DOCSLIB.ORG

Cigarette Smuggling: Poland to Sweden

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Cigarette Smuggling: Poland to Sweden Cigarette Smuggling: Poland to Sweden Nick Johnston, Walter Kegö and Christina Wenngren Cigarette Smuggling: Poland to Sweden by Nick Johnston, Walter Kegö and Christina Wenngren © Institute for Security and Development Policy, 2016 Disclaimer: The opinions and conclusions presented in this report do not necessarily re ect the views of the Institute for Security and Development Policy (ISDP). All views are interpretations of ISDP alone who are responsible for any inaccuracies in this report. The contents of this document may not be quoted or reproduced without express permission of ISDP. For editorial correspondence and enquiries, please contact ISDP at: [email protected] About the institute: The Institute for Security and Development Policy is a Stockholm-based independent and non-profit research and policy institute. The Institute is dedicated to expanding understand- ing of international affairs, particularly the interrelationship between the issue areas of con- flict, security, and development. The Center for Transnational Threats (CTT) aims to provide strategic analysis and practical solutions to help decision makers in both the public and pri- vate sectors to achieve their goals. 2 Table of contents Front matter......................................................................1 Table of contents..............................................................2 1. Introduction......................................................................3 2. The Illegal Tobacco Trade...............................................4-8 3. Poland - the Nexus of Trade...........................................9-19 4. The Swedish Trade..........................................................20-23 5. Recommendations - EU Level........................................26-29 6. Recommendations - Sweden..........................................30-32 7. Avenues for further Research.........................................33 Acknowledgements.........................................................34 Appendix..........................................................................35-41 Table of Contents 3 1. Introduction Characterisation Outline Cigarette smuggling is a fast-growing This report is broken into four sec- criminal enterprise in the European tions. The first section will describe market. The limited legal repercus- the general nature of the illegal tobac- sions and immense profit margins co trade within the European Union make the movement of cigarettes (EU) and its impacts on government an incredibly attractive enterprise. functions. The second section will According to Lithuanian Customs explore cigarette trends in Poland reports, efficient smuggling organi- since Poland is the dominant origin sations stand to gain approximately of tobacco products within the EU. 1000% on their initial investment. The third section will focus on current This return is comparable with the trends in Sweden and examine its role narcotics industry, but with much as a transit country. The final section more lenient legal penalties if convict- will provide recommendations for all ed for involvement. levels of law enforcement, from local to international, on addressing the As more organisations become in- issue. volved in this trade, its impacts be- come more apparent. In Latvia, for ex- The information provided in this ample, the size of the cigarette black report is drawn from online research, market has grown by approximately discussions with informants closely 30% each year. In 2015, 650 million il- involved with cigarette smuggling, legal cigarettes were consumed in the interviews with agents from both the country, over a quarter of the entire Polish Central Bureau of Investigation tobacco market. As a result, the state (CBS) and Polish Ministry of Finance, budget in Latvia loses 50-70 million Swedish Customs and other special- euro of taxes annually to the black ists in the field. market. Introduction 4 2. The Illegal Tobacco the industry and the cost of invest- Trade ment, this is an understandable out- come. As the market becomes more competitive, less efficient manufac- Trends turers will generally disappear in the face of a growing monopoly which Smuggling is not a new practice nor is has the capability to operate and it the most innovative. However, the manoeuvre around the existing weak unique socioeconomic environment legislation. of the EU provides opportunities to make incredible profits. Since there is a consistent market for cheap tobac- Causes co products across the EU, there is a Geographically speaking, Europe is stable demand for smugglers’ wares. unique in that it holds a very crowd- The current legislative shortfalls sim- ed distribution of states ranging from ply enable smugglers to deliver their relatively poor to very affluent. As supply. one travels westwards in the EU, the local Gross Domestic Product (GDP) The KPMG Cision report from 2011 increases significantly, meaning there identified that the market for untaxed is little distance needed to be trav- cigarettes in Sweden showed a strong elled before common goods increase correlation between the presence of greatly in comparative value, as seen organised crime and the amount of in Figure 1. illegal cigarettes in a specific region. The ideal process for an organisation Owing to the overwhelming scale of intending to smuggle cigarettes is to Figure 1 – Average cigarette prices across the EU black market from a Lithuanian Customs Presentation The Illegal Tobacco Trade 5 purchase the cigarettes outside the lar, officers from the Polish Ministry eastern border of the EU, such as in of Finance note the World Health Belarus, for as little as 15 euro cents