that make Table 9.1 Number of Existing up the Patagonian coastal fauna are in gen- Marine And Coastal Protected areas eral colonial species. There are major sea- in the South AtLantic Marine Region bird congregations along the coast, for Marine Coastal example, over 250,000 pairs of Magellanic Location Areas Areas penguins congregate at Punta Tombo alone. It is estimated that at least 1 million individu- Argentina 4 30+ als of this species are distributed along the Brazil 15 50+ Patagonian coast. There are also more than United Kingdom , . ,. , ~~~~~~(Falkland/Malvinas Islands) 0 14 50,000 South American sea lions and up to Uuayn0 4 40,000 southern elephant seals; the only con- Uruguay 0 4 tinental breeding colony of this latter species Totai 19 98+ in the world is on Peninsula Valdes. At Punta Leon, only a few kilometers from some of the largest towns on the coast, 4 species of cormorants, 2 species of tems 1 ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING MPAS species of gull and 2 species of pinnipeds breed side by side in an area of a few hec- Description of National MPA Systems tares. Golfo San Jose and Golfo Nuevo in the province of Chubut are among the few There are over 120 protected areas located remaining breeding sites for the southern in marine and coastal environments in the right whale. South Atlantic Marine Region; available infor- mation suggests that relatively few of these Biogeographic Classification extend into the subtidal marine environ- ment. It has been difficult to determine how The biogeographic classification used for far the boundaries of some protected areas this report is that developed by Hayden, extend due to a lack of available informa- Ray, and Dolan (1984). According to this tion on this point. Nevertheless, an attempt classification the region falls within four has been made to identify which areas in- coastal realms: the Eastern Tropical, Eastern clude a subtidal marine component. Avail- Intertropical, Eastern Subtropical and the able information suggests that 19 protected Eastern Temperate. The location of these areas include a subtidal component while zones is shown by Map 9. there are more than 98 coastal terrestrial and Hayden, Ray, and Dolan (1984) identify intertidal protected areas. The location of ex- three Faunal Provinces in the region: the isting MPAs with a subtidal component is Magellan, which includes coastal areas from shown on Map 9; these areas are identified Tierra del Fuego to the southern end of the in the national sections below. Rio de La Plata; the Eastern South American, which extends from the Rio de La Plata to Argentina Cabo Frio just north of the city of Rio de Ja- neiro; and the Brazilian, which extends be- There are a number of coastal terrestrial pro- yond the boundary of the region to the tected areas in Argentina but only four areas border of Guyana and Venezuela. include parts of the subtidal marine environ- According to this classification the Falk- ment. These include one area administered land (Malvinas) Islands fall within Oceanic at the national level and three at the provin- Realm I: variable eastward currents. cial level: Marine Region 9: South Atlantic 77

_ Parque Nacional Tierra del Fuego: The base suggests there are at least another 30 park includes a small subtidal marine, coastal protected areas that include intertidal component. terrain. Some of the more significant areas _- Parque Marino Golfo San Jose: This are: provincial park is located in Chubut province and provides a protected area Rio Negro State for one of the two most important . San Antonio Oeste breeding areas for the southern right . Caleta de los Loros whale (Eubalaena australis); it also in- . Complejo Islote Lobos Provincial Fauna cludes mudflats that are important feed- Reserve ing and stopover areas for migratory . Punta Bermeja Provincial Fauna Reserve birds. _O Isla Escondida: A protected area has Chubut State been established under provincial laws * Cabo dos Bahias to include coastal marine areas off . Caleta Valdes Chubut. The site includes breeding ar- . Isla de los Pajaros eas for several species of fish, includ- . Peninsula Valdes Integral Objective Tour- ing Hake (Merluscius hubbsi). istic Nature Reserve Restrictions are applied to commercial . Punta Delgada fishing within the area. . Punta Le6n _ Bajo Bazarredo, Golfo San Jorge: This . Punta Loma MPA is located in Santa Cruz province . Punta Marques and protects shrimp breeding grounds.' . Punta Norte With the exception of selective squid . Punta Piramide catching, commercial fishing is not per- . Punta Tombo mitted. . Santa Cruz State: * Monte Loayza The government agencies with responsibil- . Bahia Laura ity for management have insufficient re- . Cabo Blanco sources to effectively carry out this task. . Cabo Virgenes Many areas that are important for marine bio- . Cafiad6n del Duraznillo diversity are also used for commercial and . Peninsula San Julian Provincial Reserve , tourism and other uses . Ria de Puerto Deseado Provincial Nature that have varying degrees of impact. In most Reserve instances there is little or no commitment to integrated management for these areas to en- Tierra del Fuego State sure that their resources are used in a sus- . Isla de los Estades tainable manner and that biodiversity is . San Sebastian protected. Population increases in coastal ar- . Punta Buque eas, pressures for commercial exploitation and a lack of alternative sources of re- sources have increased pressure for develop- Brazil ment of areas that are important for marine biodiversity. IBAMA, the Brazilian Institute of Environ- Information held by the World Conserva- ment and Natural Renewable Resources, un- tion Monitoring Centre Protected Areas Data- der the Ministry of Environment, is 78 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas responsible at the .government level for the vate institutions can also be sought in this establishment and management of Conserva- way. IBAMA has a problem of a lack of per- tion Units including MPAs. In addition the sonnel, particularly researchers. On the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 authorizes lo- other hand, the universities have a serious cal state and council administrations to cre- problem of lack of funds to carry out marine ate Conservation Units within their research. jurisdictions. State Marine Parks and Council There are 15 MPAs that include subtidal Marine Parks are created by the state govem- components: ment (Governor) or by the municipal govern- '_ Reserva Biol6gica Nacional Atol das ment (Mayor) with the objective of Rocas preserving areas considered unique and im- _O Parque Nacional Cabo Orange portant. Such Conservation Units will then Ow Federal Estaoco Ecol6gica Ilha Maraca- be implemented and managed by the local Jipoica administration. The management regulations _O Estagco Ecol6gica Jureia-Itatins should follow the federal specifications for >_ Reserva Biol6gica Nacional Lago each category (Park, Biological Reserve and Piratuba so forth). However, the level of compromise _ Parque Nacional Lencois Maranhenses available to the local state and council ad- "O Parque Nacional Abrolhos Marinho ministrations in relation to the implementa- 'O Marinho Parque Nacional Fernando do tion and administration of the Conservation Noronha Units has not yet been determined by Fed- _O Parque Nacional Monte Pascoal eral legislation. "w Parque Nacional Serra da Bocaina The distinction between the creation of a '_ Parque Nacional Superagui Conservation Unit and its actual implementa- >_ Estacao Ecol6gica Taim tion must be emphasized. A Conservation a_ Reserva Biol6gica do Arvoredo Unit can be created as a document, but its ef- _ Parcel of Parque Estadual Marinho of fective implementation requires funding, per- Manuel Luis sonnel and equipment. In some cases 'O Municipal Marinho Parque Paripueira several years can pass between these two phases. The main problem in all cases re- Data held by the World Conservation mains a lack of resources for law enforce- Monitoring Centre Protected Areas Data Unit ment and for baseline research and indicate the existence of over 50 coastal ter- monitoring. Nevertheless, some MPAs have restrial and intertidal protected areas. Some been implemented largely due to personal of the main coastal protected areas are listed efforts and cooperative work with NGOs below: and a few have management plans under- * Reserva Biol6gica Nacional Comboios way. * Parque Nacional Lagoa do Peixe Another difficulty is that due to Brazil's . Estadual Parque Caraguatatuba economic instability, changes in government * Estadual Parque Ilha Anchieta result in changes in priorities, making it diffi- . Estadual Parque Ilha Bela cult to maintain long term programs. Coop- . Estadual Parque Ilha do Cordoso erative work between IBAMA, universities * Estadual Parque Serra do Mar and NGOs is the most effective way to mini- * Estadual Parque Ilha Grande mize such difficulties. Due to the complex . Estadual Parque Pedra Branca bureaucracy of Brazilian public institutions, . Reserva Biol6gica Estadual Guaratiba the administration of funds is more effi- * Reserva Biol6gica Estadual Praia do Sul ciently handled by NGOs. Funds from pri- . Reserva Biol6gica de Santa Isabel Marine Region 9: South Atlantic 79

