.,• DRAR Revegetation in Arctic and Subarctic North America --A Literature Review Relevant to the Rehabilitation of Abandoned Oil and Gas Fields in Alaska

Karen L. Oakley Habitat Biologist Habitat Division Alaska Department of Fish and Game Anchorage, Alaska

June 29, 1984 ABSTRACT Written to provide Habitat Division staff with the background information necessary to review oil and gas field rehabilitation plans, this paper describes p1 ant succession in tundra and taiga, summarizes results from recent seeding projects, and recommends guidelines. The recommended strategy relies on the natural recolonization potential of tundra and taiga by advocating that topsoil be stockpiled and reused. Topsoil contains nutrients and plant propagules, and, if replaced, seeding should only be necessary on erodible slopes. If seeding is required, a native species mix should be sown. Reliance on native species, whether seeded naturally or artificially, will enhance restoration and reduce costs. The applicability of these methods for rehabilitating North Slope oilfields is unproven, and more research is recommended.

-i- TABLE of CONTENTS Page No.

Abstract...... i List of Tables ...... iii Introduction...... 1 Definitions...... 1 Significance and Need for this Review ..•••••••.••••• 2 Revegetation through Natural Succession ••.••••••••••.•••• 6 Succession after Disturbance of Tundra ..••••••••.••• 7 Succession after Disturbance of Taiga ••••••••••••••• 9 Comparison of Tundra and Taiga Succession ••••••..••• 11 Revegetation through Seeding Programs .•..••.••••••••••••• 13 Species used in Seeding Trials ••••.•••••••.••••••••• 13 Seeding Program Methods ...••••.•••.••••••••••••••••. 20 Reinvasion by Native Species after Seeding ••.•••..•• 23 Revegetation of Berms and Gravel Structures ••••••••• 24 Seeding Program Costs •..••••••••.•••••••••.••••••••• 26

Rehabilitation of Abandoned Oil and Gas Fields ••••••••.•• 28 Discussion ...... 28 Recommendations ...... •...... •...... 29 Literature Cited ...... 31 Appendix A. Species used in seeding trials in Alaska and northwest Canada between 1969 and 1983. Appendix B. Revegetation guidelines recommended by Kubanis (1982) for the Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System.

-ii- LIST of TABLES Page No.

1. Text of lease term requiring ..•....•.•.•••....••••..••• 1 rehabilitation of oil and gas facilities sites after abandonment. 2. Producing and abandoned onshore oil and 3 gas fields in Alaska. 3. Disturbance-related seeding studies in .••.•.••••••••••• 14 Alaska and northwest Canada.

-iii- INTRODUCTION The State of Alaska initiated an oil and gas leasing program in 1959 and since then has leased over seven million acres (Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1984). Major discoveries of gas in the Cook Inlet region and of oil on the North Slope are currently being produced. As an integral part of the leasing process, the state has sought to prevent and mitigate the potential adverse effects of oil and gas exploration and development through lease stipulations and terms. One such lease term (Table 1) requires that all drilling sites, roads, buildings, airstrips, and other facilities be removed and the site rehabilitated after abandonment. The Department of Natural Resources, which administers the leasing program, consults with the Department of Fish and Game, as well as the Department of Environmental Conservation, about the adequacy of rehabilitation plans. This paper, which reviews the literature on revegetation of disturbed northern lands, was written to provide the background information necessary to review such rehabilitation plans. Because the state oil and gas leasing program is still active with three sales scheduled per year through 1988 (Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1984), the department also wanted to determine if there were any steps lessees should be advised to take prior to and during development that would increase the likelihood of successful rehabilitation.

Table 1. Text of lease term requiring rehabilitation of oil and gas facilities sites after abandonment. "Upon abandonment of drilling sites, roads, buildings, airstrips or other facilities, such facilities wi 11 be removed and the site rehabi 1ita ted, unless the Director, Division of Oil and Gas, after consultation with the departments of Fish and Game and Environmental Conservation, determines that such removal and rehabilitation is not in the state's interest."

Definitions Revegetation is simply the establishment of a vegetative cover on disturbed lands (Johnson and Van Cleve 1976). Revegetation occurs naturally as most ecosystems contain pioneer species able to colonize disturbed sites. Artificial revegetation generally employs agronomic species, often grasses. In Alaska, these agronomics are often exotic species, although commercial seed supplies of several native grasses have recently been developed {Mitchell 1979). Restoration is to bring a disturbed area back to its former condition. The process of restoration often includes artificial revegetation, especially on erodible sites. Artificial revegetation may facilitate restoration by building up organic material in the soil and restoring nutrient cycles and thermal and hydraulic regimes or may have no effect on establishment of native species (Chapin and Chapin 1980). Artificial revegetation can interfere with restoration, however, if the species used are weedy and

-1- restrict establishment of native species. While disturbed areas can often be naturally or artificially revegetated in the same year as the disturbance, restoration takes much longer -- on the order of tens to hundreds, even thousands, of years. Rehabilitation is not as easily defined, but a workable definition probably lies somewhere between the simple establishment of a vegetative cover and the difficult restoration of a site to its original condition. No consistent definition of rehabilitation emerges from the literature. Johnson and Van Cleve (1976) referred to rehabilitation as techniques used to prevent erosion. In the dictionary, rehabilitation is synonymous with restoration. Cairns (1982) suggested that rehabilitation include restoration with the addition of favorable site characteristics not formerly present. In this sense, rehabilitation includes enhancement, which involves recovery to a more socially acceptable condition without reference to the site's original condition. Here, rehabilitation will be defined as the recovery of a disturbed site to a biologically productive, self-perpetuating condition that is consistent with land management in the surrounding area. This definition thereby includes restoration in the strict sense and the enhancement option of the Cairns definition. Significance and Need for this Review Oil and gas exploration and development is currently the dominant economic force in Alaska. Both federal and state governments have been active lessors of their land for oil and gas exploration and development, and, as a result of their leasing programs, six oil fields and 19 gas fields have been developed onshore in Alaska. Of these 25 fields, nine are still producing (Table 2). The largest currently producing oil fields in Alaska, the Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk fields, are on North Slope state lands. Because Alaska is thought to contain over half of the United States' domestic petroleum reserves, the petroleum industry is likely to drive the Alaskan economy for the foreseeable future. Both federal and state governments are continuing to lease, and much of the acreage to be offered in the next few years is onshore. During 1984 and 1985, the Bureau of Land Management will make eight offerings of federal onshore land, and eleven of 15 1ease sa 1es proposed by the state between 1984 and 1988 wi 11 offer onshore lands (Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1984). On federally-leased land, surface management authority, including authority over rehabilitation, resides within the Department of the Interior with either the Bureau of Land Management, Geological Survey, or Fish and Wildlife Service. On state land, surface management authority resides within the Department of Natural Resources in the Division of Land and Water Management. Except when an anadromous stream is involved, the Department of Fish and Game has no statutory or regulatory authority over surface management of oil and gas fields on either state or federal land. However, it is state policy to protect fish and wildlife during the course of oil and gas development (Department of Natural Resources 1984:4), and the Department of Natura 1 Resources consults the Department of Fish and Game about the implications of surface management plans for fish and wildlife.

-2- Table 2. Producing and abandoned onshore oil and gas fields in Alaska. S = state land, F = federal land, N = native land

Producing Fields Abandoned Fields

oil gas oil gas

North Slope Kuparuk-S East Barrow-N Umiat-F Kavik-S Prudhoe Bay-S South Barrow-N Kemik-S

Cook Inlet Beaver Creek-F Kenai-S/F Albert Kaloa-S Swanson River-F Sterling-S Birch Hill-S West Fork-S Ivan River-S Lewis River-S Stump Lake-S Theodore River-S Falls Creek-F North Fork-F Swanson River-F West Foreland-F Nicolai Creek-S/F Moquawkie-N

Other Katalla-F

Reference: Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission (1984).

-3- While none of the currently producing fields on state land are likely to be abandoned soon, some sites within those fields will be abandoned within the next few years. Two North Slope upland gravel mines are being abandoned now, and the state is currently reviewing rehabilitation plans for these sites. These are the first such plans to be submitted for rehabilitation work subsequent to oil and gas development on state North Slope lands. Review of these plans is being confounded by the lack of criteria by which the success of the rehabilitation work can be judged. In contrast to the very specific criteria set by federal regulation for rehabilitation success on surface mined lands, no such criteria exist for the rehabilitation of lands disturbed during oil and gas development. This lack of rehabilitation standards creates uncertainty for the industry operator. Rehabilitation is required as a term of the lease, and the lessee is liable until rehabilitation is completed. Because there are no standards for rehabi 1itati on success, the 1essee does not know the extent of his liability. If complete restoration was required, an operator could conceivably be held liable for a century. By setting standards for rehabilitation success, the land manager will reduce this uncertainty for the developers. Adoption of standards will also ensure that all operators are treated consistently. Standards for rehabilitation success need to be tied to the long-term land management goals for the area of concern. Rehabilitation methods will differ depending on these goals. In some areas, erosion control may be the only purpose of rehabilitation. Near inhabited areas, aesthetics may also be important. In areas critical to wildlife, reestablishment of native vegetation may be required. In each case, the standards for rehabilitation success must be set within the framework of land management goals. For many areas that have been or will be leased for oil and gas by the state, such long-term land management goals have not been defined. The land manager's job of setting standards for rehabi 1itati on success is thereby made more difficult.

The first major North Slope oil discovery was made only 15 years ago, and the pace of development is still strong. Even though the prospect of field abandonment seems distant, the state needs to develop its rehabilitation policy, which is currently no more developed than the lease term shown in Table 1. What 11 rehabilitation 11 means in the context of this lease term and the state's best interest will be defined over the next few years as rehabilitation plans, such as those for the two North Slope gravel mines, are evaluated and executed. To ensure that the rehabi 1itation standards developed under this lease term will adequately maintain or enhance wildlife habitat, the Department of Fish and Game will have to take an active role in evaluating these first rehabilitation plans. Because establishment of a vegetative cover provides the basis of most rehabilitation work, an understanding of revegetation processes is necessary for critical review of rehabilitation plans. This literature review of revegetation studies was undertaken to provide Department of Fish and Game personnel with such an understanding. This paper discusses natural revegetation processes in the tundra and taiga and summarizes the results of the numerous seeding projects conducted in Alaska and northwest Canada in

-4- the last 15 years. This paper is not a statement of the department's policy on rehabilitation methods but is intended to provide the background necessary for such a statement. Because oil and gas development will continue to play a large role in Alaska's future, rehabilitation should become routine for both land managers and industry. This paper is intended to help in the development of routine rehabilitation methods for abandoned oil and gas fields on state land.