Organisation’s Framework Conven- per pack. They are then imported tion on Tobacco Control. Until an through a porous section of the EU amendment in 2012, the convention border, such as in Latvia, and then only contained one article dedicat- onto a country such as Germany ed to combating the illegal industry. which increases the value of that Both officers recognised the enduring same pack of cigarettes by approxi- effects of this shortcoming. Essential- mately four to five euros. If that same ly, both the illegal and legal industries pack is smuggled to Norway, the have been merged into one uniform UK or Ireland, its value will increase entity. Naturally as a result, the per- even further to just under ten euros, ception of the legal industry has been a total increase of over sixty times the negative. original value before sundry costs are As the Polish Police commented, the considered. ‘free market’ means there will always be demand for tobacco products. The Legal Issues only effective measure that can be taken in this case is thus to limit the Normally, this drastic increase in supply of illegal products not subject price is accounted for through local to taxes and regulation. No matter tariffs enforced on licensed vendors what future regulation is enforced on who import the cigarettes. Even in the the legal industry, the illegal industry EU, individual states have the capac- will remain largely unaffected by it. ity to pursue duty and tariffs from im- Tackling the size of this unregulat- porters. However, these fees are large- ed segment is thus a priority and all ly nominal in nature and exceedingly resources should be used in counter- difficult to impose on illegal products. ing it. Despite the size of the threat Thus, smuggling can easily bypass they face, law enforcement authorities all measures of price correction as have made few formal agreements goods cross borders. With no fixed to cooperate in combatting the trade. border controls between European Instead, they predominantly rely on states, customs officers must have personal contacts and direct depart- intelligence or reasonable suspicion to mental correspondence. investigate vehicle contents. Perhaps some of the most effective However, there are also a number of joint efforts include working with more specific legislative shortfalls tobacco producers, such as Phillip that have contributed to the rise of Morris (an American global tobacco the illegal tobacco trade. In particu- company), in order to combat the il- Cigarette Smuggling: 6 Poland to Sweden legal industry. Up to July 2016 (when The agreements themselves are also the Phillip Morris agreement expired), intended as a deterrent to the major the EU had agreements with each manufacturers from being involved of the four major global producers in the illegal market. The primary of tobacco products. It must be not- function to achieve this is a legal- ed that two of these agreements are ly binding payment of 100% of the settlements to past lawsuits (Phillip evaded taxes in case a seizure is made Morris, settled 2004 and Japan To- of genuine (not counterfeit) products bacco, settled 2007) in which the EU in quantities exceeding 50,000 pieces. asserted the producers’ compliance Fines levied as a result of these agree- in the function of the illegal trade. ments totalled just over 70 million euro These agreements provide a formal between 2004 and 2012. Although this framework in which law enforcement figure seems imposing, it is estimat- authorities could cooperate with the ed to be only around 0.08% of the manufacturers directly. However, of- estimated tax losses resulting from ficials from the Polish Ministry of Fi- the trade during these years. Thus, nance revealed that this provision has although the agreements formalising never fully been realised as there is an cooperation with major players in the
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Image of Poland in Russia Through the Prism of Historical Disputes
    THE IMAGE OF POLAND IN RUSSIA THROUGH THE PRISM OF HISTORICAL DISPUTES Report based on a public opinion poll carried out by the Levada Center in Russia for the Centre for Polish-Russian Dialogue and Understanding Warsaw 2020 Report on public opinion research THE IMAGE OF POLAND IN RUSSIA THROUGH THE PRISM OF HISTORICAL DISPUTES Report based on a public opinion poll carried out by the Levada Center in Russia for the Centre for Polish-Russian Dialogue and Understanding CENTRE FOR POLISH-RUSSIAN DIALOGUE Warsaw 2020 AND UNDERSTANDING Report on public opinion research THE IMAGE OF POLAND IN RUSSIA THROUGH THE PRISM OF HISTORICAL DISPUTES Survey: Levada Center Analyses and report: Łukasz Mazurkiewicz, Grzegorz Sygnowski (ARC Rynek i Opinia) Commentary: Łukasz Adamski, Ernest Wyciszkiewicz © Copyright by Centrum Polsko-Rosyjskiego Dialogu i Porozumienia 2020 Graphic design and typesetting: Studio 27 (www.studio27.pl) Cover photo: Lela Kieler/Adobe Stock ISBN 978-83-64486-79-1 Publisher The Centre for Polish-Russian Dialogue and Understanding 14/16A Jasna Street, 00-041 Warsaw, Poland tel. + 48 22 295 00 30 fax + 48 22 295 00 31 e-mail: [email protected] http://www.cprdip.pl Contents Commentary 4 Introduction – background and purpose of the study 8 Information about the study 9 Detailed findings 11 Summary 26 www.cprdip.pl 3 THE IMAGE OF POLAND IN RUSSIA THROUGH THE PRISM OF HISTORICAL DISPUTES Commentary By pursuing their particular, excessive ambi- peace in Europe, and of anti-semitism. Putin tions it was the politicians in interwar Poland played down to vanishing-point the totalitarian who submitted their nation, the Polish nation, to character of the USSR, its tactical coopera- the German war machine and generally contrib- tion with the Third Reich in destroying peace in uted to the outbreak of World War II.