United Kingdom (Fahliand/Malvinas International and Regional Initiatives Islands) Relevant to MPAs

The Falldands has legislation for setting up World HeritageConvention nature reserves and for protecting wildlife. A number of nature reserves have been estab- Argentina, Brazil, the United Kingdom and lished on land, including a number of small Uruguay are all parties to the World Heri- islands that have been designated as re- tage Convention (IUCN 1992). There are no serves in their entirety. However, none of World Heritage sites that include a subtidal these areas includes a marine component marine component in the South Atlantic Ma- and it is possible that existing legislation rine Region. may require some revision to allow this. Existing coastal terrestrial and intertidal RamsarConvention protected areas are listed below. These data have been supplied by the World Conserva- Argentina, the United Kingdom and Uruguay don Monitoring Centre Protected Areas Data are parties to the Ramsar Convention (IUCN Unit. 1992). There are no Ramsar sites that in- * Arch Island East Nature Reserve clude a subtidal marine component. The fol- * Beauchene Island Sanctuary lowing areas include coastal terrestrial and * Bird Island Nature Reserve intertidal terrain: Logoa do Peixe (Brazil), * Bleaker Island Nature Reserve Reentiancias Maranhenses (Brazil) and Ba- * Cochon Island Nature Reserve nados del Este y Franja Costera (Uruguay). * Dunbar Island Sanctuary * Gid's Island Nature Reserve UNESCO Biospbere Reserves * Kidney Island Nature Reserve * Low Island Sanctuary All countries in the region participate in the . Middle Island Sanctuary UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Pro- * Sea Dog and Arch Islands Nature Reserve gramme (IUCN 1992). However there are no * Stanley Common and Cape Pembroke marine Biosphere Reserves in the region. Peninsula Sanctuary The following areas include coastal terres- * Tussac Island Nature Reserve trial and possibly intertidal elements: Parque * Volunteer and Cow Bay Sanctuary Costero del Sul (Argentina), Reserva da Biospheea da Mata Atlantica (Brazil) and Ba- Uruguay nados del Este (Uruguay).

Only limited information has been available UNEPRegional Seas Programme about MPAs in Uruguay. Data held by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Pro- In view of the recognized need to address tected Areas Database indicate the presence coastal zone resources and management of four coastal protected areas, none of needs and priorities in each country, discus- which seems to include subtidal elements. sions held with the governments of Argen- * Costa Atlantica Monumento Natural tina, Brazil and Uruguay during the course * Dunas de Cabo Polonio Monumento Natu- of 1993 have led to ongoing preparations for ral a workshop on Integrated Coastal Zone Man- * Franklin Delano Roosevelt Parque Na- agement. cional The workshop will be held jointly by * Santa Teresa Parque Nacional UNEP and 1OC/UNESCO, with participation 80 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas of relevant intemational organizations and Table 9.2 Representation of would serve as a basis to assess the status Biogeographic Zones of the South and identify priorities of each country con- Atlantic Marine Region ceming the marine environment (Borobia, BiogeographicZonel personal communication). Coastal-Realm NumberofMPAs

Assessment of Representation Eastem Tropical 3 Eastern Intertropical 8 of Biogeographic Zones within MPAs Eastem Subtropical 5 Eastem Temperate 3 The degree to which MPAs in the South At- Other Oceanic Areas: lantic Marine Region represent the bio- Falkland/Malvinas Islands 0 geographic zones (coastal realms and the Total 19 main oceanic islands) in the region is sum- marized in Table 9.2 and discussed below. This assessment considers only those 19 MPAs recorded as including a subtidal com- ponent. There are more than 98 protected ar- Jipioca Ecological Station, and Lago Piratuba eas that include coastal terrestrial and in Biological Reserve. some instances intertidal features that are These areas include considerable man- not included in this analysis. grove formations in addition to the impor- All of the coastal realms in the region tant dunes that are found within Lencois have three or more MPAs. The Eastem Inter- Maranhenses National Park. tropical zone (which includes the northem In contrast, along the Piaui, Ceara and coastline of Brazil) has the most MPAs with part of Rio Grande do Norte State's coasts 8, followed by the Eastem Subtropical (the (within the realm's subequatorial compo- southem coastline of Brazil) with 5, the East- nent), extensive sandy beach "restinga" for- ern Tropical (the central coast of Brazil) mations can be found that are not properly with 3 and the Eastern Temperate (the coast protected. In addition, some marine systems of Argentina) also with 3. There are no such as river mouths, bays and estuaries are MPAs in the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands. also not represented in MPAs. Of the 3 faunal provinces there are 11 MPAs in the Brazilian province, 4 in the East- Tropical Coastal Realm em South American, and 4 in the Magellan province. The best represented ecosystems in the tropi- A more detailed assessment of the repre- cal realm are the coral reef formations. The sentation of the zones in Brazil is provided Femando de Noronha and Abrolhos Marine by Diegues and Moreira (1992). The follow- National Parks include Brazil's most signifi- ing discussion is based on these authors' cant coral reefs. work. Some important ecosystems present in this area are unprotected, such as the calcareous Intertropical Coastal Realm reefs found along the northeastern coast, the dune formations that exist mainly on the Rio The ecosystems located around the inter- Grande do Norte and Bahia State's coast, the tropical realm's northem limit are wells repre- Algoas State's estuarine and lagoon systems sented in existing MPAs. Four well-defined that includes the Mundau and Manguaba la- MPAs exist in the region: Cabo Orange and goons and various estuarine areas found Lencois Maranhenses National Parks, Maraca- along this coastline. Marine Region 9: South Atlantic 81