-5- REVEGETATION THROUGH NATURAL SUCCESSION As environmental conditions change, plant communities change. Because such vegetational changes are often orderly with one set of species being succeeded by another set, these changes are described by the ecological term succession. Plant succession occurs naturally as a result of both biotic and abiotic environmental changes. Study of natural succession patterns is vi tal to understanding how restoration of man-caused disturbances can be achieved, because the most efficient restoration strategies will enhance or mimic natural succession. For the purpose of understanding succession after disturbance, two kinds of succession can be distinguished: Primary succession, which starts from a bare surface, such as a deeply bladed trail or recently deglaciated area, and secondary succession, which occurs where some organic matter or peat remains after disturbance. On bare sites, the process of primary succession must re-establish thermal and hydraulic stability, rebuild nutrient pools, and develop an organic mat before the vegetational community typical of nearby undisturbed areas can become established. In ice rich soils, this process may take many years, because once thermokarst occurs, thermal stability is difficult to regain (McKay 1970, Brown and Grave 1978). If the bare site remains thermally stable, plants will invade, but because all propagules must come from outside the area, initial revegetation will take longer than in disturbed areas where an organic mat containing nutrients, seeds, and rootstock remains (Chapin and Van Cleve 1978). Except for studies near retreating glaciers (Crocker and Major 1955), there are few studies of primary succession in Alaska. Most northern disturbances, whether natural or artificial, leave some organic material; hence, secondary successional processes are much better known. Because the organic mat has not been completely removed, nutrients are present, and rootstock and seeds contained in the mat can sprout. Organic matter improves the moisture retention capacity of the soil and provides microsites for seed germination. Although the thermal regime of the soil may be altered by disturbance, the surface should not subside if the organic mat remains. Two landscape types dominate Alaska: tundra and taiga. Tundra occurs at high altitudes and latitudes, and its quintessence is treelessness. The taiga is defined by the presence of trees, and its forests dominate the boreal regions of North America and Eurasia. Permafrost is generally continuous under arctic tundra and may be continuous, discontinuous, or absent from the taiga. Although tundra and taiga are both cold-dominated 1 andscapes, the tree 1essness of tundra is the result of a more severe climate. The climatic distinctions that allow or prohibit tree growth are fundamental and also influence successional patterns. Natural succession of disturbed tundra and taiga are therefore described separately.

-6- Succession After Disturbance of Tundra Although tundra is popularly described as fragile, disturbance studies have indicated that subarctic and arctic tundra is relatively resilient; natural restoration processes are well developed. The arctic is characterized by natural disturbances, including fire, frost heaving, caribou trampling, and rodent grazing, that destroy or disrupt vegetation. Tundra lakes periodically drain, and the exposed lake beds offer bare sites for colonization. Because disturbance is a regular feature of the arctic environment, success is not as orderly or linear as in temperate areas, and climax communities that are self-perpetuating are difficult to delineate (Muller 1952, Churchill and Hanson 1958). Because arctic disturbances are recurrent, several plant species have evolved that exploit bare surfaces. Pioneers on mineral soil include marsh fleabane (Senecio con estus) and two grasses, polargrass (Arctagrostis latifolia) and bluejoint Calamagrostis canadensis). Sedges, especially the tussock-forming cottongrass Eriophorum vaginatum, are the most common pioneers on organic soil. These pioneers invade bare areas thereby beginning the revegetative process. Revegetation after tundra fires often occurs so quickly that it is difficult to discern where fires have been within a few years (Wien 1976). The frequency and importance of tundra fires have been underestimated because revegetation is so fast (Wien 1976). Tundra fires are usually started by lightning and occur in July or August of dry summers (Wien 1976, Hall et al. 1978). Revegetation by vascular plants occurs quickly, because underground roots and stems resprout, often in the same year (Wien 1974, 1976; Black and Bliss 1978; Viereck 1973; Wien and Bliss 1973; Racine 1981). In tussock tundra, charred cottongrass tussocks will resprout within a few weeks and show increased vigor and flowering after a fire (Bliss and Wien 1972, Wien and Bliss 1973, Racine 1981). The increased vigor is due in part to increased nutrient uptake that is thought to be re 1a ted to the increased depth of thaw (Wien and Bliss 1973, Wien 1974, but see Chapin and Shaver 1981). Polargrass and bluejoint are frequently the first species to establish by seed in bare areas exposed by fire (Wien and Bliss 1973, Wien 1974, Weber 1974, Black and Bliss 1978). While vascular plant recovery is immediate, cryptogamic species, such as mosses, lichens, and liverworts, take many years to recover (Viereck 1973, Wien 1974, Black and Bliss 1978). The ability of tundra plants to respond quickly to destruction by fire is due in part to their characteristically high root:shoot ratio. Tundra plants typically place a large proportion of their total biomass underground in the form of roots or rhizomes. Even after fire or mechanical disturbance has destroyed all above-ground portions of the plant, these structures contain enough stored nutrient to allow rapid regrowth. As long as some portion of the organic mat remains, revegetation by vegetative reproduction should occur swiftly.

1 Nomenclature follows Hulten (1968).

-7- Revegetation on bare mineral soil follows a different process. Lambert (1972) observed plant succession on mineral soil exposed by mud slumps on tundra slopes in the Richardson Mountains in the Northwest Territories. Islands of the surrounding climax vegetation were present in the slump area, but none of the climax species were able to colonize the mineral soil. The initial pioneers were marsh fleabane and the cottongrass Eriophorum scheuchzeri followed by polargrass and bluejoint. These species were present in the surrounding vegetation but in very low densities. Unlike the dominant climax species, the pioneers were able to germinate and grow in the exposed mi nera 1 soi 1 • After severa 1 years, a turf began to form in the areas that had been exposed because snow accumulation was greater and compressed the pioneering vegetation. Once the turf developed, the climax vegetation was able to invade. Lambert (1976) found a similar pattern of succession below an actively retreating mud slump on Garry Island in the Mackenzie River delta. In the area most recently exposed by the slump, marsh fleabane was the only plant that grew. Hummocks of undisturbed tundra were present, but here they were eventually covered by mud. With increasing distance and age from the active slump, the surface became drier, and polargrass joined the marsh fleabane. Finally, as the surface dried further, marsh fleabane was replaced by the cottongrass E. scheuchzeri. In areas farthest from the slump face, which Lambert estimated had been exposed nine years before, vegetative cover was complete. Study of vegetation near natural oil seeps has also provided information about tundra revegetation. Plants grow in close association with seeps at Cape Simpson, Alaska (McCown et al. 1972). Lush patches of the sedges Carex aguati 1 is and E. scheuchzeri grew on the seep periphery and in wet areas completely surrounded by oil, tar, and asphalt. The depth of thaw was much greater near the seeps, and, compared to nearby sedges, the sedges in the seep area were more vigorous, flowered earlier, and produced more fruiting heads. Further from the seep, where the soil was drier and the active layer shallower, polargrass grew. McCown et al. (1972) concluded that changes in the vegetative community near the oil seep were due to the thermal effect of the seep on the active layer depth rather than to the presence of oil in the soil. Western man began exploring the arctic coastal plain for oil and gas in the 1940's, and, for the next 20 years, summer travel by tracked vehicles and bulldozing of seismic trails were common procedures (Bellamy et al. 1971, Haag and Bliss 1973). Studies of sites disturbed in the early days of North Slope petroleum exploration have provided the most long term data available on natural tundra regeneration. In 1969, Hok (1969, 1971) reconnoitered trails in the Naval Petroleum Reserve that had been made from seven to 25 years before. Tracks from light personnel carriers, such as the Bombardier and Weasel, were scarce, and Hok concluded that these vehicles caused no long-term damage. Tracks from heavier vehicles and bladed trails were still in evidence, however, due to thermokarst subsidence. Examination of Hok's numerous photographs indicates that while parts of these tracks had become vegetated, revegetation was not

-8- complete, especially on unstable ice-rich soils. Although Hok made only general observations of revegetation, he noted two phendmena associated with revegetation following natural disturbances: marsh fleabane growing in silty outwashes below eroding trails and increased cottongrass flowering. Detailed studies of vehicle perturbations of tundra were conducted at Barrow as part of the Tundra Biom~ Program (Gersper and Challinor 1975, Challinor and Gersper 1975). ~1orphological and chemical changes in six-year-old Weasel tracks were monitored and analyzed with respect to natural revegetation. As Hok had found, plants growing in the tracks were often larger than plants in undisturbed tundra. Chemical analyses of soil and plants in the tracks indicated that nutrients were more available in the disturbed soil, and the plants growing there were nutrient enriched. Challinor and Gersper (1975) suggested that this increased nutrient uptake was due to increased nutrient availability in the warmer, less acid soil (but see Chapin and Shaver 1981). Although these studies showed that tundra can recover from light disturbance, they also showed that heavy disturbance can cause severe damage due to subsidence and thermal erosion. Studies by Lawson et al. (1978) in 1977 of the 1949 exploratory drilling site at Fish Creek, Alaska have provided a comprehensive view of natural tundra succession following human disturbance. Floristic studies by Johnson et al. (1978) showed that bare sites were invaded and that certain species pioneered repeatedly due to their high reproductive and dispersal capacities. A diverse array of species invaded wet sites, comprising sedges {E. vaginatum, E. angustifolium, C. aquatilis), rushes (Juncus castaneus, ~ biglumis), a grass (Alopecurus afpinus) and several forbs including saxifrages (Saxifraga cernua, S. nelsoniana), mustards (Eutrema edwardsii, Draba lactea) and a chickweed (Stellaria laeta). Pioneers on dry sites were primarily grasses (Arctagrostis latifolia, Poa arctica, Hierochloe alpina, Trisetum s~icatum), and rushes (Luzula arct1ca, L. confusa, L. wahlenbergii • The pioneers were present in the surrounding undisturbed vegetation, but became more abundant on the disturbed sites. The relatively high number of species recorded on disturbed sites by Johnson et al. (1978) is probably because their observations were made 28 years after disturbance. Most disturbance studies have only 1ooked at revegetation within a year or two of disturbance, and only a few species, notably polargrass, bluejoint, and cottongrass, have been reported as pioneers. By 1977, the Fish Creek sites were apparently in a more advanced stage of succession. Komarkova and Weber (fide Lawson et al. 1978) found an equivalently diverse community at a 25-year-old abandoned mining site near Atkasook, Alaska. Succession After Disturbance of Taiga The taiga of Alaska is an open, slow-growing forest with interspersed stands of dense trees and treeless bogs. The term tai~a, a Russian word, is used to distinguish these northernmost forests from t e dense, fast-growing coastal forests of the southern boreal zone. Fire is the predominant ecological force in the taiga, and the present mosaic of taiga vegetational communities is closely related to past fire history (Viereck 1973). Because

-9- the taiga is repeatedly perturbed, recovery processes are well established. Post-fire succession in the taiga is similar to post-fire succession in temperate forests, except that permafrost complexities often affect the latter stages of taiga succession. In the taiga, there is also a greater tendency for the burned community to replar;e itself without going through intermediate stages. Black and Bliss (1978) studied recovery of a burned black spruce (Picea mariana) forest near Inuvik, N.W.T., and found no successional replacement of the dominant vascular plants. Most shrubs and forbs simply sprouted after the fire and soon achieved their pre-burn dominance. Viereck (1973) studied recovery after the 1971 Wickersham Dome fire in interior Alaska and found that aspen (Populus tremuloides), birch (Betula), and alder (Alnus) produced sprouts up to 40 em in the same year of the fire. Several low shrub species, including labrador tea (Ledum palustre), rose (Rosa), and blueberry (Vaccinium), also sprouted in the same year. Viereck (1973) has distinguished two patterns of post-fire taiga succession. On dry sites dominated by white spruce (Picea ~lauca), birch, aspen, and poplar (Populus balsamifera), fireweed (Epilobium and willow (Salix) invade first, generally by seed, but are almost immediately replaced by the deciduous trees that establish by sprouting or root suckers. White spruce may also invade within a few years of the fire, but only if there is a nearby seed source. White spruce seeds mature in late summer, and they are usually destroyed by fires. Thus, white spruce can only reinvade from seeds produced in unburned areas nearby. On wet sites dominated by black spruce, post fire recovery is rapid due to vegetative reproduction of shrubs, sedges, and grasses. Within three to five years, burned sites will often be completely covered by pioneering sedges and grasses, notably cottongrass, bluejoint, and polargrass. Black spruce cones open in late summer, hence their seeds are often not destroyed by fires which occur generally in early summer. Great quantities of black spruce seed therefore fa 11 to the ground during the first years after a fire, and they germinate quickly. In this way, black spruce is replaced by black spruce. This pattern is the most common post-fire successional pattern in Alaska's taiga. While recovery of vascular plants following taiga fires is rapid, recovery of mosses, lichens, and liverworts is slow. Black and Bliss (1978) described four post-fire successional stages for these cryptogamic species. They estimated that climax lichen communities would only become established in 200-300 years, while spruce, the dominant canopy species, could recover within 20-100 years. Viereck (1973) has also noted that only pioneering mosses and liverworts, such as Polytrichum, Ceratodon, and Marchantia, will dominate the ground layers of burned sites for many years. Studies of revegetation following disturbance of taiga habitats by vehicles indicate similar successional trends. Bolstad (197la,b) reported on natural revegetation of firebreaks constructed by bulldozer in interior Alaska. Thirteen years after the Murphy Dome fire, he found that catl ines through poorly drained valley floors were well vegetated with willow, grasses, and sedges. Ridgetop trails were drier and slower to revegetate, although some