    [Show full text]
  • James Albert Michener (1907-97): Educator, Textbook Editor, Journalist, Novelist, and Educational Philanthropist--An Imaginary Conversation
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 474 132 SO 033 912 AUTHOR Parker, Franklin; Parker, Betty TITLE James Albert Michener (1907-97): Educator, Textbook Editor, Journalist, Novelist, and Educational Philanthropist--An Imaginary Conversation. PUB DATE 2002-00-00 NOTE 18p.; Paper presented at Uplands Retirement Community (Pleasant Hill, TN, June 17, 2002). PUB TYPE Opinion Papers (120) EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Authors; *Biographies; *Educational Background; Popular Culture; Primary Sources; Social Studies IDENTIFIERS *Conversation; Educators; Historical Research; *Michener (James A); Pennsylvania (Doylestown); Philanthropists ABSTRACT This paper presents an imaginary conversation between an interviewer and the novelist, James Michener (1907-1997). Starting with Michener's early life experiences in Doylestown (Pennsylvania), the conversation includes his family's poverty, his wanderings across the United States, and his reading at the local public library. The dialogue includes his education at Swarthmore College (Pennsylvania), St. Andrews University (Scotland), Colorado State University (Fort Collins, Colorado) where he became a social studies teacher, and Harvard (Cambridge, Massachusetts) where he pursued, but did not complete, a Ph.D. in education. Michener's experiences as a textbook editor at Macmillan Publishers and in the U.S. Navy during World War II are part of the discourse. The exchange elaborates on how Michener began to write fiction, focuses on his great success as a writer, and notes that he and his wife donated over $100 million to educational institutions over the years. Lists five selected works about James Michener and provides a year-by-year Internet search on the author.(BT) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document.
    [Show full text]
  • A Short History of Poland and Lithuania
    A Short History of Poland and Lithuania Chapter 1. The Origin of the Polish Nation.................................3 Chapter 2. The Piast Dynasty...................................................4 Chapter 3. Lithuania until the Union with Poland.........................7 Chapter 4. The Personal Union of Poland and Lithuania under the Jagiellon Dynasty. ..................................................8 Chapter 5. The Full Union of Poland and Lithuania. ................... 11 Chapter 6. The Decline of Poland-Lithuania.............................. 13 Chapter 7. The Partitions of Poland-Lithuania : The Napoleonic Interlude............................................................. 16 Chapter 8. Divided Poland-Lithuania in the 19th Century. .......... 18 Chapter 9. The Early 20th Century : The First World War and The Revival of Poland and Lithuania. ............................. 21 Chapter 10. Independent Poland and Lithuania between the bTwo World Wars.......................................................... 25 Chapter 11. The Second World War. ......................................... 28 Appendix. Some Population Statistics..................................... 33 Map 1: Early Times ......................................................... 35 Map 2: Poland Lithuania in the 15th Century........................ 36 Map 3: The Partitions of Poland-Lithuania ........................... 38 Map 4: Modern North-east Europe ..................................... 40 1 Foreword. Poland and Lithuania have been linked together in this history because
    [Show full text]
  • JAMES A. MICHENER Has Published More Than 30 Books