Subtropical Coastal Realm gests that the existing MPAs have in general a low level of management. The main Of the ecosystems in the subtropical realm, causes of this are: those that are best represented by MPAs are . Lack of efficient and effective manage- located on the country's southern coastal ment program. plain: in the region between Rio de Janeiro . Inadequate legislation. State's southern littoral and on Sao Paulo * The impacts of illegal activities within the State's northern coast; and on the Cananeia, MPAs and of activities on land and at sea Iguape and Paranagua estuarine and lagoon outside the borders of the MPAs. system located on the coastal border be- * Lack of management-oriented research. tween Sao Paulo and Parana States. Within the Iguape, Cananeia and Paranagua estu- arine and lagoon system, mangrove, sandy PIORrffY AREAS AND RECOMMENDATIONS beach, restinga and lagoon formations are under protection within Superagui National National Priorities for the Establishment Park (Parana State), Jureia-Itatins Ecological and Management of MPAS Station and Ilha do Cordoso State Park (Sao Paulo State). Argentina Important ecosystems in this realm are not protected, including the Santos-Sao Vicente The following areas were identified by estuary region (Sao Paulo State), Santa Ca- Guillermo Harris in consultation with other tarina State's saltmarshes and sandy beaches contributors from Argentina. The areas were and the Lagoa dos Patos, in Rio Grande do selected according to existing and available Sul State. information using the criteria outlined in the introduction to this report. Temperate Coastal Realm Proposed New MPAs There are four MPAs in this realm, which in- Ow Punta Tombo Provincial Wildlife Re- cludes the Argentinean coast south of the serve: The area includes the largest col- Rio de la Plata. Two of these areas are lo- ony of Magellanic penguins on the cated in Chubut province: the Golfo San coast of Argentina. Current protected Jose includes a marine bay that is important status is restricted to the shore and for marine mammals and Isla Escondida in- does not include the infra-littoral zone. cludes breeding areas for fish. The Bajo Baz- Furthermore, the reserve area as it now arredo includes marine areas in the Golfo stands, does not include the entire col- San Jorge in Santa Cruz province along the ony. Commercial fishing fleets operate southern coast while the Tierra del Fuego freely in waters around the colony in National Park is located on the southern tip January-October each year. Penguins of the South American continent. These occupy the colony in September-April MPAs include only a very small proportion every year, so there is considerable of the marine ecosystems found in this realm. overlap. Fishing competes directly with some of the target species such as Management Level Hake (Merluscius bubbsi). Further- more, there is evidence that penguins It is not possible to provide a detailed analy- are caught accidentally in fishing nets. sis of the management status of MPAs in the Accidental spills from oil tankers have region. However, available information sug- caused serious oiling of penguins. 82 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Agreements should be developed in.co- * Bahia Samborombon (Buenos Aires): This ordination with the Province of Chubut valuable stopover feeding site for of mi- to provide protection for the entire col- gratory shorebirds is only partially repre- ony area and to extend protected sented in MPA. Protected areas should be status to infra-littoral areas that are im- increased to cover the full extent of the portant for foraging Magellanic pen- coast of this bay. guins. This marine reserve should . Ria Bahia Blanca (Buenos Aires): This is extend sufficiently out to sea around an important breeding area for the Band- Punta Tombo/Punta Clara, to secure tailed gull (Larus atlanticus). Colony sites food supply and provide safe transit need protected status. Assessment should for penguins. Fishing should be be made of importance to migratory banned within this area between Sep- shorebirds. tember 1 and April 30. Restrictions to . Bahia Anegada/Bahia San Blas (Buenos shipping around the colony should in- Aires): An important breeding area for the clude oil tankers. Band-tailed gull (Larus atlanticus), it is _ Isla Quintano to Cabo Dos Bahias Is- also a valuable feeding area for shore- land System: This group of eight is- birds and flamingos. It is recommended lands near the shores of the province to provide protective status to colony of Chubut supports breeding colonies sites and increase protective measures for of seabirds, South American Sea Lions feeding areas. (Otariaflavescens)and one of the only . Ria de San Antonio Oeste (Rio Negro): colonies of fur seals (Arctocepbalus This is an important stopover area for mi- australis) on the Patagonian coast. grating shorebirds. Protective legislation Large forests of seaweed (Gracillarla for this site is under review. It is recom- sp.) form the basis of a small agar in- mended to support MPA legislation for dustry. Guano from cormorant colonies this area. is harvested in a small way on several * Bahia San Sebastian (Tierra del Fuego): of the colonies with little control. It is This bay is of international importance recommended to provide MPA status as a wintering area for migrating shore- to the whole area and to effectively birds. manage human impacts in this island system. Existing MPAs that require management _o Puerto Deseado/Bahia Laura Island Sys- support: tem: This area includes important _ Parque Marino Golfo San Jose, breeding colonies of marine mammals Chubut: Parque Marino Provincial and birds. It is recommended to review Golfo San Jose is currently under se- current legislation and establish protec- vere pressure for development. Maricul- tion in adjacent waters. ture, urbanization of the coast and _ Isla de los Estados: This is an important tourism could threaten this important breeding area for colonies of marine protected area. Right whales are under mammals and birds. It is recommended pressure from the growing whale- to review current legislation and estab- watching industry (30,000 people went lish protection for colony sites. whale watching in 1993 in Golfo. Nuevo), and it is clear that significant A number of other sites have been identi- income is generated for the province fied primarily for their importance for migra- by this endangered species. Maintain- tory and resident seabirds. These are listed ing the protection in Golfo San Jose below for information: would provide an area for whales Marine Region 9: South Atlantic 83

where human disturbance and pollu- of a number of marine bird colonies in tion are reduced. It is recommended to the area. maintain restrictions on , boating in the bay and urbanization of Existing MPAs that require management its shores. support: _ Isla Escondida: (see description _O Cabo Orange National Park, Amapa above) State: The park contains a marine area _O Bajo Bazarredo, Golfo San Jorge: (see of 120,000 hectares, including mud description above) flats and mangroves. The following noteworthy species are present: green Brazil turtle (Chelonia mydas), leatherback turtle (Demochelys coriacea), greater In Brazil although there are a number of. flamingo (Pboenicopterus ruber), scar- gaps in the representation of important ma- let ibis (Eudocimus ruber), Amazonian rine ecosystems along the coast (see above), manatee (Trichechus inunguis), Carib- the highest priority has been given to im- bean manatee (Ticbechus manatus). proving the management of existing MPAs, Additional financial resources are re- which is generally at a low level, rather than quired to support management. proposing the establishment of new areas. _ Lencois Maranhenses National Park, The main problem in all cases is the lack of Maranhao State: The park preserves a resources for law enforcement, baseline re- unique ecosystem that includes dunes, search and monitoring. The following areas mangrove and restingas formations were identified as being of highest priority (scrubby vegetation typical of sand ma- on the basis of the criteria outlined in the in- rine barrier islands) and includes a to- troduction by Professor Antonio Diegues, tal marine area of 12,000 hectares, Dr. Beatrice Ferreira and other Brazilian, na- including extensive mangrove forma- tionals who contributed to this report. tions. The area is an important site for breeding of marine turtles and also for Proposed new MPAs: some shore and marine birds. Notewor- No new areas are proposed as priorities. thy species include green turtle (Cbelo- One new MPA is of secondary priority: nia mydas), Olive Ridley turtle _ Alcatrazes Island State Marine Park: A (Lepidochelys olivacea), loggerhead tur- project for the creation of a State Ma- tle (Caretta caretta), hawksbill turtle rine Park is under way with the sup-, (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback port of NGOs and University of Sao turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Addi- Paulo. Some of the islands are already tional financial resources are required under protection in the existing terres- to support management. trial Ecological Station of Tupinambas. Fernando de Noronha National Park: The park will be located about 40 kilo- The Fernando de Noronha archipelago meters off the coast of Santos in Sao lies about 345 kilometers off the coast Paulo state and will include a high is- of Rio Grande do Norte state. There land that is important for marine mam- are coral colonies but no coral reef for- mals, turtles and birds. mations. The park includes mangroves

'-e- Puerto Deseado/Bahia Laura Island sys- and breeding sites for green turtles tem: This area should also be consid- (Chelonia mydas), while the hawksbill ered for the establishment of a new turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) feeds in MPA due to its importance for marine the area. The spinner dolphin (Stenella mammals and.because of the presence longirostris) uses a bay on one of the 84 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