-10- willow, aspen, and birch had invaded. Within three to five years of the Goldstream fire, Bolstad found that valley floor trails were covered with horsetail and willow, while bluejoint, fireweed, and black spruce had established on drier sites. On abandoned off-road vehicle trails in the Denali Highway region of interior Alaska, bluejoint was also the first species to establish (Sparrow et al. 1978). Hernandez (1973b) studied natural recolonization of white spruce and tall shrub communities disturbed by winter seismic trails in the Mackenzie River delta. Willows were the first species to recover, regenerating from rootstock. Horsetail (·Eguisetum), Carex sedges, blueberry, and labrador tea also regrew from intact roots and rhizomes. In the second year after disturbance, the two most common pioneering grasses, bluejoint and polargrass, seeded in. Recovery to the willow-alder stage of secondary succession was rapid on these seismic trails. On a more heavily disturbed site, an area denuded for an airstrip, Hernandez (1973b) found no recovery within two years of abandonment. Because no roots or rhizomes remained at this site, all plant establishment would have to come from seeds and spores and would therefore be much slower. Hernandez therefore concluded that the presence of live roots and rhizones in disturbed soils are crucial to rapid recovery of taiga vegetation. Comparison of Tundra and Taiga Succession Successional patterns following disturbance of tundra and taiga are more similar than they are different; differences are those of degree rather than of kind. Vegetation in both landscapes is strongly influenced by the metabolic constraints of cold. Both landscapes are also strongly influenced by natural disturbance; indeed, disturbance by fire has created today's taiga. As a result of repeated disturbances, many northern plant species have evolved mechanisms that allow rapid recolonization of disturbed sites. The most important mechanism is simply the strong ability of many northern plants to grow vegetatively by sprouting from underground parts after above-ground parts have been removed. This mechanism is characteristic of many plants in both the tundra and taiga. Sedges are important colonizers of disturbed organic soils in both tundra and taiga (Hopkins and Sigafoos 1957, Wein and MacLean 1973, Chapin 1975, Chester and Shaver 1982, Fetcher and Shaver 1983). Their colonizing success can be attributed to their production of seeds able to lie dormant in the soil until disturbance creates suitable germination conditions (Moore and Wien 1977, Gartner 1983). Bluejoint and polargrass are the two most important colonizing grasses in the tundra and taiga. Although bluejoint is more important in the taiga and polargrass is more important in the tundra, both species can be found colonizing bare sites throughout Alaska. The colonizing success of these species is due to their ability to transport seeds to and germinate seeds in bare sites. These species seem to require disturbed soils as neither does well in undisturbed communities.

-11- Differences in successional patterns between these landscapes are not as important as the similarities. Consistent with milder conditions in the taiga, recovery after disturbance is faster than in the tundra (Van Cleve 1977). More species are colonizers in the taiga including species, such as willows, aspen, birch, and black spruce, not found in the tundra. Other than faster recovery and the involvement at more colonizing species in the taiga, the responses to disturbance are similar.

-12- REVEGETATION THROUGH SEEDING PROGRAMS Seeding and fertilizing of bare areas created by construction activities is a common revegetation practice in temperate areas. Grasses are the most often used species because they are hardy. Discovery of oil in the Alaskan and Canadian arctic in the late 1960's spurred research on the applicability of temperate seeding techniques to the arctic. Because commercial seed supplies of northern species were not available, the first studies were aimed at selecting the most suitable agronomic grasses from those already available (ARCO 1972). Most northern seeding projects have been undertaken as part of either the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) rehabilitation program (Van Cleve and Manthei 1972, 1973; Mitchell and McKendrick 1974, 1975; Chapin and Chapin 1980; Johnson 1980, 1981) or natural gas pipeline studies (Alaska: Mitchell and Loynachan 1975, 1976; Canada: Hernandez 1973a, Dabbs and Friesen 1973, Dabbs et al. 1974, Younkin 1976). The U.S. Bureau of Land Management has used seeding as a method of revegetating bulldozed firebreaks in subarctic Alaska (Bolstad 197la,b, Hakala et al. 1971, Knapman 1982), and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has used seeding to stabilize a flood control dam and levee near Fairbanks (Johnson et al. 1981). These and other northern seeding studies are listed for comparison in Table 3. Species Used in Seeding Trials Over 60 grass species have been used in seeding trials in Alaska and northwest Canada since 1969 (Appendix A). One sedge, three legumes, and two herbaceous species have also been tried. The majority have been exotic. Greenland bluegrass, bering hairgrass, alkaligrass, bluejoint, polargrass, cottongrass, marsh fleabane, and fireweed are the only native species that have been used in seeding trials. Most species have been tested at two or more sites. Overall, arctared creeping red fescue (Festuca rubra) and nugget kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) have been the most successful exotics. Both have been tested at many sites in arctic and subarctic Alaska and Canada, and they have generally produced more cover and persisted longer than the other species tried. Evaluation of their success is confounded, however, by the short-term nature of most studies. Most studies have reported their results after the second growing season (Table 3). While arctared fescue, nugget kentucky bluegrass, and other "successful" species may still be producing good cover in the second year after seeding, all long-term studies of three or more years have found that the cover produced by sown species declined in subsequent years. In the most long-term study to date, Chapin and Chapin (1980) found that exotics, including nugget kentucky bluegrass and red fescue, were completely eliminated after five years. The decline in cover of sown exotic grasses that occurs after three years is probably due to the i nabi 1 i ty of exotics to extract nutrients from co 1d, nutrient-poor soils. Seeding programs typically include fertilization, and this addition of nutrients allows the initial establishment of the exotics in the disturbed soil. Refertilization studies have shown that as long as

-13- Table- 3. Disturbance-related seeding studies ln Alaslaand-n-orrnwesCtanada.

No. of spp. Successful Years of Native Site evaluated Species Study Takeover Source HIGH ARCTIC Melville Island(75°N), 10 None 5 McGillivray 1976 Ell ef Rignes fide Bliss 1978 Is land {79°N}, Canada Devon Island (75°N}, 2 bluejoint, polargrass 4 PARTIAL: Phippsia Bliss and Bell King Christian and Alopecurus unpubl. data Island {78°N), seeded in naturally fide Bliss 1978 Canada in fertilized plots ARCTIC Prudhoe Bay, 60 common creeping red fescue 3 ARCO 1972 Alaska {70°15'N) pipeline berm, 11 arctared and boreal fescue, 2 not studied Wien 1971 Prudhoe Bay, nugget bluegrass Alaska (70°15'N)

II II 16 arctared fescue, nugget 6 not studied Mitchell and Loynachan bluegrass, alkaligrass, 1975, 1976 bering hairgrass II II 7 a rcta red fescue, 2 not studied Mitchell and Loynachan (5 mixes) greenland bluegrass, 1975' 1976 bering hairgrass, a1 ka 1 i grass scraped area, 19 and nugget bluegrass, arctared 6 NEARLY COMPLETE: Mitchell and Loynachan Prudhoe Bay, 2 mixes fescue, hairgrass sedges dominated 1975, 1976 Alaska all plots ranging (70°15' N) from 50-70% cover -14- No. of spp. Successful Years of Native Site evaluated Species Study Takeover Source ARCTIC (cont.) scraped area, 5 and greenland bluegrass, 2 not studied Mitchell and Loynachan Kavik, Alaska 5 mixes arctared fescue, nugget 1975, 1976 (69°30 1 N) bluegrass, hairgrass, bluejoint, polargrass scraped area, 8 nugget bluegrass, 3 not studied Younkin 1972 Tuktoyaktuk, arctared fescue N.W.T., Canada {69°25 1 N) winter road, 8 natives: fireweed, marsh 1 not studied Hernandez 1973a Tuktoyaktuk, (3 mixes) fleabane N.W.T., Canada agronomics: climax timothy (69°25 1 N) abandoned rig 7 nugget bluegrass, boreal 3 PARTIAL: cover of Younkin and Martens 1976 sites and roads, fescue native species, Mackenzie River primarily bluejoint, delta, N.W.T. polargrass, and (69°N) Carex sedges, was highest on plots with the lowest seeded cover pipeline berm, 11 boreal fescue, climax 2 not studied Hernandez 1973a Inuvik, N.W.T., timothy, sawki russian Canada wildrye (however, no (68°20 1 N) species produced more than 9% cover) scraped area, 8 nugget bluegrass, 3 not studied Younkin 1972 Inuvik, N.W.T., arctared fescue Canada (68°20 1 N)

-15- No. of spp. Successful Years of Native Site evaluated Species Study Takeover Source ARCTIC (cant.) arctic sections 10 annual rye, meadow foxtail, 4 PARTIAL: noted Johnson 1981 of the Trans­ timothy, nugget bluegrass, bluejoint and Alaska Pipeline, arctared fescue polargrass growing Alaska abundantly and (66°30'N to flowering next to 70°15'N) disturbed areas, but extensive reinvasion not noted SUBARCTIC pipeline berm, 18 fescue, meadow foxtail, 5 PARTIAL: some Dabbs and Friesen 1973 Sans Sault, fowl bluegrass, kentucky exotics (e.g. Dabbs et al. 1974 N.W.T., Canada bluegrass, canarygrass, crested wheatgrass) Younkin and Friesen 1976 (65°40'N) sheep fescue, meadow were replaced by fescue (these species natives, some (e.g. still produced more than meadow foxtail) were 50% cover after five years) not, all plots were invaded by native species pipeline berm, 11 arctared and boreal 2 not evaluated Wien 1971 Norman Wells, fescue, nugget bluegrass Hernandez 1973a N.W.T., Canada (65°17'N) seismic line and 8 sown natives: fireweed, 1 not evaluated Hernandez 1973a bulldozed trail, (3 mixes) marsh fleabane Norman Wells, agronomics: climax timothy Canada (65°17'N)

-16- No. of spp. Successful Years of Native Site evaluated Species Study Takeover Source SUBARCTIC (cont.} bulldozed site, 6 canary grass, nugget 10 COMPLETE: all Chapin and Chapin 1980 Eagle Creek, bluegrass, rye, fescue, exotics replaced by Alaska timothy, and foxtail native sedges (65°10'N) all established during first year, but fescue was the only species remaining after five years trails, Elliot 3 (mix) brome, canary grass 2 PARTIAL: natives Bolstad 1971a Highway, Alaska grew along trail, (65°10'N) including bluejoint, cottongrass, horsetail firebreaks, 3 (mix) brome, fescue, oats 7 COMPLETE: within Knapman 1982 Wickersham Dome, three years, seeded Alaska species difficult to (65°10'N) find, woody seedlings common firebreaks, 4 (mix) individual species success 5 SLIGHT: the seeding Kna~man 1982 Elliot Highway, not evaluated, mix included seemed to retard Alaska rye, fescue, foxtail, brome native plant (65°10'N) (no ferti 1i zer) establishment, even after five years pipeline berm, 15 manchar brome, boreal 2 PARTIAL: native McCown 1972 Fairbanks, fescue, engmo timothy, species invaded Alaska nugget bluegrass unplanted areas (65°N) and where grazing eliminated seeded species