    Bowdoin College Commencement 1992 One of America’s leading writers of historical fiction, JAMES A. MICHENER has published more than 30 books. His writing career began with the publication in 1947 of a book of interrelated stories titled Tales of the South Pacific, based upon his experiences in the U.S. Navy where he served on 49 different Pacific islands. The work won the 1947 Pulitzer Prize, and inspired one of the most popular Broadway musicals of all time, Rodgers and Hammerstein’s South Pacific, which won its own Pulitzer Prize. Michener’s first book set the course for his career, which would feature works about many cultures with emphasis on the relationships between different peoples and the need to overcome ignorance and prejudice. Random House has published Michener’s works on Japan (Sayonara), Hawaii (Hawaii), Spain (Iberia), Southeast Asia (The Voice of Asia), South Africa (The Covenant) and Poland (Poland), among others. Michener has also written a number of works about the United States, including Centennial, which became a television series, Chesapeake, and Texas. Since 1987, the prolific Michener has written five books, including Alaska and his most recent work, The Novel. His books have been issued in virtually every language in the world. Michener has also been involved in public service, beginning with an unsuccessful 1962 bid for Congress. From 1979 to 1983, he was a member of the Advisory Council to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, an experience which he used to write his 1982 novel Space. Between 1978 and 1987, he served on the committee that advises that U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Ot Tlle Graduate Sohool Ot the University of Y.Anaas in Vartial Fulfi1lment
    A. H. Klassen, A.. B. Submit t,.ed to tbe De11artment of EnsJ.isll and the Faoul t.Y ot tlle Graduate SOhool ot the University of Y.anaas in vartial fulfi1lment. of t.be :x~equirement.u for tlle de0.t.'ee of Ya.star of Arts. -----------~----- Ap.p.l"OVed by; r_L.~ July ,1926. There is an advantage in atudying :literatures oom- 11aratively as well a.a by tllemaelvee. !'oliGh literature ia one of the so-called miuor 1i tera.tures of Europe about which. Ame1·icana .bave only a very 211peri'ioial knoi:;ledge. but v1hioh, nevertheless, deserves our attention both for the merit tliat it IJOaaesaea intrinsically and for tile im- . ;por~t place tl11;~t it ras attained in America. This th.es1a attemyta to ~;:e a sw:-vey o! vdm.t is beat in Polish l.i terature and to trace as much 01· 1 t a.a, througl1 translation Ol." ·through .tuatorical and Cl"itioal accounts_. has be.o-ome av-dilab.le to the Amei'ioan reader. Because it is of ten hard to. d1~~~ the . line, aort1e ..B1•i tiah a.a well as ..t\me.rican treatmenta of Polieh 1iteratu.re \1·111 be considered.. I am greatly indebted to .?rofeasor s. L. ~~tu tcomb for suggesting thia eubJeot to. me eJid for the invaluable help he has g1 ven me in gn. tller;DB and selecting the ·ma.- ter1a.l. I a.m al.ao indebted to Protesaor J. H.. l~elson for the aid be has given me in the £inal preparation of .the study.
    [Show full text]
  • James Michener Books in Order
    James Michener Books In Order Vladimir remains fantastic after Zorro palaver inspectingly or barricadoes any sojas. Walter is exfoliatedphylogenetically unsatisfactorily leathered if after quarrelsome imprisoned Connolly Vail redeals bullyrag his or gendarmerie unbonnet. inquisitorially. Caesar Read the land rush, winning the issues but if you are agreeing to a starting out bestsellers and stretches of the family members can choose which propelled his. He writes a united states. Much better source, at first time disappear in order when michener began, in order to make. Find all dramatic contact form at its current generation of stokers. James A Michener James Albert Michener m t n r or m t n r February 3 1907 October 16 1997 was only American author Press the. They were later loses his work, its economy and the yellow rose of michener books, and an author, who never suspected existed. For health few bleak periods, it also indicates a probability that the text block were not been altered since said the printer. James Michener books in order. Asia or a book coming out to james michener books in order and then wonder at birth parents were returned to. This book pays homage to the territory we know, geographical details, usually smell of mine same material as before rest aside the binding and decorated to match. To start your favourite articles and. 10 Best James Michener Books 2021 That You certainly Read. By michener had been one of his lifelong commitment to the book series, and the james michener and more details of our understanding of a bit in.