islands as a feeding ground. Some spe- of Alagoas and extends from the high cies are endemic to the islands and tide mark between the Sauagui and Atol das Rocas (for example, the dam- Sapucai river to a depth of 25 meters. selfish Stegastes rocasensis). Inade- It includes areas of mangrove and fring- quately managed tourism is probably ing reef and is the main site for the major threat to the area. Trichecbus manatus along the Brazil- *Abrolhos Marine National Park, Bahia ian coast. The fringing reefs of State: The Abrolhos archipelago in- Paripueira are typical of formations cludes five volcanic islands surrounded along the northeast coast. The reefs are by the largest hermatypic coral forma- heavily exploited by commercial and tion in the South Atlantic. Several en- artisanal fisheries and are being dam- demic species of coral are present aged by uncontrolled tourism and de- (Millepora brasiliensis, Mussimilia velopment along the coast. A brasiliensis, M. barti, M. bispida). Sev- management plan is being developed eral species of marine birds are present through a joint effort by NGOs and the and marine mammals such as hump- park administration. back whale (Megaptera novaengliae) Ow Manuel Luis State Park: This area in- breed in the area. The green turtle cludes a coral bank that lies about 80 (Chelonia mydas) and loggerhead tur- kilometers off the coast of Maranhao tle (Carettacaretta) are both present. state. The area is largely unknown but The park area is threatened by defores- is likely to be of great importance for tation activities that take place on the both biodiversity and fisheries re- coast near the archipelago. There is a sources. management plan but difficulties in im- plementation exist due to a lack of fi- United Kingdom (Falkland/Malvinas nancial resources. Islands) Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve: The reserve is located on an atoll that lies No information is available about priorities 280 kilometers from the Rio Grande do in the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands. Norte coast. This is the only atoll in the South Atlantic and is formed by a reef Uruguay area of 7.2 square kilometers. Inside the reef there are a lagoon and two is- No information is available about priorities lands. The reef is formed by coral, al- in Uruguay. gae and vermatid mollusks. It is the most important nesting site for tropical Regional Priorities for the Establishment marine birds in the South Atlantic. and Management of MPAS Three species of turtle occur: Cbelonia mydas, Dermocbelys coriaceaand Eret- Due to the constraints of time and funding it mochelys imbricata. The atoll is the has not been possible to gather all reference second most important breeding sources for the purposes of this document. ground for Chelonia mydas in the Further data are required from Argentina, South Atlantic. Some endemic species Uruguay and the Falkland islands in order to are present. Lack of financial resources systematically determine priorities for these for effective enforcement, research and areas. In Argentina there is activity aimed at monitoring is the major problem facing the protection of marine mammals and the park. seabirds, yet relatively little information avail- O Paripueira District Park, Alagoas able concerning other groups. However, on State: The park is located in the State the basis of the information available, it is Marine Region 9: South Atlantic 85 possible to identify a number of areas that UNESCO/IUCN San Francisco Workshop, should be of high priority according to the August. criteria outlined in the introduction and that Chapman, Vj., ed. 1977. Ecosystems of the World represent immediate opportunities for action 1, Wet Coastal Ecosystems. Amsterdam: Elsevier aimed at the conservation of marine biodi- Scientific Publishing Company. versity. These areas should be considered Diegues, A.C.S. 1987. Ecossistemas Marinhos e preliminary selections and should be the sub- sua Degrada.o na America do Sul, Central Carnbe: Diagn6stico preliminar. Proyecto ject of further investigation to determine Prospetiva Tecnol6gica para America Latina. their suitability. Funaci6n Bariloche. Diegues, A.C.S., and A.C.C. Moreira. 1992. Global Proposed new MPAs: representativesystem of Marine ProtectedAr- -"- Punta Tombo (Argentina) eas: Soutb Atlantic Marine Realm-Tbe Brazil- _wt Isla Quintano to Cabo dos Bahias ian Coast. Report prepared for IUCN-CNPPA, island system (Argentina) Center for Research on Human Population and Puerto Deseado to Bahia Laura Island Wetlands in Brazil. Gland, Switzerland. System (Argentina).. Elder, D.E., andJ. Pemetta, eds. 1991. Oceans. London: Mitchell Beazley Publishers. Existingthat require MPAs management Hayden, B.P., G.C. Ray, and R. Dolan. 1984. Clas- Exisupt: MPAs sification of coastal and marine environments. support: Environmental Conservation 11(3)(Autumn). (Parque Ma)no GoLfo San Jose Shwartz, M.L. 1982. The Encyclopedia of Beacbes (Argentina) and CoastalEnvironments. Stroudsburg, Penn- "_ Cabo Orange National Park (Brazil) sylvania: Hutchinson Ross Publishing Com- _ Lencois Maranhenses National Park pany. (Brazil) Silva, M., and I. Desilvestre. 1986. Marine and _0 Fernando de Noronha National Park coastal protected areas in Latin America: A pre- (Brazil) liminary assessment. CoastalZone Manage- _ Abrolhos Marine National Park (Brazil) mentJournal14(4). " Atol das Rocas Biological Reserve United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (Brazil). and World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1988. CoralReefs of the World (Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific). UNEP Regional Seas Di- rectories and Bibliographies. Gland, Switzer- BIBLIOGRAPHY land and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN; Nairobi: UNEP. Castilla, J. 1989. Latin America: Marine realm and World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1992. Pro- the Biosphere Reserve concept. Paper pre- tected areas of the world. A review of national sented at the Application of the Biosphere systems (Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical). Reserve Concept to Coastal Marine Areas, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.

Contributors

Many people and organizations contributed ing was undertaken by Sue Wells with assis- direcly to these reports. The major authors tance from Chris Bleakley (GBRMPA). or editors of each regional report in Volume The biogeographic classification used in II have prepared the following highlights of this report is that of Hayden and others these contributions. (1984). Lists of MPAs have been compiled from the WCMC Protected Areas Database, Marine Region 7: Wider Caribbean Schwartz (1992), information from Robinson and de Graaff (1992) and other sources as The production of this report has been coor- noted. Priority areas have been proposed by dinated by Lynn P. Holowesko (Deputy Susan Wells based on a survey of existing Chair, CNPPA). The report is the product of recommendations in the literature. The re- collaborative work between IUCN-CNPPA, port was distributed to national protected IUCN-US, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park area management agencies for comment in Authority (GBRMPA) and numerous other or- 1993 and has been revised based on the ganizations. Substantial contributions in the comments received. form of editing or providing specific informa- tion were made by: Lynn Holowesko (IUCN- Marine Region 9: South Atlantic CNPPA), Allen Putney (IUCN-US), Yves Renard (Caribbean Natural Resources Insti- This document has been prepared primarily tute), Pedro Rosabal (IUCN Protected Areas from two reports prepared for IUCN-CNPPA Programme), Jeremy Woodley (University of by Antonio Carlos S. Diegues and Andre de the West Indies). Editing was undertaken by Castro C. Moreira (Center for Research on Sonja Stanley, an intern at IUCN-US. Human Population and Wetlands in Brazil) Except where noted, much of the informa- and by Guillermo Harris (Fundaci6n Patago- tion in this report has been derived from nia Natural, Argentina). Additional sources various reports and publications on the bio- are noted in the text. The report was edited geography and diversity of marine ecosys- by Chris Bleakley (GBRMPA). tems in the Caribbean, the main sources Other individuals who contributed are: being IUCN (1979, 1991), UNEP/CCA/Univer- John Barton (Fisheries Department, Falkland sity of Michigan (1980), UNEP/IUCN (1988), Islands), Monica Borobia (UNEP, Nairobi), Putney (1982), Wilson (1987), and van't Hof Guillermo Caille (Universidad de la Patago- (personal communication). nia, Argentina), Pablo Canevari (RHRAVP, Ar- gentina), Silva Ferrari (Universidad Federal Marine Region 8: West Africa de la Patagonia Austral, Argentina), Beatrice Padovani Ferreira (Universidade Federal de This report has been compiled from a report Parnambuco, Brazil), Mauro Maida (Universi- written for CNPPA by Robbie Robinson and dade Federal de Pamambuco, Brazil), Gil- Gerrie de Graaff of the South African Na- berto Sales (Atol das Rocas Biological tional Parks Board, a report for IUCN by Bea- Reserve, Brazil), and Alejandro Vila (Funda- trice Schwartz of the Africa and Wetlands cion Vida Silvestre Argentina). Programs, and other sources as noted. Edit-

87

Index

Page numbers printed in italic type refer to tables or figures. Passim indicates that the topic is discussed in- termittently within the given range of pages. Proposed MPAs of regional conservation priority are indexed by name. Other existing and proposed MPAs are grouped under given nations and marine regions.

Andros Barrier Reef (The Bahamas), 29 Birds Angola See also Penguins marine protected areas, 49 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 75-76 marine protected areas proposed, 56 in West Africa Marine Region, 47-48, 49-52 Antigua and Barbuda passim, 57-66 passim Barbuda, 28, 29 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 16-17, marine protected areas, 19, 26 26, 29, 31 marine protected areas proposed, 28, 29 Brazil, 72 Argentina, 73 marine protected areas, 77-78, 83-84 marine protected areas, 76-77, 82-83 marine protected areas proposed, 83 marine protected areas proposed, 81-82 Ascension Island, 45, 54 Cameroon, 45 marine protected areas proposed, 66 marine protected areas, 49, 56 Audubon Society, Wider Caribbean Marine marine protected areas proposed, 56-57 Region and, 26 Canadian International Development Agency, Azores, 45 Wider Caribbean Marine Region and, 23, 25 CANARI (Caribbean Natural Resources Institute), The Bahamas 25 Andros Barrier Reef, 29 Canary Islands, 45, 54 marine protected areas, 19, 26 marine protected areas proposed, 66 marine protected areas proposed, 28, 29 Cape Verde Islands, 45, 54 Barbados, marine protected areas, 19, 26 marine protected areas proposed, 66-67 Barbados Declaration, 22 Caribbean Conservation Association, marine Barbuda (Antigua and Barbuda), 28, 29 parks program, 25 Beaches and dunes Caribbean Environment Program, 21, 25 in South Adantic Marine Region, 74 Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI), in West Africa Marine Region, 46 25 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 19, 29 Cartagena Convention, 21, 38 Belize Caves, in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 30 marine protected areas, 14 Central American Commission for Environment marine protected areas proposed, 28, 29, 30 and Development, 25 Belize Barrier Reef (Belize), 29, 30 Cephalopods Benin, 49 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 77 marine protected areas proposed, 56 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 16 Biodiversity conservation, 1, 8 Cliffs. See Rocky shores and cliffs Biodiversity Convention, Wider Caribbean Colombia, marine protected areas, 19, 26 Marine Region and, 22, 38 Congo Biosphere Reserves, 8 coastal area, 49 South Atlantic Marine Region and, 79 marine protected areas proposed, 57 West Africa Marine Region and, 55 Conservation Intemational, Wider Caribbean Wider Caribbean Marine Region and, 21, 38 Marine Region and, 24-25