-17- No. of spp. Successful Years of Native Site evaluated SEecies Stud~ Takeover Source SUBARCTIC (cont.) Chena River Lakes 12 fescue, brome, foxtail, 3 PARTIAL: some Johnson et al. 1981 dam, Fairbanks, alsike clover species grew from Alaska mulches; aspen and (65°N) poplar invaded from nearby construction site, 3 (mixes) individual species success 3 not studied Palazzo at al. 1980 Fairbanks, not evaluated, primarily a Alaska fertilizer study (65°N) experimental plot, 3 annual rye, arctared fescue, 2 not studied Johnson 1978 Fairbanks, (alone and bluejoint (primarily a Alaska in mixes) fertilizer study) (65°N) firebreaks, 5 brome 2 PARTIAL: native Bolstad 1971a Taylor Highway, (2 mixes) species, especially Alaska horsetail, bluejoint, (64°N) and cottongrass, taking over most sites subarctic sections 11 (mixes) annual rye, nugget foxtail, 4 PARTIAL: extensive Johnson 1981 of the Trans-Alaska timothy, bluegrass, boreal reinvasion only Pipeline, Alaska fescue observed south of (61°-66°30'N) Alaska Range (64°N), native species included fireweed, marsh fleabane, pale cordyalis, alder, willow, bluejoint firebreaks, Kenai 1 annual rye 2 not studied Hakala et al. 1971 Peninsula, Alaska (60°45'N) -18- fertilizer is added, the exotic grasses can persist (Mitchell 1973, Younkin 1976). Without continued fertilization, however, the exotics cannot be maintained. Even with continued fertilization, exotics may fail because they are physiologically adapted to conditions in lower latitudes. Exotics may fail because they cannot withstand occasional freezing in summer or extreme winter temperatures. Often, exotics will not be able to reproduce sexually because their phenology (i.e. timing of flowering, seed set, and senescence) is keyed to a longer growing season. From the beginning, researchers recognized that temperate exotics would probably have limited success in the arctic and subarctic, and, as soon as several native colonizing species were identified, they were placed in a seed production program (Mitchell 1979). Researchers were anxious to find and test native species for use in revegetation programs because native species are adapted to the conditions in which they will be required to persist. Native species are winter-hardy and are able to reproduce during cool, short summers. Native species can extract nutrients from cold, nutrient-poor soils, and they are better able to restore the organic layer and nutrient cycling to disturbed sotls. Use of native species will enhance natural restoration processes and allow the eventual reestablishment of the native vegetation. Sown native species should also persist without costly maintenance. Thus, from both a biological and logistical standpoint, native species are to be preferred in reseeding programs. Several native colonizing grasses have been identified: bluejoint, polargrass, greenland bluegrass, and alkaligrass. Bluejoint and polargrass have received the most study and have been included in seeding trials in Prudhoe Bay, the Mackenzie River delta and valley, and interior Alaska (Appendix A). Bluegrass, hairgrass, and alkaligrass have been seeded only at Prudhoe Bay. Bluejoint belongs to a large world-wide family of grasses and is found in North America from the arctic to Arizona (35°N). Bluejoint has a large ecological amplitude, growing well in a variety of conditions. Bluejoint occurs in all but the wettest tundra communities, but appears to reach its tolerance limits in the arctic. In contrast, polargrass is a truly northern species that is not found south of 50°N. Polargrass grows best on moist sites. Morphologically, polargrass and bluejoint are similar and easily confused. Both species occur as minor components in tundra communities, but grow abundantly on disturbed sites (Younkin 1973). In seeding trials, bluejoint and polargrass typically do not do well in the year of seeding, but, by the end of the second growing season, they are vigorous and flowering (Hernandez 1973a, Mitchell 1979, Johnson 1981). Younkin (1972) failed to report his first-year observations of these species in seeding trials in the Mackenzie River delta because they grew so poorly. In follow-up studies reported by Hernandez (1973a), their increased vigor in the second year was noted. After the first winter, both species send out creeping rhizomes (underground stems) that produce new shoots thereby allowing rapid colonization of bare areas. Johnson (1981) seeded several test plots along the Trans-Alaska Pipeline with polargrass, and he found

-19- good cover (more than 80%) and abundant seed heads at the end of the second year. Because of their latitudinal affinities, most workers have recommended polargrass for reseeding north of the Brooks Range and bluejoint for reseeding further south. The long-term success of these species has not been monitored, however, so it is not known whether fertilizer is required to maintain their cover or whether native species are able to invade sites sown with these species. Greenland bluegrass, bering hairgrass, and alkaligrass are the only other native grasses that have been tested in seeding trials. The only studies of these species have been conducted in the Prudhoe Bay area by Mitchell. Bluegrass has been the most reliable species in these trials, and Mitchell (1979) recommended this cultivar for use in the arctic. Hairgrass and alkaligrass showed some success in the initial trials, but there is no information on their long-term success. Only two native forbs have been used in seeding trials. Marsh fleabane, an important colonizer on wet mineral soil (Lambert 1972, 1976) and fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium), another colonizer, were included in a native seed mix with bluejoint and polargrass in winter road reseeding trials in the Mackenzie River area (Hernandez 1973a). At the end of the first growing season, fireweed was the most successful of the sown native species, although fleabane was more abundant on the wetter sites. Again, there is no information on the role these species played in long-term revegetation. Only one sedge, the tussock-forming cottongrass Erio horum va inatum, has been used in seeding trials (Wien 1971, Hernandez 19 3a . Teste on mineral soil at Prudhoe Bay and in northwest Canada, cottongrass had difficulty establishing from sown seed and was rated as one of the worst species for revegetation work (Hernandez 1973a). More recent work has revea 1ed that sedges are sure invaders of disturbed organic soi 1 and that sedges have great potential for use in revegetation programs, although not through seeding programs per se (Chapin and Chapin 1980). Sedge seeds are abundant in the organic soil horizon of tussock tundra, and, after disturbance, sedges are quick to establish from this buried seed pool (McGraw 1979, Gartner et al. 1983). Most tussock tundra soils probably contain enough sedge seed to effectively colonize a disturbance, and revegetation programs in these areas could therefore consist of simply stockpiling and returning these soils to the disturbed site (Gartner et al. 1983). Seeding Program Methods The methods used to prepare a disturbed site for seeding have a significant effect on the success of plant establishment. Techniques of site preparation, seed application, and fertilization are important components of any seeding program with as much or more influence on program success as the choice of species to be seeded. Methods appropriate to a site will vary according to site characteristics and program objectives. The following section on seeding program methods, which is summarized from Kubanis' (1982) analysis for the Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System rehabilitation program, identifies the most effective techniques for Alaskan conditions.

-20- 1. Site preparation.--Mechanical preparation of a disturbed site for seeding 1s the single most important component of any revegetation program. The easiest and most effective way to prepare a site for seeding is to replace any topsoil and surface debris that was removed from the site prior to disturbance. The surface organic layer contains the bulk of the soil's nutrient pool, and, once lost, this nutrient pool cannot be easily replaced; repeated fertilization is no substitute. Because topsoil often contains buried seed and root parts that will propagate upon reapplication, replacement of topsoil may be sufficient and obviate seeding. This technique is used successfully on disturbed sites on the Kenai Peninsula (Richey 1976) and has been recommended for northern Alaskan sites by Chapin and Chapin (1980) and Gartner et al. (1983). Whether artificial or natural seeding is used, stockpiling of topsoil and replacement after disturbance should form the foundation of any revegetation program. Another site preparation technique that significantly increases revegetation success is scarification of the upper 12-18 inches of the soil by raking or other mechanical means. Scarification provides a better environment for seed germination by increasing soil aeration and moisture. By loosening the soil, scarification also provides better contact between seeds and soil. Because germination success is increased by scarification, less seed is needed. 2. Fertilization.--Alaskan soils are cold and nutrient-poor, and fertilization is generally considered a mandatory component of any seeding program. For initial establishment of exotic species, fertilization is required, and, if exotics are to be maintained, refertilization is also required. In all northern seeding studies, fertilization has increased growth, germination success, and seed yields of seeded species. Micronutrients are generally adequate in Alaskan soils, so these costly additives are not necessary. Standard N-P-K (nitrogen-phosphorous-potassium) fertilizers can be used. Nitrogen or phosphorus alone have no effect, so they must be used together, generally in a ratio of one part nitrogen to two parts phosphorous. Plant growth is maximized by applications of 500-700 pounds per acre. Fertilizer should be applied in the spring. 3. Mulches.--Mulches are materials applied to the soil surface to prevent erosion, moderate soil temperature, and conserve moisture. Mulches can be organic, such as hay or wood fiber, or inorganic, such as visqueen or a fiberglass blanket. Mulches have distinct advantages and disadvantages that must be considered before mulching should be included in a revegetation program. While mulches may create a better germination environment, they may also smother seedlings. Inorganic mulches may provide good erosion control, but will not enhance revegetation. Organic mulches are better for revegetation but deplete soil nutrients, especially nitrogen. Because nutrients are limited and decomposition slow in Alaskan soils, the indiscriminate use of mulches is not recommended.

-21- 4. Seed Application.--Two methods of seeding have been used in northern seeding programs: 1) broadcast seeding by hand or from the air, and 2) hydroseeding. Broadcast seeding requires higher seeding rates, and the seedbed must be rough to catch and hal d the seed. Some method of covering the seed once it has been app 1i ed is a 1so needed for good germination. Aerial broadcast seeding is a fast and effective seeding method especially for areas with difficult access. Aerial seeding is also probably a requirement for any large revegetation program. To get even seeding, seeding should only be attempted when winds are slight (less than five MPH). Planes must also fly at a uniform height. Planes are more effective at even seeding than helicopters. Hydroseeding involves mixing seeds and often fertilizer with water and spraying of the mixture onto the seedbed. Generally, 100 ga 11 ons of water are required per 100-150 pounds of seed and fertilizer. Hydroseeding is an effective method for seeding slopes. 5. Timing of Seeding.--The extreme seasonality of the Alaskan climate places important constraints on seeding programs, specifically on the timing of seeding. Generally, the earlier in the growing season seeds are sown, the better plant establishment will be. For many Alaskan sites, moisture conditions conducive to seed germination and seedling establishment only occur in the short period following spring melt. Seeding programs need to seed during this time. Along the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, generally accepted seeding dates were before July 15 north of the Brooks Range and before August 1 south of the Brooks Range. Plants sown after these dates may grow but will 1ikely be killed over the winter. Dormant seeding, wherein the seeds overwinter and germinate the next spring, should be done 1ate in the growing season. Most perennial grasses establish best with spring planting, so spring planting should be chosen over dormant planting in most cases. 6. Seed Mixes.--Sowing seed of several species usually results in greater vegetative cover. Because each species grows best in a particular microsite, and each site comprises many microsites of differing soil, moisture, and nutrients, a mixture of species will ensure that plants grow over most of a seeded site. Species chosen for a mix must be compatible, however, or none may do well. There has been almost no study of seed mixes containing both exotic and native species, so it is not known whether the exotics would suppress the sown natives. Because native grasses are generally slower to establish than exotic grasses, suppression seems likely. Thus, mixtures of either exotic or native species should probably be used. Based on limited seeding studies of native species, some native seed mixes can be recommended. In tundra areas, pol argrass, which grows well on moist sites, and tundra bluegrass, which grows well on drier sites, could be combined to advantage. In non-tundra areas, a mixture of bluejoint, bluegrass, and alsike clover (Trifolium hybridium) is recommended.