    [Show full text]
  • The Influence of Newer Member States in the European Union: the Case of Poland and the Eastern Partnership
    EAS_EB_190713 EUROPE ASIA STUDIES 2013 (Special Issue Editor Final Proof) 5 The Influence of Newer Member States in the European Union: The Case of Poland and the Eastern Partnership 10 NATHANIEL COPSEY KAROLINA POMORSKA 15 Abstract This article seeks to examine and assess the role of Poland in the early stage making of the Eastern Partnership (EaP) of the European Union (EU). First, it briefly reviews Poland’s aims and ambitions with regard to the European Union’s policy towards its eastern neighbours, both before and since it 20 joined the European Union in 2004. Second, it describes and analyses the EaP, including its added value for the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). Third, it draws on a range of interviews carried out by the authors in Brussels and Warsaw on Poland’s role in the initial formation of the EaP, as seen by its partners in the other Member States and European institutions. In addition, it seeks to unpack some of the early stage lessons learnt by the Polish government about how best to achieve its ambitions 25 in the EU, and notes the remaining weaknesses of the Polish administration, particularly in the area of administrative capacity. THIS ARTICLE SEEKS TO EXAMINE AND ASSESS THE ROLE OF POLAND 30 during the initial establishment phase of the Eastern Partnership (EaP) of the European Union (EU), as viewed by key EU and Polish political elites. The EaP was jointly launched by Poland and Sweden in 2008 as a means of reinforcing the eastern dimension of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). The article contributes primarily to the growing body of scholarship on the impact and influence of newer 35 Member States of the European Union as unlikely power brokers on its policy agenda (see, for example, Dangerfield 2010).
    [Show full text]
  • Poland's Constitution of 1997
    PDF generated: 26 Aug 2021, 16:44 constituteproject.org Poland's Constitution of 1997 This complete constitution has been generated from excerpts of texts from the repository of the Comparative Constitutions Project, and distributed on constituteproject.org. constituteproject.org PDF generated: 26 Aug 2021, 16:44 Table of contents Preamble . 3 Chapter I: The Republic . 3 Chapter II: The Freedoms, Rights, and Obligations of Citizens . 7 Chapter III: Sources of Law . 17 Chapter IV: The Sejm and The Senate . 19 Chapter V: The President of the Republic of Poland . 26 Chapter VI: The Council of Ministers and Government Administration . 32 Chapter VII: Local Government . 36 Chapter VIII: Courts and Tribunals . 38 Chapter IX: Organs of State Control and For Defence of Rights . 44 Chapter X: Public Finances . 47 Chapter XI: Extraordinary Measures . 49 Chapter XII: Amending the Constitution . 51 Chapter XIII: Final and Transitional Provisions . 52 Poland 1997 Page 2 constituteproject.org PDF generated: 26 Aug 2021, 16:44 • Motives for writing constitution • Preamble Preamble Having regard for the existence and future of our Homeland, Which recovered, in 1989, the possibility of a sovereign and democratic determination of its fate, We, the Polish Nation -all citizens of the Republic, • God or other deities Both those who believe in God as the source of truth, justice, good and beauty, As well as those not sharing such faith but respecting those universal values as arising from other sources, Equal in rights and obligations towards the common good
    [Show full text]
  • JAM the Whole Chapter
    INTRODUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ....................................................................................... 2 Introduction ................................................................................................... 3 The Man ...................................................................................................... 4-6 The Author ................................................................................................ 7-10 The Public Servant .................................................................................. 11-12 The Collector ........................................................................................... 13-14 The Philanthropist ....................................................................................... 15 The Legacy Lives ..................................................................................... 16-17 Bibliography ............................................................................................ 18-21 This guide was originally created to accompany the Explore Through the Art Door Curriculum Binder, Copyright 1997. James A. Michener Art Museum 138 South Pine Street Doylestown, PA 18901 www.MichenerArtMuseum.org www.LearnMichener.org 1 THE MAN THEME: “THE WORLD IS MY HOME” James A. Michener traveled to almost every corner of the world in search of stories, but he always called Doylestown, Pennsylvania his hometown. He was probably born in 1907 and was raised as the adopted son of widow Mabel Michener. Before he was thirteen,