89 90 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Convention for Cooperation in the Protection European Union, Strategy for Protected Areas in and Development of the Marine and Coastal the Caribbean, 23 Environment of the West and Central Africa Region, 55 Falkland Islands, 84 Convention on Biodiversity, Wider Caribbean marine protected areas, 79 Marine Region and, 22, 38 Fish Convention on Intervention on Nature Protection in West Africa Marine Region, 46, 47, 51, 52, and Wildlife Preseivation in the Western Hemi- 61, 62, 63 sphere (Western Hemisphere Convention), 21 in Wider Caribbean Marine Keglon, 16, 30 Convention on Wetlands of International Impor- Fisheries and fishing tance. See Ramsar Convention in South Atlantic Marine Region, 77 Coral communities, in West Africa Marine in West Africa Marine Region, 46. 47, 60, 61, 63 Region, 45, 67 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 16, 29-30, Coral reefs 31 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 73 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 15, 19, Gabon, 45 29, 30 marine protected areas, 50, 57-58 Costa Rica marine protected areas proposed, 58 marine protected areas, 27 The Gambia, 45 marine protected areas proposed, 28, 29, 30 marine protected areas, 50-51, 58 Tortuguero/Miskito Marine System, 29, 30 Ghana, 44-45, 51 Cote d'lvoire marine protected areas proposed, 58 coastal areas, 49-50 Guadeloupe, marine protected areas, 27 marine protected areas proposed, 57 Guatemala, marine protected areas, 27 Crocodiles Guinea, 45, 46, 51 in West Africa Marine Region, 50 marine protected areas proposed, 58-59 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 17, 31 Guinea-Bissau, 44, 45 Crustaceans. See ' marine protected areas, 51, 59 Crustaceans marine protected areas proposed, 59-60 in West Africa Marine Region, 46, 47 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 16 Honduras, marine protected areas, 27 Cuba marine protected areas, 19, 27, 29, 30-31 Iguanas, in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 17 marine protected areas proposed, 28 Invertebrates in West Africa Marine Region, 47 Dolphins in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 17 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 75 Islands in West Africa Marine Region, 48, 50, 52, 59, in South Atlantic Marine Region, 74-75 60, 61 in West Africa Marine Region, 45 Dominica, marine protected areas, 27 IUCN Dominican Republic, marine protected areas, 27, Marine Conservation Strategy, Wider Carib- 29, 31 bean Marine Region and, 21-22 Dunes. See Beaches and dunes Strategy. for Protected Areas of the Neo- tropical Realm, 23 Endangered species IUCN Commission on National Parks and Pro- seals, 48 tected Areas, 1 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 19, 31, 37 biodiversity conservation, 1, 8 Equatorial Guinea study methods, 2-3 coastal areas, 50 marine protected areas proposed, 57 Jamaica, marine protected areas, 2- Index 91

Kelp, in South Atlantic Marine Region, 75 Morocco marine protected areas, 51-52, 61-62 Lagoons marine protected areas proposed, 62 in West Africa Marine Region, 44, 50. 52, 57. Mudflats. See Soft sediment habitats 58, 65 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 16, 19, Namibia 29, 30, 31 coastal areas, 52, 62 Latin American Technical Network on Protected marine protected areas proposed, 62 Areas and Wildlife, 26 Nature Conservancy, Wider Caribbean Marine Liberia, 51 Region and, 23-24 marine protectea areas proposed, 60-61 Neotropical Action Plan, Wider Caribbean Marine Region and, 23 Madeira, 45 Netherlands Antilles, marine protected areas, 19 Malvinas Islands, 84 Nigeria, 44, 45, 52 marine protected areas, 79 marine protected areas proposed, 62-63 Manatees in South Atlantic Marine Region, .75 Organization of Eastem Caribbean States, 25 in West Africa Marine Region, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 56, 59, 60, 64 Panama, marine protected areas, 27 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 30, 31 Paseo Pantera, Wider Caribbean Marine Region Mangroves and, 26 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 72, 73-74 Penguins in West Africa Marine Region, 2.30, 2.31-38 See also Birds passim, 2.42-50 passim in South Atlantic Marine Region, 75 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 15-16, Protocol on Combating Pollution in Cases of 29, 30 Emergency, 55 Marine protected areas Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wild- See also under specific countries or marine life for the Wider Caribbean, 21 regions Puerto Rico, marine protected areas, 27 actions for establishment of, 2, 12 biogeographic zones in, 6, 7 Ramsar Convention community support for, 9-10 South Atlantic Marine Region and, 79 defined, 2 West Africa Marine Region and, 54-55 funding for, 10-11 Wider Caribbean Marine Region and, 21, 38 management, 7, 8-9, 10 Reptiles. See Turtles priority conservation site criteria, 3-5, 4 Rocky shores and cliffs recommendations, 11-12, 12 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 74 sizes of, 6 in West Africa Marine Region, 46 subtidal, 5 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 19 Marshes. See Wetlands Martinique, marine protected areas, 27 Salinas. See Wetlands Mauritania Sandy beaches. See Beaches and dunes marine protected areas, 51, 61 Sao Tome and Principe, 45, 54 marine protected areas proposed, 61 marine protected areas proposed, 67 Mexico, marine protected areas, 19, 27 Seagrass beds Mollusks in West Africa Marine Region, 61 in West Africa Marine Region, 46, 47 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 16, 19, 30 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 16 Seals Montserrat, marine protected areas, 27 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 75, 76 in West Africa Marine Region, 48, 49, 52, 61 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 17 92 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas

Seaweeds, in West Africa Marine Region, 47 Tortuguero/Miskito Marine System (Costa Rica), Senegal, 46 29, 30 marine protected areas, 52-53, 63 Tourism Shellfish, in West Africa Marine Region, 57, 60. in South Atlantic Marine Region, 77 61, 62, 63 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 29, 30 Shells, in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 29 Trinidad and Tobago, marine protected areas, 27 Sierra-Leone, 45 Tristan da Cunha Islands, 45, 54, 66 coastal areas, 53 Turtles marine protected areas proposed, 63-64 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 75 Sitatunga, in West Africa Marine Region, 56 in West Africa Marine Region, 47, 49, 50, 52, Soft sediment habitats, in West Africa Marine 53, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 66, 67 Region, 51, 56, 64 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 17, 29, South Africa 30, 31 marine protected areas, 53-54 marine protected areas proposed, 64-65 UNEP Regional Seas Programme, 55 South Atlantic Marine Region South Atlantic Marine Region and, 79-80 beaches and dunes, 74 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves. See Biosphere biogeographic zones, 76, 80-81 Reserves boundaries, 71 United Kingdom. See specific countriesor territo- coastlines, 74 ries by name conventions pertaining to, 79-80 United Kingdom, Virgin Islands, 19 coral reefs, 73 United States ecosystems, 73-75 Fiorida, 19 environmental degradation, 77 Virgin Islands, 19 fisheries and fishing, 77 U.S. Agency for International Development, geography and geology (coastal), 72-73 Wider Caribbean Marine Region and, 22-23 Intertropical Coastal realm, 80 Uruguay, 72-73, 84 islands, 74-75 marine protected areas, 79 marine protected areas, 76-80, 80 management levels, 81 Venezuela, marine protected areas, 27 marine protected areas proposed, 81-85 Virgin Islands (U.S.), marine protected areas, 19 oceanography, 71-72, 75 protected areas, 76, 76 Waterfowl: See Birds recommendations, 84-85 West Africa Marine Region rocky shores and cliffs, 74 beaches, 46 species diversity, 75-76 beaches and dunes, 46 submerged banks, 74-75 biogeographical zones, 48, 55, 55-56, 68 Subtropical Coastal realm, 81 boundaries, 43 Temperate Coastal realm, 81 cliffs, 46 tourism, 77 conventions pertaining to, 54-56 Tropical Coastal realm, 80-81 coral reefs, 45 Sponges, in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 30 ecosystems, 45-46 St. Helena, 45, 54, 67 fisheries and fishing, 46, 60, 61, 63 St. Lucia, marine protected areas, 19, 27, 29, geography and geology (coastal), 44-45 31-32 islands, 45 St. Vincent and the Grenadines, marine protected mangroves, 45-46 areas, 27 marine protected areas, 48-56, 49, 55, 55-56, Surinam, marine protected areas, 19 67 marine protected areas proposed, 56-68 Togo, 54 oceanography, 43-44, 46 marine protected areas proposed, 65 recommendations for, 67-68 Index 93