-22- Reinvasion by Native Species After Seeding The ultimate purpose of most revegetation projects is to restore a disturbed area to its previous condition; thus, most seeding projects should be designed to facilitate takeover by native vegetation. Most seeding studies have been short-term, however, and reinvasion by native species on seeded plots has often not been evaluated (Table 3). While several studies have documented partial or complete takeover by native plants, the role that seeding played in the establishment of native cover has not been documented. Partial reinvasion by native plants was noted on seeded pipeline berms at Sans Sault, N.W.T. (Younkin and Friesen 1976) and Fairbanks, Alaska (McCown 1972). At Sans Sault, native species replaced several exotics after five years, while at Fairbanks, native species only invaded unplanted areas and sites where rodent grazing had eliminated the seeded species. Along the .Trans-Alaska Pipeline, reinvasion of seeded sites was extensive south of the Alaska Range (64°N). Fireweed, marsh fleabane, pale corydalis (Corydalis semipervirens), alder, willow, and bluejoint were common invaders. Only partial reinvasion, typically by bluejoint and polargrass, was noted at northern pipeline sites. Reinvasion has also been noted along seeded firebreaks and trails in interior Alaska {Bolstad 1971a, 197lb; Knapman 1982). Bluejoint, cottongrass, and horsetai 1 were the most frequent invaders. After seven years, native takeover of seeded firebreaks on Wickersham Dome was complete (Knapman 1982). At only one firebreak site did seeding inhibit native takeover. After five years, there was only slight reinvasion by native species at a site seeded with a commonly used mix of rye (Lolium), fescue, foxtail (Alopecurus), and brome (Bromus). In contrast to almost all seeding studies, no fertilizer was applied to this site, and both the success of the exotics in the absence of fertilizer and the failure of natives to invade seem anomalous. Chapin and Chapin (1980) found, however, that of six exotic species sown on a bulldozed site, the species (fescue) that persisted the longest (five years) was seeded on an unferti 1ized plot. The mechanism all owing unferti 1ized exotics, especially fescue, to persist longer than fertilized exotics and to inhibit native takeover is not clear. The only study to fully document the transition from seeded exotics to native vegetative cover was done by Chapin and Chapin (1980) at Eagle Creek in interior Alaska. In this ten-year study, they followed the progression of plants on a bulldozed site seeded with six of the most commonly used exotic grasses: reed canary grass (Ph a1 ari s), nugget kentucky b1 uegrass, ryegrass, creeping red fescue, timothy (Phleum), and foxtail. These species established readily in the first year, but after three years, only fescue maintained substantial cover. During the second and third growing seasons, native sedges became established from buried seed and seed blown in from adjacent tundra that had flowered profusely after the disturbance. After five years, the exotic grasses had almost completely disappeared, and the sedges expanded vegetatively to provide 50-100% cover. The only grass

-23- present was bluejoint that had seeded in naturally. After seven years, the plots were almost completely covered by sedges. After ten years, some woody species seedlings had established among the sedges. Vegetative cover was completely native. The failure of sown exotic grasses to influence either the establishment or growth rate of native sedges is perhaps the most significant result of this long-term study. Because seeding neither promotes nor retards native sedge establishment, Chapin and Chapin (1980) suggested that seeding after disturbance of organic tundra soil is unnecessary. Since organic soils are not highly erodible, the need for seeding even in the first year, when sown grasses provide only limited cover, is also questionable. Chapin and Chapin {1980) also questioned the need for fertilizer since, over the ten·years of the study, native species establishment was equally successful on fertilized and unfertilized plots. While fertilization could speed recovery, it may not be necessary for restoration of organic soils. Revegetation of Berms and Gravel Structures Oil and gas field development requires construction of numerous gravel structures including roads and airstrips and platforms for drilling rigs, above-ground pipelines, and camps. Gravel or soil berms are also generally placed over buried pipelines. On the North Slope, removal of these structures will be logistically difficult and could cause more environmental damage than to leave them in place. Because these structures could remain in place after field abandonment, it is worthwhile to consider the feasibility of revegetating them. Seeding trials of low (1.5 to 3 meter) berms over buried pipelines have been conducted in Fairbanks (McCown 1972), Prudhoe Bay (Hernandez 1973a, Mitchell and Loynachan 1975, 1976), Inuvik, and Norman Wells (Hernandez 1973a). Arctared and berea 1 fescues and nugget kentucky b1 uegrass provided good cover on cold berms at Prudhoe Bay and Norman Wells. These species, as well as brome, timothy, and clover, provided good cover on warm berms. Greenland bluegrass and bering hairgrass were also successful on a cold berm at Prudhoe Bay (Mitchell and Loynachan 1976). Soil types on these seeded berms varied. Fairly good initial cover of sown species was found on a peat fill berm at Prudhoe Bay and a silty mineral soil at Norman Wells. On a fine textured soil mixed with gravel and clods, Mitchell and Loynachan {1976) found that preparing the surface for germination by raking and tamping greatly increased plant cover. The most difficult soil to grow plants on was the gravel mineral soil of the heated Inuvik berm. While aspect did not significantly affect plant cover, there were great differences in cover between the top and bottom of the berms. All workers had difficulty establishing plants on the crest, probably due to dryness and exposure. Plants were much more abundant at the toe and on the slopes of the berm. Mitchell and Loynachan (1976) concluded that the berm s 1opes provided a more favorable environment for plant growth than flat terrain,

-24- because moisture conditions were better due to greater snow accumulation and protection from desiccating winds. Plant growth and establishment on some berms was greatly affected by grazing. On the Fairbanks berm, grazing by microtine rodents significantly altered stand composition and allowed invasion of an introduced weed, Chenopodium album. At Prudhoe Bay, caribou grazed on the berms throughout the summer, and none of the sown species flowered. Gravel is one of the most difficult substrates to establish vegetation on because its coarseness reduces its ability to retain water and because gravel soils are .nutrient-poor. Younkin and Martens (1976) conducted seeding trials on 22 abandoned exploratory drilling sites in the Mackenzie River delta area and found that soil texture had a strong influence on plant establishment. Seeded cover on gravel rig sites was very low with seedlings establishing only in isolated pockets of fine textured soil and in depressions. Further, they found no evidence of native plant invasion. The failure of plants to colonize gravel soils was attributed to dry surface conditions and seed loss from wind. Palazzo et al. (1980) conducted seeding trials on a gravel construction test site in Fairbanks, evaluating various combinations of seeding rates, fertilizers, and mulches. In addition, sewage sludge was tested for its value as both a soil amendment and fertilizer. Mulches are materials such as hay, wood fiber, or peat moss that are applied to the ground to prevent desiccation, and, by their insulative powers, to dampen temperature fluctuations at the soil surface. Applied to gravel soils, mulches promoted seed germination and seedling establishment by maintaining more nearly optimum soil temperatures and increasing soil moisture content. Sludge, which acts as both a fine soil and fertilizer, also had a favorable effect on plant growth. Grasses receiving sludges established faster, produced greater cover, grew bigger, and withstood summer desiccation better than grasses receiving traditional fertilizer. Although costly, use of sludge or mulches is probably a prerequisite for successful revegetation of gravel soils (Van Cleve 1972). Johnson et al. •s (1980) revegetation work on the Chena River Lakes flood control dam and levee near Fairbanks is the only study of a sloping gravel structure that approximates the kind of gravel roads and pads used in the Prudhoe Bay oil field. As in Palazzo's study, numerous combinations of seed, fertilizer, sludge, and mulch were tried. In addition, the experiments investigated the use of willow cuttings to establish a woody cover on the dam and the addition of a fine-grained soil to provide a better substrate. The most successful species on the dam were fescue, brome, and foxtail. On the wetter levee, alsike clover was the most successful. Willow cuttings established successfully on the dam, but only on plots that had not been seeded with grass. The most successful treatments during the first growing season were seeding and fertilizer alone or with a mulch. During the second season, however,

-25- the only successful treatments were those that included referti 1ization. The two most successful treatments were: 1) fine soil, seed, fertilizer, and hay, and 2) seed, fertili~er, and sludge. Johnson et al. concluded that fertilizer is required for at least two years to produce an acceptable permanent vegetative cover on sloping gravel. They also concluded that sludge offered a viable alternative to annual fertilization or addition of a fine soil cover. Seeding Program Costs While this paper is primarily concerned with the biological aspects of oil field rehabilitation, economics will likely have a strong influence on rehabilitation plans, and a consideration of the cost effectiveness of successful treatments is warranted. Unfortunately, few workers have reported the expenses associated with seeding projects. Thus, while there is abundant information on the species, seeding rates, and fertilizers that produce the most vegetative cover, there is little information on the most cost effective treatments. Actual and estimated costs for revegetation in Alaska range from $90 to $7,000 per acre. Roughly 1,000 acres of bulldozed firebreak on the Kenai Peninsula were rebulldozed to spread berms, aerially seeded, and fertilized for $400 per acre (Hakala et al. 1971). The Trans-Alaska Pipeline revegetation program averaged $209 per acre, while the recommended Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System revegetation program, which would have relied more on seed bed preparation and natural revegetation, was projected to cost only $90 per acre. The most expensive treatments are those necessary for revegetating gravel soils. Estimates range from $1,230 per acre for seeding with grass (Palazzo et al. 1980) to $7,412 per acre for a treatment including grass, willow cuttings, fine soil, and mulch (Johnson et a 1. 1981). Palazzo et al. (1980) and Johnson et al. (1981) estimated the cost of individual treatments used to reve9etate gravel soil. Willows ($3,880/acre) and certain mulches $2,419/acre) were the most expensive treatments; installation costs contributed from 20 to 55% of the total costs of these treatments. Seeds ($484/acre) and fertilizer ($435/acre) were the least expensive treatments. Application of seed and fertilizer by hydromulching ($1,499/acre) was more expensive than application by plane ($800/acre). Sludge, which was obtained for no charge, can be applied with seeds and fertilizer with hydromulcher, and, where available, sludge could be one of the most cost effective treatments for gravel soils. The revegetation program recommended for the Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System (ANGTS) by Kubanis (1982) would have been less expensive and more effective than the Trans-Alaska Pipeline program. She recommended that topsoil be spread back over disturbed areas and the surface scarified to enhance invasion by native species. Seeding and fertilization would be used only on highly erodible sites. Although more expensive native seed would have been used, recommended seeding rates were much lower so that the total seeding cost was also lower. While the reduced number of seeded and fertilized acres would have contributed to the reduced cost of the ANGTS

-26- approach, considerable savings would have come also from the reliance on native species in both seeded and unseeded areas. Exotics can persist only with repeated fertilization, while native species, once established, should persist without any maintenance.