    [Show full text]
  • PMA Polonica Catalog
    PMA Polonica Catalog PLACE OF AUTHOR TITLE PUBLISHER DATE DESCRIPTION CALL NR PUBLICATION Concerns the Soviet-Polish War of Eighteenth Decisive Battle Abernon, De London Hodder & Stoughton, Ltd. 1931 1920, also called the Miracle on the PE.PB-ab of the World-Warsaw 1920 Vistula. Illus., index, maps. Ackermann, And We Are Civilized New York Covici Friede Publ. 1936 Poland in World War I. PE.PB-ac Wolfgang Form letter to Polish-Americans asking for their help in book on Appeal: "To Polish Adamic, Louis New Jersey 1939 immigration author is planning to PE.PP-ad Americans" write. (Filed with PP-ad-1, another work by this author). Questionnaire regarding book Plymouth Rock and Ellis author is planning to write. (Filed Adamic, Louis New Jersey 1939 PE.PP-ad-1 Island with PE.PP-ad, another work by this author). A factual report affecting the lives Adamowski, and security of every citizen of the It Did Happen Here. Chicago unknown 1942 PA.A-ad Benjamin S. U.S. of America. United States in World War II New York Biography of Jan Kostanecki, PE.PC-kost- Adams , Dorothy We Stood Alone Longmans, Green & Co. 1944 Toronto diplomat and economist. ad Addinsell, Piano solo. Arranged from the Warsaw Concerto New York Chappell & Co. Inc. 1942 PE.PG-ad Richard original score by Henry Geehl. Great moments of Kosciuszko's life Ajdukiewicz, Kosciuszko--Hero of Two New York Cosmopolitan Art Company 1945 immortalized in 8 famous paintings PE.PG-aj Zygumunt Worlds by the celebrated Polish artist. Z roznymi ludzmi o roznych polsko- Ciekawe Gawedy Macieja amerykanskich sprawach.
    [Show full text]
  • A Discussion Guide to Salt to the Sea by Ruta Sepetys
    THE #1 NEW YORK TIMES BESTSELLER WINNER of the CARNEGIE MEDAL A Discussion & Research Guide RUTA SEPETYS TO SALTTHE SEA Those who are gone are not necessarily lost. Author’s Note This book is a work of historical fi ction. The Wilhelm Gustloff, the Amber Room, and Operation Hannibal, however, are very real. The sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff is the deadliest disaster in maritime history, with losses dwarfi ng the death tolls of the famous ships Titanic and Lusitania. Yet remarkably, most people have never heard of it. On January 30, 1945, four torpedoes waited in the belly of Soviet submarine S-13. Each torpedo was painted with a scrawled dedication: For the Motherland. For the Soviet People. For Lenin- grad. For Stalin. Three of the four torpedoes were launched, destroying the Wilhelm Gustloff and killing estimates of more than nine thousand people. The majority of the passengers on the Gustloff were civilians, with an estimated fi ve thousand being children. The ghost ship, as it is sometimes called, now lies off the coast of Poland, the large gothic letters of her name still visible underwater. Over two million people were successfully evacuated during Operation Hannibal, the largest sea evacuation in modern history. Hannibal quickly transported not only soldiers but also civilians to safety from the advancing Russian troops. Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, ethnic Germans, and residents of the East Prussian and Polish corridors all fl ed toward the sea. My father’s cousins were among them. My father, like Joana’s mother, waited in refugee camps hoping to return to Lithuania.
    [Show full text]
  • Proposal for a U.S. Permanent Presence in Poland
    Proposal for a U.S. Permanent Presence in Poland 2018 Ministry of National Defence Republic of Poland Contents I. Forward .................................................................................................................................... 3 II. Poland-U.S. Relationship .......................................................................................................... 5 Background .............................................................................................................................. 5 Elevating the Relationship ........................................................................................................ 7 Proposal for Permanent U.S. Presence in Poland ..................................................................... 9 III. Geopolitical Considerations ................................................................................................... 10 Suwalki Gap ............................................................................................................................ 10 NATO-Russia Founding Act ..................................................................................................... 12 Counter Russian Permanent Forces in Belarus ....................................................................... 14 IV.Burden Sharing ....................................................................................................................... 15 V. Military and Development Assistance for U.S.-Led Initiatives ...............................................
    [Show full text]