rocky shores and cliffs, 46 endangered species, 19, 31, 3 7 seagrass beds, 61 environmental degradation, 35-36 soft sediment habitats, 51, 56, 64 estuarine environments, 19 species diversity, 46-48 fisheries and fishing, 16, 29-30, 31 Westem Hemisphere Convention (Convention on geography and geology (coastal), 14, 35-36 Intervention on Nature Protection and Wildlife lagoons, 16, 19, 29, 30, 31 Preservation in the Western Hemisphere), 21 mangroves, 15-16, 29, 30 Westem Sahara, 54 marine protected areas, 17-20, 18, 26-27, 29 marine protected areas proposed, 65-66 management levels, 18-20, 19 Wetlands marine protected areas proposed, 28, 29 See also Mangroves oceanography, 13-14 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 74 organizations providing support services, 39 in West Africa Marine Region, 45-46 priority conservation sites, 26-32 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 16, 19 recommendations for, 32-35 Whales resource problems (by country), 35-36 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 75 rocky shores and cliffs, 19 in West Africa Marine Region, 48, 61 seagrass beds, 16, 19, 30 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 31 species diversity, 16-17 Wider Caribbean Marine Region Tortuguero/Miskito Marine System, 29, 30 Andros Barrier Reef, 29 tourism, 29, 30 archaeological shipwreck sites, 30 wetlands, 16, 19 Barbuda, 28, 29 Wildlife Conservation Society, Wider Caribbean beaches and dunes, 19, 29 Marine Region and, 24 Belize Barrier Reef, 29, 30 World Heritage Convention biogeographic zones, 17 South Atlantic Marine Region and, 79 boundaries, 13 West Africa Marine Region and, 54 caves, 30 Wider Caribbean Marine Region and, 20, 38 conservation initiatives, 20-26, 38 World Wildlife Fund, Wider Caribbean Marine coral reefs, 15, 19, 29, 30 Region and, 24 ecological features (by country), 35-36 ecosystems, 14-16, 19 Zaire, rharine protected areas, 54, 66

