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Textile Technologies for the Manufacture of Three-Dimensional Research Journal of Textile and Apparel Textile technologies for the manufacture of three-dimensional textile preforms Natalie Ishmael, Anura Fernando, Sonja Andrew, Lindsey Waterton Taylor, Article information: To cite this document: Natalie Ishmael, Anura Fernando, Sonja Andrew, Lindsey Waterton Taylor, (2017) "Textile technologies for the manufacture of three-dimensional textile preforms", Research Journal of Textile and Apparel, Vol. 21 Issue: 4, pp.342-362, https://doi.org/10.1108/RJTA-06-2017-0034 Permanent link to this document: https://doi.org/10.1108/RJTA-06-2017-0034 Downloaded on: 22 January 2018, At: 02:32 (PT) References: this document contains references to 71 other documents. 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The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/1560-6074.htm RJTA 21,4 Textile technologies for the manufacture of three-dimensional textile preforms 342 Natalie Ishmael and Anura Fernando School of Materials, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Received 28 June 2017 Revised 4 September 2017 Sonja Andrew Accepted 7 September 2017 School of Art, Design and Architecture, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK, and Lindsey Waterton Taylor School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK Abstract Purpose – This paper aims to provide an overview of the current manufacturing methods for three- dimensional textile preforms while providing experimental data on the emerging techniques of combining yarn interlocking with yarn interlooping. Design/methodology/approach – The paper describes the key textile technologies used for composite manufacture: braiding, weaving and knitting. The various textile preforming methods are suited to different applications; their capabilities and end performance characteristics are analysed. Findings – Such preforms are used in composites in a wide range of industries, from aerospace to medical and automotive to civil engineering. The paper highlights how the use of knitting technology for preform manufacture has gained wider acceptance due to its flexibility in design and shaping capabilities. The tensile properties of glass fibre knit structures containing inlay yarns interlocked between knitted loops are given, highlighting the importance of reinforcement yarns. Originality/value – The future trends of reinforcement yarns in knitted structures for improved tensile properties are discussed, with initial experimental data. Keywords 3D textiles, Knitting, Textile composites, Textile preforms, Weaving Paper type Research paper Downloaded by University of Leeds At 02:32 22 January 2018 (PT) 1. Introduction The use of textiles for technical applications has been on the rise, particularly as composites for engineering purposes. Textiles can provide performance advantages, most notably in terms of high strength-weight ratios compared to metal counterparts (Bannister, 2004); this is © Natalie Ishmael, Anura Fernando, Sonja Andrew and Lindsey Waterton Taylor. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial & non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and Research Journal of Textile and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode Apparel The authors would like to express utmost thanks to Edward Lay for the manufacture of the Vol. 21 No. 4, 2017 pp. 342-362 experimental samples, and for his expertise in the sample manufacture. Emerald Publishing Limited Funding: This work was supported by The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, 1560-6074 DOI 10.1108/RJTA-06-2017-0034 grant code: P116020. ideal for automotive applications, where reduced weight contributes to fuel efficiency and Textile improves ease of handling in the manufacturing process. technologies Textile composites have been defined as “the combination of a resin system with a textile fibre, yarn or fabric system” (Scardino, 1989). Traditionally, composites are manufactured by manual lay-up of two-dimensional (2D) laminates until the correct thickness and shape is achieved, a costly and labour-intensive method (Mouritz et al.,1999). To overcome these problems, the textile industry has sought to produce near-net-shape reinforced three- dimensional (3D) fibre architectures (Mouritz et al.,1999), known as textile preforms, which 343 are produced directly into the shape of the final component, eliminating the hand lay-up process. As discussed by Ogale and Alagirusamy (2004), textile preforms can be manufactured by weaving, knitting, braiding, stitching or non-woven methods. 3D contoured preforms can be defined as “fully integrated continuous fibre assemblies having multi-axial in-plane and out-of-plane fibre orientation” (Hu, 2008). Mechanical properties can be tailored by orientating fibres in optimal directions to provide through-the-thickness reinforcement, which improves interlaminar shear and prevents delamination; a characteristic that traditional composites lack (Bannister, 2001; Hufenbach et al., 2006). Textile preforms can be injected with resin and subjected to heat and pressure for consolidation into a hard or soft (flexible) textile composite; alternatively, they can remain in their soft state for a range of applications, i.e. padding forsportswearormaterialsforfiltration. The resin contributes only a minor role in the load bearing capacity of the composite (Heenkenda, 1999); instead, it is the reinforcement materials that provide the strength and load bearing capacity. In a soft composite, the textile structure is the major component to the composite (Annis and Quigley, 1998). The production of 3D fabrics through fully automated textile machinery eliminates assembly operations, minimises waste and reduces cost (Hu, 2008; Ionesi et al., 2010), factors that have led to increased interest in 3D textile preforming. A significant advantage to 3D preforms is their ability to fit exactly into a mould for resin infusion without the need to precisely manoeuvre the textile structure into the correct shape (Heenkenda, 1999). This paper addresses current technologies that achieve such preforms, and provides an understanding of how a combination of yarn arrangements (interlocking and interlooping) could improve the mechanical and physical properties of a structure. The experimental results of the tensile properties of knit structures with inlay yarns supports further investigations into reinforced contoured material forms. Downloaded by University of Leeds At 02:32 22 January 2018 (PT) 2. Overview of textile construction processes Textile forms are categorised as either 2D or 3D based on the degree of reinforcement in the z (thickness) direction (Kamiya et al.,2000). Davies (2011) categorises 3D fabrics into two types based on their manufacturing process: those produced in a multi-step process where individual layers of 2D materials are joined together; and those produced in a single-step process creating a dense structure (i.e. multi-axial warp) or a structure with a hollow core (i.e. knitted spacer). Hearle (2015), on the other hand, divides 3D fabrics into two categories based on their form: either a fabric with an overall 3D shape or a fabric containing a complex internal 3D structure. Table I provides examples of 2D and 3D fibre architectures for each of the main textile construction processes. Each fabric-forming process offers its own benefits and limitations, as summarised in Table II. Woven structures provide the highest strength and stability compared to any other fabric constructed from yarns (Sondhelm, 2000), whereas knitted fabrics can provide high drapeability and extensibility due to easy distortion of the loop structure (Ray, 2012). Developing a method RJTA that can produce a contoured form with combined fabric-forming concepts will expand the scope 21,4 of mechanical properties available in a single structure. Braiding is typically suited to produce cylinder components where a continuous linear material is produced. However, yarn interlacement can also occur directly over a shaped mandrel or inner core to produce varied shaped composites (Potluri et al., 2003), as shown in Figure 1. Weaving is suitable for high-performance applications, where the nature
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