-27- REHABILITATION OF ABANDONED OIL AND GAS FIELDS Discussion Based on an understanding of natural succession in northern environments and of the results of seeding trials, one principal conclusion can be drawn: Natural restoration processes of tundra and taiga are well developed, and the most successful and efficient rehabilitation schemes will exploit these natural processes. In this 1 ight, the, single most important step in a rehabilitation program is a step that must be taken at the beginning of construction: topsoil must be stockpiled for eventual replacement. The surface organic layer is vital to plant establishment and has no substitute. Topsoil is organic, created by living organisms that can extract inorganic nutrients from the air and earth and decompose dead organic matter. Because of the involvement of living organisms in its development, topsoil is more than the sum of its parts. Overburden cannot be transformed into topsoil by the simple addition of fertilizer. Vegetative recovery on bare sites will always be more successful when topsoil is replaced. Because organic soils contain seeds and often plant parts capable of vegetative growth, seeding may not be necessary to restore vegetation to a disturbed site if topsoil is replaced. The propagules contained in the soil and propagules from nearby will colonize the site. Fertilization may speed recovery but is certainly not required as it is in seeding programs. A rehabilitation program that relies on re-use of topsoil will therefore have both biological and economic advantages over a program that relies on seeding and fertilizing. Native plants will invade, thus promoting restoration to the site's original condition and obviating costly maintenance. Expenses associated with seeding and fertilization will alsp be saved. Only on slopes where erosion cannot be prevented by physical means should seeding be used in a rehabilitation program, and, when required, a native species mix should be sown. Only on sites with severe erosion potential should use of exotics, which are generally faster growing, be considered. Again, reliance on native species will reduce maintenance costs and enhance natural restoration. These principles of rehabilitation-- re-use of topsoil, reliance on natural regeneration, and sparse use of native agronomics -- should work well in interior, southcentral, and southeast Alaska. These techniques have already been used successfully by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in rehabilitating sites disturbed by oil and gas development in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge and by the U.S. Forest Service in rehabilitating firebreaks in interior Alaska. Any new oil and gas fields developed in these areas of Alaska should be successfully rehabilitated using these techniques. North Slope oilfields present more challenging rehabilitation problems. For a 11 extant faci 1iti es, the question of topsoil re-use is moot, because

-28- topsoil has not been saved. Because of permafrost, oil field support facilities are placed on tremendously thick (two meters) gravel pads that are built directly on the tundra. Without the insulation provided by the gravel, the permafrost under these facilities would melt causing subsidence. Because of the constraints of permafrost on construction techniques, methods used to successfully rehabilitate gravel roads and pads in the Kenai oilfield -- removal of gravel and reapplication of stored topsoil -- are probably not applicable to the North Slope. Gravel structures may have to be rehabilitated in place. Establishment of vegetation on gravel, especially sloping gravel, requires addition of some substance, either a fine soil or mulch, that will hold moisture. Once a gravel site has been so prepared, it will have to be seeded and fertilized. Refertilization will also be necessary to maintain the seeded cover. These revegetation treatments are costly. While a gravel dam similar to North Slope gravel structures has been successfully revegetated in Fairbanks, it is unknown whether similar techniques will work on the North Slope. Even if a vegetative cover could be established, it is not known how long it would take or even whether a native, self-perpetuating community would take over the sites. Because of the likelihood that these gravel structures will be left in place after the abandonment of North Slope oilfields, cost-effective revegetation treatments need to be developed. The feas i bi 1 i ty of topsoi 1 re-use on the North Slope a1 so needs further study. Gartner et al. {1983) studied revegetation of a bulldozed tussock tundra site on the arctic coastal plain, and they recommended that, even on the North Slope, organic soils could be stockpiled and returned to disturbed sites to enhance revegetation. While stockpiled topsoil has been successfully used after 20 years in the Kenai oilfields, it is not known how long arctic soils can be stored. Topsoil removal will also result in subsidence, and it is not known how this subsidence will affect revegetation. Even with topsoil replacement, the site will be lower and thereby wetter. Wet sites revegetate more quickly after surface disturbance, so moderate subsidence may actually enhance revegetation. The usefulness of topsoil re-use on the North Slope needs to be further evaluated so that sites built in the future can be rehabilitated with the full advantages of natural tundra restoration processes. Recommendations 1. Adopt rehabilitation guidelines.--Rehabilitation methods based on natural restoration processes should be advocated. The Department of Natural Resources should be urged to adopt rehabilitation guidelines that emphasize topsoil re-use, natural regeneration, and use of native agronomics and de-emphasize seeding with exotic species. To this end, the guidelines developed by Kubanis (1982) for the Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System, which are reproduced in Appendix B, could be used without substantial modification. Since topsoil storage and re-use are the primary components of this rehabilitation scheme, lessees need to be informed of this requirement prior to construction. The lease term that requires rehabilitation (Table 1) should be re-written to advise lessees of the guidelines.

-29- 2. Set standards for rehabilitation success.--The departments of Natural Resources, Fish and Game, and Environmental Conservation should work cooperatively to set standards for rehabilitation success. These standards should ensure that rehabilitation does not adversely affect fish and wildlife habitat or water quality and that rehabilitation is consistent with land management of the area. Standards are also necessary to define the extent of the lessee's liability.

3. Support research on North Slo~e rehabilitation technigues.--While successful rehabilitation metho s for most of Alaska have been developed, methods applicable to the North Slope, where permafrost places severe constraints on construction techniques, have not been proven. The feasibility of topsoil storage and re-use needs to be evaluated so that rehabilitation of sites disturbed in the future can take advantage of natural restoration processes. Cost-effective methods of establishing native vegetation on gravel structures also need to be developed. Since the largest oilfield in Alaska is on the North Slope and since development in nearby areas is likely, routine rehabilitation methods are needed. Continued research will be required to develop such methods.

-30- LITERATURE CITED Alaska Department of Natural Resources. 1984. Five-year oil and gas leasing program. Prepared for the Second Session, Thirteenth Alaska Legislature. 252 pp. Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. 1984. 1983 statistical report. Anchorage. 208 pp. ARCO Chemical Co. 1972. A three-year study on the establishment and propagation of hardy grass types on disturbed tundra in the Alaskan Prudhoe Bay area. Report to the ARGO/Humble Environmental Subcommittee. 15 pp. Bellamy, D., J. Radforth, and N. W. Radforth. 1971. Terrain, traffic, and tundra. Nature 231:429-432. Black, R. A. and L. C. Bliss. 1978. Recovery sequence of Picea mariana-Vaccini urn ul i ginosum forests after burning near Inuvi k, Northwest Territories, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 56:2020-2030. Bliss, L. C. 1978. Vegetation and revegetation within permafrost terrain. pp. 31-50. IN Proc. of the Third International Conference on Permafrost. Vol. 2. National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa.

Bliss, L. C. and R. W. Wein. 1972. Plant community responses to disturbances in the western Canadian Arctic. Can. J. Bot. 50:1097-1109. Bolstad, R. 1971a. King Creek fire 9492 cat line rehabilitation project - experimental. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks. 17+ pp. Bolstad, R. 1971b. Catl ine rehabilitation and restoration. pp. 107-116. IN Fire in the - a s m osium. C.W. Slaughter, R. J. Barney, an .• Dept. o Agriculture. 275 pp. Brown, J. and N. A. Grave. 1978. Physical and thermal disturbance and protection of permafrost. pp. 1-41. IN Proceedings Third International Conference on Permafrost. Vol. 2 National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa. Cairns, Jr., J. 1982. Restoration of damaged ecosystems. pp. 220-239. IN Research on Fish and Wildlife Habitat. W. T. Mason, Jr. and S. Iker (Eds.). Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 248 pp. Challinor, J. L. and P. L. Gesper. 1975. Vehicle perturbation effects upon a tundra soil-plant system: II. Effects on the chemical regime. Soil Science Soc. Amer. Proc. 39:689-695.

-31- Chapin, F. s., III. 1975. Successional relationships of Eriophorum vaginatum. pp. 36-39. IN Ecological and limnological reconnaissance from Prudhoe Bay into the Brooks Range, Alaska. J. Brown (Ed.). Research on Arctic Tundra Environments. CRREL, Hanover. 65 pp. Chapin, F. S., III and K. Van Cleve. 1978. Nitrogen and phosphorous distribution in an Alaskan tussock tundra ecosystem: Natural patterns and implications for development. pp. 738-753. IN Environmental Chemistry and Cycling Processes. D. C. Adriano and I. L. Brisbin (Eds.). Washington: Energy Research and Development Agency. Chapin, F. S., III and M. C. Chapin. 1980. Revegetation of an arctic disturbed site by native tundra species. J. Appl. Ecol. 17:449-456. Chapin, F. s., III, and G. R. Shaver. 1981. Changes in soil properties and vegetation following disturbance of Alaskan arctic tundra. J. Appl. Ecology 18:605-617. Chester, A. L. and G. R. Shaver. 1982. Seedling dynamics of some cottongrass tussock tundra species during the natural revegetation of small disturbed areas. Hal. Ecology 5:207-211. Churchill, E. D. and H. C. Hanson. 1958. The concept of climax in arctic and alpine vegetation. Bot. Rev. 24:127-191. Crocker, R. L. and J. Major. 1955. Soil development in relation to vegetation and surface age at Brady Glacier, Alaska. J. of Ecology 43:427-448. Dabbs, D. and W. Friesen. (Northern Engineering Services Co. Ltd.) 1973. Sans Sault revegetation report, 1972. Prepared for Canadian Arctic Gas Study Limited. Calgary, Alberta. 92 pp. Dabbs, D. L., W. Friesen, and S. Mitchell. 1974. Pipeline revegetation. Arctic Gas Biol. Rept. Series. Vol. 2. Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Co. 67 pp. Fetcher, N. and G. R. Shaver. 1983. Life histories of tillers of Eriophorum vaginatum in relation to tundra disturbance. J. of Ecol. 71:131-147. Gartner, B. L. 1983. Germination characteristics of arctic plants. pp. 334-338. IN Permafrost, Fourth International Conference, Proceedings. National Academy Press, Washington D.C. Gartner, B. L., F. S. Chapin, III, and G. R. Shaver. 1983. Demographic patterns of seedling establishment and growth of native gramminoids in an Alaskan tundra disturbance. J. Appl. Ecol. 20:965-980. Gersper, P. L. and J. L. Challinor. 1975. Vehicle perturbation effects upon a tundra soil-plant system; Effects on morphological and physical

-32- properties in the soils. Soil Science Society of America Proc. 39:737-744. Haag, R. W. and L. C. Bliss. 1973. Energy budget changes following surface disturbance to upland tundra. J. Appl. Ecology 10:356-374. Hakala, J. B., R. K. Seenel, R. A. Richey, and J. E. Kiertz. 1971. Fire effects and rehabilitation methods -- Swanson-Russian River fires. pp. 87-100. IN Fire in the northern environment -- a s m osium. C. W. Slaughter, R. J. Barney, and G. M. Hansen E s. . U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 275 pp. Hall, D. K., J. Brown, and L. Johnson. 1978. The 1977 tundra fire at Kokolik River, Alaska. Arctic 31:54-57. Hernandez, H. 1973a. Revegetation studies - Norman Wells, Inuvik, and Tuktoyaktuk, N.W.T. and Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. pp. 77-149. IN Botanical studies of natural and man-modified habitats in the Mackenzie Valley, eastern Mackenzie Delta region and the Arctic Islands. L.C. Bliss (Ed.). Task Force on Northern Oil Development. 162 pp. Hernandez, H. 1973b. Natural plant recolonization of surficial disturbances, Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula Region, Northwest Territories. Can. J. Bot. 51:2177-2196. Hok, J. R. 1969. A reconnaissance of tractor trails and related phenomena on the North Slope of Alaska. U.S. Dept. Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks. 66 pp. Hok, J. R. 1971. Some effects of vehicle operation on Alaskan arctic tundra. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks. Hopkins, D. M. and R. S. Sigafoos. 1957. Frost action and vegetation patterns on Seward Peninsula, Alaska. U.S. Geological Survey Bull. 974-B:51-100. Hulten, E. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford Univ. Press, California. 1,008 pp. Johnson, A. W., B. M. Murray, and D. F. Murray. 1978. Floristics of the disturbances and neighboring 1oca 1es. pp. 30-40. IN Tundra disturbances and recovery following the 1949 exploratory drilling, Fish Creek, Northern Alaska. CRREL Report 78-28. Hanover, N.H. 81 pp. Johnson, L. 1978. Biological restoration strategies in relation to nutrients at a subarctic site in Fairbanks, Alaska. pp. 461-466. IN Proceedings. Third Int'l Conference on permafrost. Vol. 1. National Research Council of Canada. Johnson, L. A. 1980. Revegetation and restoration investigations. pp. 129·-1:55. IN Environmental engineering and ecological baseline