Map Supplement

Antigua and Barbuda Palaster Reef Marine National Park E Y 7-2 Salt Fish Tail Reef (Diamond Reef) Marine National Park E Y Barbuda 7-3 P Y Y 74 Bahamas Andros Barrier Reef P Y Y 7-13 Black Sound Cay National Park E Y 7-5 Conception Island National Park E Y 7-6 Exuma Land and Sea Park National Park E 7-7 lnagua National Park E 7-8 Lucayan National Park E Y 7-9 Pelican Cays Land and Sea Park National Park E Y 7-10 Peterson Cay National Park E Y 7-11 Union Creek (within Inagua NP) Managed Nature Reserve E Y 7-12 Barbados Barbados Marine Reserve E Y 7-14 Belize Belize Barrier Reef P Y 7-1 Glover's Reef E 7-19 Half Moon Caye National Monument E Y 7-18 Hol Chan Marine Nature Reserve E Y 7-16 Bacalar Chico P Y 7-15 Caye Caulker P Y 7-17 Laughing Bird Caye National Park extension P Y Port Honduras 7-21 P Y 7-22 Sapodilla Cayes P Y 7-23 Southern Lagoon P Y 7-24 Southwater Caye P Y 7-20 Tumeffe Atoll P Y 7-25 Cayman Islands Bats Cave Beach RpZ (Grand Cayman) Replenishment Zone E 7-26 Cayman Dive Lodge Replenishment Zone E 7-27 Frank Sound RpZ (Grand Cayman) Replenishment Zone E 7-28 Little Sound (Grand Cayman) Ecological Zone E 7-29 North Sound (Grand Cayman) Replenishment Zone E 7-30 Preston Bay-Main Channel MP (Little Cayman) Marine Park E 7-31 Salt Water Point-Beach Point RpZ (Cayman Brac) Replenishment Zone E 7-32 South Hole Sound (Little Cayman) Replenishment Zone E 7-33 South Sound RpZ (Grand Cayman) Replenishment Zone E 7-34 Spanish Cove Resort-Jetty MP (Grand Cayman) Marine Park E 7-35 Colombia Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta Santuario de Fauna y Flora E Y 7-36 Corales del Rosario Parque Nacional Natural E Y 7-37 Haines Cay to Cotton Cay Reserva Natural E Y 7-38 Colombia Isla de Salamanca Parque Nacional Natural E Y 7-39 Los Flamencos Santuario de Fauna y Flora E Y 7-40 Tayrona Parque Nacional Natural E 7-41 Costa Rica Barra del Colorado Refugio de Vida Silvestre E Y 7-42 Cahuita Parque Nacional E Y 7-43 Tortuguero Parque Nacional E Y 7-44 Tortuguero/Miskito Marine System P Y Y 7-46 Vida Silvestre Gondoca Manzanillo Refugio Nacional E Y 7-45 Cuba Baconao E Y 7-47 Bahia del Naranjo Parque Nacional Marino E Y 7-48 Cayo Blanco de Casilda E Y 7-49 Cayo Caguama Parque Nacional Marino E Y 7-50 Cayo Caguanes/Cayos de Piedra Reserva Floristica Manejada E Y 7-51 Cayo Romano Parque Natural E Y 7-52 Cayo Saetia Area Natural Turlstica E Y 7-53 Cayos de Ana Maria Refugio de Fauna E Y 7-54 Delta del Canto E Y 7-55 La. Cienega de Zapata Other area E Y 7-56 La Isleta-Nuevas Grandes E Y 7-57 Las Salinas Refugio de Fauna E 7-58 Peninsula Guanahacabibes E Y 7-59 Pta. Frances-Pta. Pedernales E 7-60 Subarchipielago de los Canarreos E Y Y 7-62 Sur Isla de la Juventud Parque Natural E Y 7-61 Dominica Cabrits National Park E Y 7-63 Soufriere Scott's Head Marine Reserve E Y 7-64 Dominican Republic Banco de la Plata Santuario de Marino E Y Y 7-65 Del Este Parque Nacional E 7-66 Jaragua Parque Nacional E 7-67 Lagunas Redonda y Limon Reserva Cientifica Natural E Y 7-68 Los Haitises Parque Nacional E Y 7-69 Monte Cristi Parque Nacional E Y Y 7-70 Parque Submarino La Caleta Parque Nacional E 7-71 Guadeloupe Grand CLII de Sac Martin Nature Reserve E Y 7-72 Guatemala Punta de Manabique Biotopo E Y 7-73 Rio Dulce Parque Nacional E Y 7-74 Honduras Islas del Cisne Marine Reserve E 7-75 Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve E Y 7-76 Sandy Bay Marine Reserve E 7-77 Turtle Harbor (Marino) Parque Nacional E Y 7-78 Jamaica Middle Morant Cay NR/SciR Nature Reserve E Y 7-79 Jamaica Montego Bay Marine Park E 7-80 Ocho Rios Protected Area E Y 7-81 SE Pedro Cay NR/SciR Nature Reserve E Y 7-82 Martinique Caravelle Littoral Conservation Area E Y 7-83 Mexico Cozumel Reserva Marina E Y 7-84 El Garrafon Faunal Reserve E Y 7-85 Isla Contoy Reserva Especial de la Bi6sfera E Y 7-86 La Blanquilla Reserva Marina E Y 7-87 Ria Celestuin Reserva Especial de la Bi6sfera E 7-88 Ria Lagartos Reserva Especial de la Bi6sfera E Y 7-89 Sian Ka'an Reserva de la Bi6sfera E Y 7-90 Montserrat Fox's Bay Bird Sanctuary Private Reserve E Y 7-91 Netherlands Antilles Bonaire Marine Park E 7-92 Curacao Underwater Park E Y 7-93 Flamingo Sanctuary E 7-94 Saba Marine Park E 7-95 Panama Comarca Kuna Yala (San Bias) Comarca Indigena E Y 7-96 Portobelo Parque Nacional E Y 7-97 Puerto Rico Estuarina Nacional Bahia Jobos Reserva Natural E Y 7-98 Saint Lucia Maria Islands Nature Reserve E Y 7-99 Soufriere Marine Management Area E Y Y 7-100 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Tobago Cays Marine Park E Y 7-101 Trinidad and Tobago Buccoo Reef Marine Park E Y 7-102 United States Biscayne National Park E 7-103 Everglades National Park E 7-104 FortJefferson National Monument E 7-105 John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park E 7-106 Key Largo Coral Reef National Marine Sanctuary E 7-107 Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary E 7-108 Venezuela Archipielago Los Roques Parque Nacional E Y 7-109 Isla de Aves Refugio de Fauna Silvestre E 7-110 Laguna de la Restinga Parque Nacional E Y 7-111 Laguna de Tacarigua Parque Nacional E Y 7-112 Mochima Parque Nacional E Y 7-113 Morrocoy Parque Nacional E Y 7-114 San Esteban Parque Nacional E 7-115 Turnepano Parque Nacional E 7-116 Virgin Islands (British) Wreck of the Rhone Marine Park E 7-117 Virgin Islands (U.S.) Buck Island Reef National Monument E 7-118 Virgin Islands National Park E 7-119 Angola Bengo River delta P Y 8-4 Chicamba Mangroves P Y 8-5 Angola Ilheu dos Passaros Integral Nature Reserve E 8-1 Iona National Park E 8-2 Kisama National Park E 8-3 Zaire River delta P Y 8-6 Benin du Djessin (proposed) Biosphere Reserve P Y 8-7 Lake Nokoue and Porto Novo P Y 8-8 wetlands of the coastal plains P Y Y 8-9 Cameroon Bakossi Peninsula Mangroves P Y 8-11 Douala-Edea Faunal Reserve E Y 8-10 Rio del Ray P Y 8-12 Cape Verde Islands Ilheu Rombos P Y 8-13 liheu Sal P Y 8-14 llheus Banco and Raso P Y 8-15 Sal, Banco & Raso, Sal Rei, Sao Vincente, Rombos P Y Y 8-16 Sal Rei (Boavista Island) P Y 8-17 Sao Vincente Island P Y 8-18 Congo Kouilou Estuary P Y 8-19 Cote d'Ivoire Aby Lagoon P Y Y 8-20 Azagny National Park P Y 8-21 Azuretti mangroves P Y 8-22 Cape Palmas P Y 8-23 Equatorial Guinea Isla de Boko (south coast) P Y 8-24 Gabon Elobey Islands P Y 8-26 Mondah (proposed) Reserve P Y 8-27 Ozouri (proposed) National Park P Y 8-28 Sette-Cama Hunting Area E Y 8-25 Gambia Kiang West National Park E 8-29 Niumi/Sine Saloum National Park E Y Y 8-30 River Gambia National Park E 8-31 Ghana Anlo-Keto Lagoon Complex P Y 8-32 Guinea Blanche Island P Y 8-33 lie Alcatraz P Y 8-34 Iles Tristao P Y 8-35 Konkoure Estuary P Y 8-36 Rio Kapatchez P Y 8-37 Rio Pongo P Y 8-38 Guinea-Bissau Arquipelago dos Bijagos Hunting Reserve E 8-39 Bijagos Archipelago P Y Y 8-40 Rio Cacheu p Y 841 Liberia Cape Mount (proposed) National Park P Y 8-42 Cestos-Senkwen (proposed) National Park P Y 8-43 Mauritania Aftout es Saheli P Y 8-47 Mauritania Banc d'Arguin National Park E Y Y 8-45 Diawling National Park E Y 8-46 Morocco Khnifiss/Puerto Cansado Biological Reserve E Y 8-48 Merja Zerga Biological Reserve E Y 8-49 Namibia Cape Cross Lagoons P Y 8-50 Orange River mouth P Y 8-51 P Y 8-52 Swakopmund Saltworks P Y 8-53 Walvis Bay wetland P Y 8-54 Nigeria Cross River wetlands P Y Y 8-55 Lagos and Lekki Lagoons P Y Y 8-56 Niger Delta P Y Y 8-57 Senegal Basse-Casamance National Park E Y 8-58 Delta du Saloum National Park E Y Y 8-59 Gueumbeul Special Reserve E Y 8-60 lies de la Madeleine National Park E Y 8-61 Kalissaye Special Reserve E 8-62 Langue de Barbarie National Park E Y 8-63 Sierra Leone Bunce River P Y Y 8-64 Turtle Islands P Y 8-44 Yawri Bay-Shenge/Kagboro Creek P Y 8-65 South Africa Cape of Good Hope Marine Reserve E 8-66 Cape Peninsula Coast P Y 8-88 De Hoop Coast P Y 8-89 De Hoop Marine Reserve E 8-67 Elands Bay Coast P Y 8-90 -Elephant Rock Marine Reserve E 8-68 Garden Route Coast P Y 8-91 Glencaim Marine Reserve E 8-69 Gonubie Nature (Marine) Reserve E 8-70 Gxulu Marine Reserve E 8-71 Kalk Bay Marine Reserve E 8-72 Kommetjie Rock Lobster Reserve E 8-73 Longebaan Coast P Y 8-92 Maputuland Coast P y 8-93 McDougall's Bay Rock Lobster Reserve E 8-74 Miller's Point Marine Reserve E 8-75 Mtamvuna Coast P Y 8-94 Namaqualand Coast P Y 8-95 Orange River Mouth Wetland RAMSAR E 8-76 Prince Edward Islands P Y 8-96 Richtersveld P Y 8-97 ~~W~I 1- - - W-o~ South Africa Robberg Marine Reserve E 8-77 Saldanha Bay Rock Lobster Sanctuary E 8-78 Sodwana Bay National Park E 8-79 South-East Coast p y 8-98 St. Helena Bay Rock Lobster Sanctuary E 8-80 St. Lucia Marine Reserve E 8-81 Table Bay Rock Lobster Sanctuary E 8-82 Trafalgar Marine Reserve E 8-83 Tsitsikamma National Park E 8-84 Umdoni Park Marine Reserve E 8-85 Verlorenvlei Wetland (Elands Bay) Ramsar E 8-86 West Coast National Park E 8-87 Woody Cape Coast P Y 8-99 Togo Lakes Togo and Vogan P Y 8-100 United Kingdom Ascension (Boatswain Bird Islet) P Y 8-101 Zaire Parc National Marine National Park E Y 8-103 Argentina Bajo Bazarredo (3 sites) E Y 9-1 Golfo San JosA Provincial Marine Park E Y 9-2 Isla de los Estados P Y 9-5 Isla Escondida E Y 9-3 Isla Quintano/Cabo dos Bahias P Y Y 9-6 Puerto Deseado/Bahia Laura P Y Y 9-7 Punta Tombo P Y Y 9-8 Tierra del Fuego National Park E 9-4 Brazil Arvoredo Reserva Biologica E 9-9 Atol das Rocas Federal Biological Reserve E Y Y 9-10 Cabo Orange Parque Nacional E Y Y 9-11 llha Maraca-Jipioca Federal Ecological Station E 9-12 Jureia-Itatins State Ecological Station E 9-13 Lago Piratuba Federal Biological Reserve E 9-14 Lencois Maranhenses Parque Nacional E Y Y 9-15 Marinho dos Abrolhos Parque Nacional E Y Y 9-16 Marinho Fernando de Noronha Parque Nacional E Y Y 9-17 Monte Pascoal Parque Nacional E 9-18 Parcel of Manuel Luis State Marine Park E Y 9-19 Paripueira District Marine Park E Y 9-20 Serra da Bocaina (SP-RJ) Parque Nacional E 9-21 Superagui Parque Nacional E 9-22 Taim Federal Ecological Station E 9-23 IBRD26249

90' 90' 80 0 0 k o MARINE REGION 7 North West N. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Atlantic WIDER CARIBBEANA

N\ g > MARINE PROTECTEDAREAS (MPAs): REGIONAL NATIONAL, c b t PRIORITY PRIORITY m1 0 EXISTING MPAsREQUIRING MANAGEMENT SUPPORT Gulf of _ PROPOSEDMPAs ( ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~Mexico105, dO /k (Y G7'P POE MA I xico The / Bahamashom OTHER EXISTINGMPAs

&94,5SG E\ ' CNPPA MARINEREGION BOUNDARIES 0 - 0-689 i° * 620CX N \ 2 BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES 61 Cua 53 r\zB4nGa'< _8 *45 N -- |BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES

-2 0 A J 9 / 313 3 Xf--~\ .--- 20--'4INTERNATIONALBOUNDARIES

00y LII1i 9sug7y3 C.0-C / ' XHaiti Rep. Robinson Projection.

JMe.icoa ~~9 o0 O ~-|-.,yIz6rjfsu)

Mexico {~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" 75 2--- 6~~~~~~~~~~29- \ 6°7 :z us VIg,(US) 6s h.) '"'4J ' \ { .... i _ NerherbndsAn13leS(Net^)./ 0^1=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~V Mn-wfroUYi ATLANTIC

-~------on S4t.Iits 0b\OCr:AN Nicaraguo 90 %>A4h) (NnI7i6uhte5 101

5. Ii ian3Caribbean / 6 Notat / ,.J Sea PacDificyEl).~ St. Luci.pw9 e / p_ t . 1. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~St.\>icent and * 10tl4,Borbod6si / V Nicarogua I ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Nosh.,fndsthe GreXnadines ; | / \ >sv | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3a ,-_ 4'4WsW 129 \ Grenadaz -e~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~i

// ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~PACIFICCZ4>_3( C ai3T o c a \IT OCEAN 44ri J/ U \ >

8_> \>/ !+ ~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~Venezuelau7 -\ Ti.2.'. 1,, 4. 0 .-- ,,...... i;-, F- s--,--.SoSoth East South 10, I . . l i. .d,,l, r_ ., ~~~~~Pacific IColombia: /~ ~ uynona ) Atlanti

Ted1p=rron thbim=p h-v ben=mil 'rh; stI =M=ildbk.in -m=hfn. C. ...n, -,t i- ~=,dW Wh,=si"e b~k ' INhi N _/ A-L =nTIC -.-i 1d 0 ~ ~ ~ n-n,60 Surinaome0C,pB A il 5^

06/14*/1995 c|a|IRpSZFM1xix=Pu Jm ' 3ilTIR

30' c:Anorrn 20' 10' Spa 30' Turkey

: ,~~~~~~~~~~), Mediterranean-2<9t North East J c 3rrAtlantic , ' / ,-/; - y~~~~~h.i.*V.v

-30'

2 (Algeria Libya Arab Rep.

I/ \ Aorrnerr- (;.\ of Egypt

/20 " 1 \\\,-x's\,,,, 20

Cape -\ / %|Mauritania

Verde / 'Mauritanic i Mali " r2 . ,,I,6J;,' ,,,. >47\ j ) Niger

lar-- -5,J "I ~/ Chad

The GJ-J ,'Burkin , ' Sudan Guin ea ~i' Faso3eGie~ ,,

10' \H_¢)'"""", *u,neQ> /~~Nigeria /0`

X') ~ ~\57~5 C Republic

St. FeterRohe St. P. R-a quaaria

rr ATLANTIC So Tom abo. Conga OCEAN and Princip -)28 Z

1 \ ,,/ \r' J Zaire Burundi, .

1<~~~~T

10' -10-~~~~~- MARINE REGION 8 . l o-

WEST AFRICA /f Angola cI2

St Helene (VUK | / i Zambia MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs): 2 t*

REGIONAL NATIONAL \i- r vrn PRIORITY PRIORITY | Zimbabwe

30' .; (tEro)l 7 01 EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING MANAGEMENT SUPPORTX \

. Knidde . Boswn a,I 8nudr,do) ; liPROPOSED MPAs \\ 5s Namibia f' Bot5oa no

OTHER EXISTING MPAs \s .J Swaziland

wo~0 CNPPA MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES \ ° In Lesotho 30' [ BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES 95 South 1 r 2

BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES , \>oo Africa

FAUNAL PROVINCE BOUNDARIES g so71

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES 66,6t,73.7

Robinson Projection. - /

-4------Thebhondorenolors6.n-,d-ooinotio- nd no.yhemofoonoio South , ______IEast A-oe oe thin ,epdo o ir,ply,oe the poadof The WorldBank G..o, Atlantic I enyudoeg.nt on the k &oouoofoy teetoit or, ony edosement INDIAN orJocceptenco ofsuch ondories. -P f._ Ed.6- 0 OCEAN ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Africa hedoto opeeonng on tha mop hone been coipied oingthe best | n cIvle ite iormon. Comieote.correctioo, end other feedbhob C

______d______b______abl' '9;30e to - 20'

f Surname French_Wider Ca bbean 30° r ( S~~6uriname-bgulnofiz I \

(Guynan\. j $

"' -..------..... , ...,, y~A ~ ~~~~~~~~~~.' ,/. N

- ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~~~~Brazil0 II 9ta

BOliXfiG \. ' j^' j 76 0 |~~~~~~Aiic

200, :- y ------\ J 20'-

Parzguay i We/ATLANTIC

.' // / / X~~~MRINE REGION 9

-30° r""''"'/SOUTHATLANTIC

: ! > r ~~~~~MARINEPROTECTED AREAS (MRAs): Argentina | Urugusy. )0¢^/ ~REGIONAL NATIONALI > II ~~~~~~~PRIORITYPRIORITY . . 2 *7 [ rF31~~~~~~DEXISTING MPAs REQUIRING ...... ! MANAGEMENT SUPPORT .,el{ ] PROPOSED MPAs

f ss 2 ~~~~~~~~~~o? OTHER EXISTING MPAs -40 W 40'- . &_2 \s/ 23 SO T ATLNTacIC B.lv -CNPPAMARINE A REGION BOUNDARIES ~~~~ AIE PRTCE ARA (MPAs):. .0>1 BIOGEOGPAPHIC ZONES 2 0

CD J3BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES

cr ( \ < X -s ~~~~~~FAUNALPROVINCE BOUNDARIES

a Para.a -. 2 INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

7D' 60' 50~~~'l' EXSTN REQUIRIN0MA a r I / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~RobinsonProjection.

South3Eas 22 Th b... d.--/s

75~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ceg- mt. g,. f_Islosy orolvmos) n

e -P cific Or -ccpt-n of -uhb-udories- Arnhe npa-g RGpIN dti - th -p hUe bea thNbeOt

3 .O J o PRIORITY PRIORITN

GPO Box 791. Canbarra. ACT.2601, Australia Telephone: t061 247-0211', A-1:(6i).(6i 250-5507 lniemnationpl 61i i61 247-02 Ii.Al- (61) (6j251-5597GA -+ 10[irs. Facsimile: (06i 217,576 I,' Internatioral (6t i161 247-5761

LanyiWate S Hatu rat t-2a,5sjvis io n CE1lviionmear Departmeni 181 8 H Sim-at, i.W. V./ashingion, -D.C. 20,i33 U.S.A. Telephone: (202V.458-1715 Fax: f!02I141T/-0568

Rue iviaua nev 2I CH-t 195 Cland, S.wktzefa Telepo!ne: ' 1I-22-99o-0273 Fax. 41-22-t9(;-0025 Tele0x 41-9624 tnc&'

Towarv.d Enviroimentally Susta!onable Developmert

Comkft^etpitd,r.'ps bith-: loi. C.rPoit e5w2ft.i/,l,s. ss"by D;i: '-. Cve.- .. oa 2e.y -