-·33- investigations along the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay Haul Road. J. Brown and R. L. Berg (Eds.). CRREL Report 80-19. 187 pp. Johnson, L. A. 1981. Revegetation and selected terrain disturbances along the trans-Alaska pipeline, 1975-1978. CRREL Report 81-12. 115 pp. Johnson, L. and K. Van Cleve. 1976. Revegetation in arctic and subarctic North America -A literature review. CRREL Report 76-15. 32 pp. Johnson, L. A., S. D. Rindge, and D. A. Gaskin. 1981. Chena River Lakes project revegetation study: three-year summary. CRREL Report 81-18. 59 pp. Knapman, L. 1982. Fireline reclamation on two fire sites in interior Alaska. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Resource Management Note 1. 23 pp. Kubanis, S. A. 1982. Revegetation techniques in arctic and subarctic environments. Office of the Federal Inspector, Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System, Office of Environment, Biological Programs. 40 pp. Lambert, J. D. H. 1972. Plant succession on tundra mud flows: preliminary observations. Arctic 25:99-106. Lambert, J. D. H. 1976. Plant succession on an active tundra mud slump, Garry Island, Mackenzie River Delta, Northwest Territories. Can. J. Botany 54:1750-1758. Lawson, D., J. Brown, K. Everett, A. Johnson, V. Komarkova, B. Murray, D. Murray, and P. Webber. 1978. Tundra disturbances and recovery following the 1949 exploratory drilling, Fish Creek, Northern Alaska. CREEL Report 78-28. 81 pp. MacKay, J. R. 1970. Disturbances to the tundra and forest tundra environment of the western Arctic. Can. Geotechnical Journal 7:420-432. McCown, B. H. 1972. The influence of soil temperature on plant growth and survival in Alaska. pp. 12-33. IN Proceedings of the symposium on the impact of soil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ. Publications on Northern Life No. 1. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. McCown, B. H., J. Brown, and R. J. Barsdate. 1972. Natural oil seeps at Cape Simpson, Alaska: Localized influences on terrestrial habitat. pp. 86-90. IN Proc. of the symposium on the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ. Publ. on Northern Life No. 1. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. McGraw, J. B. 1980. Seedbank size and distribution of seed in cottongrass tussock tundra. Can. J. Bot. 58:1607-1611.

-34- Mitchell, W. W. 1973. Adaptions of species and varieties of grasses for potential use in Alaska. pp. 2-6. IN Proceedings of a symposium on the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ. Publ. Northern Life No. 1. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. Mitchell, W. W. 1979. Three varieties of native Alaskan grasses for revegetation purposes. Agricultural Experiment Station Circular 32. University of Alaska. 9 pp. Mitchell, W. W. and T. E. Loynachan. 1976. 1975 Progress Report to Alaskan Arctic Gas Pipeline Company on Revegetation Research at Prudhoe Bay, Kavik, and Palmer, Alaska. Univ. of Alaska, Agricultural Experiment Station, Palmer. 24 pp. Mitchell, W. W. and T. E. Loynachan. 1977. 1976 Progress report to Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Company on revegetation research at Prudhoe Bay and Kavik, Alaska. Univ. of Alaska, Agricultural Experiment Station, Palmer. 38 pp. Mitchell, W. W. and J. D. McKendrick. 1974. Progress report (1973) Tundra rehabilitation research: Prudhoe Bay and Palmer Research Center. A report to Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., Atlantic Richfield Co., Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd., Exxon Co., Shell Oil Co., and Union Oil Co. 72 pp. Mitchell, W. W. and J. D. McKendrick. 1975. Progress report (1974) Tundra rehabilitation research: Prudhoe Bay and Palmer Research Center. A report to Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., Atlantic Richfield Co., Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd., Exxon Co., Shell Oil Co., and Union Oil Co. 72 pp. Moore, J. M. and R. W. Wien. 1977. Viable seed populations by depth and potential site recolonization after disturbance. Can. J. Bot. 55:2408-2414. Muller, C. H. 1952. Plant succession in arctic heath and tundra in northern Scandinavia. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 79:296-309.

Palazzo, A. J., S. Rindge, and D. Gaskin. 1980. Revegetation at two construction sites in New Hampshire and Alaska. CRREL Report 80-3. 26 pp. Racine, C. H. 1981. Tundra fire effects on soils and three plant communities along a hill-slope gradient in the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Arctic 34:71-84. Richey, R. A. 1976. Access and effects of oil and gas development on Kenai National Moose Range Lands. pp. 103-107. IN Surface Protection Seminar, U.S. Bureau of Land Management. 228 pp.

-35- Sparrow, S. D., F. J. Wooding, and E. H. Whiting. 1978. Effects of off-road vehicle traffic on soils and vegetation in the Denali Highway region of Alaska. J. Soil and Water Conservation 33:20-27. Van Cleve, K. 1972. Revegetation of disturbed tundra and taiga surfaces by introduced and native plant species. pp. 7-11. IN Proc. of the symposium on the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ Publ. on Northern Life, No. 1. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. Van Cleve, K. 1977. Recovery of disturbed tundra and taiga surfaces in A1 aska. pp. 422-485. IN Recovery and Restoration of Damaged Ecosystems. J. Cairns, Jr., K. L. Dickson, and E. E. Herricks (Eds.). University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville. Van Cleve, K. and J. Manthei. 1972. Summary report of the tundra-taiga surface stabilization study. Submitted to Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., Inc. Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Van Cleve, K. and J. Manthei. 1973. Report on tundra-taiga surface stabilization study. Submitted to Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., Inc. Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska. Viereck, L. A. 1973. Wildfire in the taiga of Alaska. Quaternary Research 3:465-495. Weber, M. G. 1974. Nutrient budget changes following fire in arctic plant communities. pp. 43-63. IN Recovery of vegetation in arctic regions after burning. R. W. We in (Ed.). Task Force on Northern Oi 1 Development Report No. 74-6. 63 pp. Wein, R. W. 1971. A preliminary report on revegetation trials related to the proposed Arctic Gas Pipeline. IN: Towards an environmental impact assessment of a gas pipeline from Prudhoe Bay, Alaska to Alberta. Interim Report No. 1. Wein, R. W. 1976. Frequency and characteristics of arctic tundra fires. Arctic 29:213-222. Wein, R. W. and D. A. Maclean. 1973. Cotton grass (Eriophorum vaginatum) germination requirements and colonizing potential in the Arctic. Can. J. Bot. 51:2509-2513. Wein, R. W. and L. C. Bliss. 1973. Changes in the Arctic Eriophorum tussock communities following fire. Ecology 54:845-852. Wein, R. and L. C. Bliss. 1974. Primary production in arctic cottongrass tussock tundra communities. Arctic and Alp. Res. 6:261-274. Younkin, W. E. 1972. Revegetation studies of disturbances in the Mackenzie Delta region. pp. 175-229. IN Botanical studies of natural and

-36- man-modified habitats in the eastern Mackenzie Delta region and the arctic islands. L.C. Bliss and R.W. Wein (Eds.). Dept. of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa. ALUR Report 71-72-14. Younkin, W. 1973. Autecological studies of native species potentially useful for revegetation, Tuktoyaktuk Region, N. W. T. pp. 45-76. IN Botanical studies of natural and man-modified habitats in the Mackenzie Valley, eastern Mackenzie Delta region and the Arctic Islands. L. C. Bliss (Ed.). Task Force on Northern Oil Development Report No. 73-43. 162 pp. Younkin, W. E. (Ed.). 1976. Revegetation studies in the northern Mackenzie Valley region. Biol. Rept. Series Vol. 38. Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Co. 119 pp. Younkin, W. and W. Friesen. 1976. Sans Sault revegetation trials. Chapter 2. IN Revegetation studies in the northern Mackenzie Valley reg1on. W. E. Younkin (Ed.). Biol. Rept. Series Vol. 38, Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Co. 119 pp. Younkin, W. and H. Martens. 1976. Progress report on rig site seeding tests in the Mackenzie delta region, N.W.T. Chapter 3. IN Revegetation studies in the Northern Mackenzie Valley region. W. E. Younkin (Ed.). Arctic Gas Biol. Rept. Series. Vol. 38. Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Co.

-37- Appendix A. Spec1es useaTrls-eeding trfals in Alaska and northwest Canada between 1969 and 1983.

P-ri.Jdnoe Bay~-- ~a.ckefizi e 1<.- ~ifcl

A. arundinaceus X creeping foxtail Arctagrostis latifolia X X X polar grass Agrostis tenuis X browntop grass A. palustris X creeping bentgrass

A. alba X X red top bentgrass

Calamagrostis canadensis X X X X bluejoint Deschamhsia caespitosa X tufted ai rgrass D. beringensis X bering hairgrass . Prudhoe Bay, Mackenzie R. Mackenzie R. Interior Kenai Peninsufa, Alaska1 delta, N.W.T. 2 valle,l, N.W.T. 3 Alaska4 Alaska5 Avena sativa X X oat Dact,llis glomerata X X orchard grass Poa trivialis X rough bluegrass t. prdtensis nugget kentucky bluegrass X X X X sydport kentucky bluegrass X merion bluegrass X P. glauca X greenland bluegrass P. lalustris X fow bluegrass P. compressa X X canada bluegrass Puccinellia borealis X a lkal igrass Festuca arundinacea X reed fescue F. ovina X X X durar sheep hard fescue F. rubra creep1ng red fescue X X arc tared X X X X boreal X X X X red X penn lawn X Prudhoe Bay, Mackenzie R. Mackenzie R. Interior Kenai Peninsula~ 1 2 3 4 Alaska5 Alaska delta, N.W.T. va 11 ey. N. W. T. Alaska F. elatior X meadow fescue Bromus inermis manchar smooth brome X X saratoga smooth brome X B.i. X pumpellianus X X polar bomr grass Lolium perenne X ryegrass

L. multiflora X X X annual ryegrass ·on macrourum ~-~------~ - X A. desertorum summit crested wheatgrass X A. riparium sodar streambank wheatgrass X X X A. s i beri cum X siberian wheatgrass A. cristatum X X X crested wheatgrass A. intermedium intermediate wheatgrass X A. trachycaulum X slender wheatgrass A. elongatum X tall wheatgrass

II ') Prudhoe Bay, Mackenzie R. Mackenzie R. Interior Kenai Peninsula, 1 2 3 4 5 Alaska delta, N.W.T. va 11 e~, N. W. T. Alaska Alaska Elymus sibiricus X siberian wildrye E. junceus X X X sawki russian wildrye Cyperaceae {sedge family) Eriophorum vaginatum X X X cottongrass Leguminosae (pea family) Medicago sativa X X X falcata alfalfa Lotus corniculatus leo birdsfoot trefoil X X X

Trifolium h~bridum X X X X aurora alsi e clover Onagraceae (evening primrose family) Epilobium angustifolium X X fireweed Compositae (composite family) Senecio congestus X X marsh fleabane

1 - Studies at the Prudhoe Bay oilfield, near an exploration site at Kavik, and along the Trans-Alaska pipeline north of the Brooks Range by ARCO 1972; Mitchell and Loynachan 1975, 1976; and Johnson 1981. 2 - Studies near Inuvik and Tuktoyaktuk, N.W.T. by Younkin 1972 and Hernandez 1973a. 3 - Studies in the southern Mackenzie River Valley at Sans Sault and Norman Wells by Dabbs and Friesen 1972, Dabbs et al. 1974, and Younkin and Martens 1976. 4 - Studies in interior Alaska south of the Brooks Range, mostly near Fairbanks, by Bolstad 1971a, McCown 1972, Johnson 1978, Palazzo et al. 1980, Chapin and Chapin 1980, Johnson et al. 1981, and Knapman 1982. 5 - Firebreak reseeding project reported by Hakala et al. 1971.

A-4 Appendix B. Revegetation guidelines recommended by Kubanis (1982) for the Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System. Site Treatment for All Disturbed Sites 1. Surface materials should be segregated, stockpiled, and reapplied wherever possible. 2. Restoration grading should avoid creating overly smooth surfaces. 3. Surface materials should not be replaced over a 11 hardpan 11 of compacted material. 4. All disturbed areas except the drive lane of the workpad should be scarified to a minimum depth of six inches. Probability of success will be greater with deeper scarification. 5. Fertilizer should be applied to sites as early in the growing season as possible, preferably in the spring. 6. A standard N-P-K fertilizer (e.g. 8-32-16), not containing micronutrients, should be applied to all disturbed sites except the drive lane of the workpad. Fertilizer should be applied in the first full growing season after construction is completed and site preparation has been accomplished. 7. On sites which receive general site preparation but no seeding, a standard N-P-K fertilizer (e.g. 8-32-16, 14-30-14) should be applied at rates of 300 lbs/acre to 450 lbs/acre. 8. This general site treatment should be applied as soon after the completion of construction as possible and not later than the end of the first growing season following termination of construction. 9. All disturbed areas should be allowed to revegetate naturally (i.e. no seeding) except those for which vegetative cover is necessary for erosion control. 10. Areas should be monitored to determine where additional maintenance treatments may be necessary (e.g. fertilizer, watering, new seeding). Treatment for Disturbed Sites with Erosion Potential 1. All site treatments described above should apply except #9. 2. Seeding of areas with moderate erosion potential should consist of seed mixes of the three native species: polar grass, bluegrass, and bluejoint reedgrass. 3. Areas south of the Brooks Range needing seeding for moderate erosion control should be seeded with a mixture of bluejoint reedgrass, bluegrass, and Alsike clover.

B-1 . ..'

4. Areas north of the Brooks Range needing seeding for moderate erosion control should be seeded with a mixture of bluegrass and polar grass. 5. Areas of potentially severe erosion, needing dense, rapid vegetative cover should be seeded with annual rye. 6. Seeding rates should be reduced substantially from those used on the TAPS. Suggested rates for native grasses are: 1) 10 1bs/acre to 15 lbs/acre for a low mix and 2) 20 lbs/acre to 25 lbs/acre for a high mix. The rate mixture should depend upon the amount of rapid cover necessary for erosion control on a site specific basis. 7. Wood mulch should be applied separately from hydroseeding to ensure seed contact with soil. 8. Seeding should be done as early in the growing season as possible. 9. Seeding with native grasses should be completed by July 15 north of the Brooks Range and by August 1 south of the Brooks Range at the latest. 10. A standard N-P-K fertilizer (e.g. 8-32-16, 14-30-14) should be applied at rates of 450 lbs/acre to 600 lbs/acre to seeded areas. 11. Fertilizer maintenance treatments should be applied in the second year after planting and where needed as determined by monitoring. Other Revegetation Treatments 1. In order to facilitate reinvasion of natural vegetation, fines should be redistributed on: 1) compacted gravel surfaces (e.g. workpad, access roads) and 2) material sites where fines have been lost through mining. 2. Disturbed sand dune areas should be covered with topsoil or subsurface materials with a high percentage of fines and seeded. 3. Use of straw as mulch should be limited to: 1) sand dune areas which need mechanical stabilization (in addition to seeding) for vegetative cover and 2) areas where increased reflectance is necessary. 4. Major disturbances (e.g. material sites) should be designed and developed to include large strips or islands of undisturbed native vegetation which can provide a temporary seed source. 5. Fertilization of large disturbances should include peripheral areas of undisturbed native vegetation to stimulate seed production and dispersal. 6. Woody species should be planted in all areas of disturbed riparian habitat where annual flooding does not occur and riparian habitat is a limiting factor to wildlife populations.

B-2 7. Woody species may be planted in addition to grass seeding for erosion control to encourage the reestablishment of native vegetation which can provide long-term, maintenance-free erosion control. 8. Large areas which must be planted with grass for erosion control (e.g. workpad cutslopes) should have narrow strips or small areas left unseeded dispersed among the seeded areas to allow for reinvasion and reestablishment of native species. 9. Woody species should be planted as early in the growing season as possible. 10. Sprigging with willows should be done so that only a few centimeters (i.e. 1 to 2 inches) of stem is exposed above ground. 11. A watering program should be implemented for areas planted after mid-July. 12. In drier areas, watering woody species during the summer in which planted should be considered.

B-3 \ \ \ l .. ;, ~

Revegetation in Arctic and Subarctic North America

A Bibliography

Karen L. Oakley Habitat Biologist Habitat Division Alaska Department of Fish and Game Anchorage, Alaska

June 29, 1984 FOREWARD This bibliography was compiled during a review of revegetation literatur1 relevant to the rehabilitation of abandoned oil and gas fields in Alaska. Over 240 pertinent citations were found in that review, and they are listed here by subject for the convenience of staff interested in a particular topic. To aid staff in locating individual papers, most citations are followed by a notation indicating the libraries containing the paper.

1 Oakley, K. 1984. Revegetation in arctic and subarctic North America -- A literature review relevant to the rehabilitation of abandoned oil and gas fields in Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Habitat Division - Region IV, Anchorage. 36 pp.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. Review Papers...... 1 Natural Succession After Disturbance...... 2 Effects of Surface Disturbance (e.g. seismic lines, winter roads, catlines, off-road vehicles, vegetation removal) •••••••••••••••.•••••••• 6 Effects of Oil Spills •••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••• 12 Effects of Pipelines ...•...... •.....•...... 15 Seeding Studies ••••••••••••.••••••••.••••••••••••••••••• 17

Re 1a ted Papers. . • . . . • • . • • • • • . . . . • . • • . . . . . • • • . • • . . . • • • • • • 23

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LIBRARY NOTATIONS Notation Location ADF&G - IV Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Habitat Division, Region IV, Anchorage: reprint files. ADF&G - HL Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Habitat Division Library, Anchorage ARL Alaska Resources Library, Federal Building, Anchorage UAA University of Alaska, Anchorage UAF University of Alaska, Fairbanks

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Review Papers Andrews, M. 1977. Selected bibliography of disturbance and restoration of soils and vegetation in permafrost regions of the U.S.S.R. (1970-1976). CRREL Special Report 77-7. 116 pp. (ARL) Andrews, M. 1978. Selected bibliography of disturbance and restoration of soils and vegetation in permafrost regions of the U.S.S.R. (1970-1977). CRREL Special Report 78-19. 175 pp. (ARL) Bliss, L. C. 1978. Vegetation and revegetation within permafrost terrain. pp. 31-50. IN Proc. of the Third International Conference on Permafrost. Vol. 2. National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Brown, R. W., R. S. Johnson, and K. Van Cleve. 1978. Rehabilitation problems in arctic and subarctic regions. pp. 23-44. IN Reclamantion of Drastically Disturbed Lands. Schaller and Sutton (Eds.). Johnson, L. and K. Van Cleve. 1976. Revegetation in arctic and subarctic North America - A literature review. CRREL Report 76-15. 32 pp. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Kubanis, S. A. 1982. Revegetation techniques in arctic and subarctic environments. Office of the Federal Inspector, Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System, Office of Environment, Biological Programs. 40 pp. (ADF&G- IV) Peterson, E. B. and N. M. Peterson. 1977. Revegetation information applicable to mining sites in northern Canada. Environmental studies No. 3. Minister Supply and Services Canada 1977. Catalogue No. R71-19-3-1977. Ottawa. 405 pp. (ARL) Van Cleve, K. 1977. Recovery of disturbed tundra and taiga surfaces in Alaska. pp. 422-485. IN Recovery and Restoration of Damaged Ecosystems. J. Cairns, Jr. , K. L. Dickson, and E. E. Herri cks ( Eds.). University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Zasada, J. C. 1975. Revegetation in the arctic coastal plain--some considerations. (ARL)

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Natural Succession after Disturbance Barrett, P. and R. Schulten. 1975. Disturbance and the successional response of arctic plants on polar desert habitats. Arctic 28:70-73. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Billings, W. D. and K. M. Peterson. 1980. Vegetational change and ice-wedge polygons through the thaw-lake cycle in arctic Alaska. Arctic and Alp. Res. 12:413-432. (UAA) Bliss. 1978. Recovery sequence of Picea forests after burning near Inuvik, Can. J. Bot. 56:2020-2030. (ADF&G-IV,

Bliss, L. C. and J. E. Cantlon. 1957. Succession on river alluvium in northern Alaska. Amer. Midl. Nat. 58:452-469. (ARL) Bolstad, R. 1971. King Creek fire 9492 cat line rehabilitation project - experimental. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks. 17+ pp. (ARL) Britton, M. E. 1966. Vegetation of the arctic tundra. Oregon St. Univ. Press. 64 pp. (UAA) Carson, C. E. 1968. Radiocarbon dating of lacustrine stands in arctic Alaska. Arctic 21:12-26. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Chapin, F. S., III. 1975. Successional relationships of Eriophorum vaginatum. pp. 36-39. IN Ecological and limnological reconnaissance from Pruahoe Bay into the Brooks Range, Alaska. J. Brown (Ed.). Research on Arctic Tundra Environments. CRREL, Hanover. 65 pp. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Chapin, F. S., III and M. C. Chapin. 1980. Revegetation of an arctic disturbed site by native tundra species. J. Appl. Ecol. 17:449-456. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Chester, A. L. 1979. Reproductive effort and seedling establishment of some tussock tundra species in relation to revegetation of disturbed areas. M. S. Thesis, San Diego State Univ., San Diego. Churchill, E. D. and H. C. Hanson. 1958. The concept of climax in arctic and alpine vegetation. Bot. Rev. 24:127-191. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Crocker, R. L. and J. Major. 1955. Soil development in relation to vegetation and surface age at Brady Glacier, Alaska. J. of Ecology 43:427-448. (UAA)

-2- Gartner, B. L. 1982. Controls over regeneration of tundra gramminoids in a natural and a man-disturbed site in arctic Alaska. M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. Gartner, B. L., F. S. Chapin, III, and G. R. Shaver. 1983. Demographic patterns of seedling establishment and growth of native gramminoids in an Alaskan tundra disturbance. J. Appl. Ecol. 20:965-980. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Hall, D. K., J. Brown and L. Johnson. 1978. The 1977 tundra fire at Kokolik River, Alaska. Arctic 31:54-57. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Hernandez, H. 1972. Surface disturbance and natural recolonization in the Mackenzie Delta region. pp. 143-174. IN Proc. of the Canadian Northern Pipeline Research Conference. L. C. Bliss and R. W. Wein (Eds.). National Research Council of Canada. Holmes, K. W. 1981. Natural revegetation of dredge tailings at Fox, Alaska. Agroborealis 13:26-29. (UAA) Hopkins, D. M. and R. S. Sigafoos. 1957. Frost action and vegetation patterns on Seward Peninsula, Alaska. U.S. Geological Survey Bull. 974-B:51-100. (UAF) Johnson, A. and S. Kubanis. 1980. The revegetation of disturbed sites along the Yukon River to Prudhoe Bay Haul Road. pp. 16-29. IN Proc: High Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 4. C. Jackson and M. Schusta (Eds.). Col. School of Mines, Golden, Col. Johnson, L. and L. Viereck. 1983. Recovery and active layer changes following a tundra fire in northwestern Alaska. pp. 543-547. IN Permafrost: Fourth Int'l Conference Proceedings. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. Katz, N. J. 1926. Sphagnum bogs of central Russia: phytosociology, ecology, and succession. J. Ecology 14:177-202. Knapman, L. 1982. Fireline reclamation on two fire sites in interior Alaska. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Resource Management Note 1. 23 pp. (ARL) Kubanis, S. A. 1980. Recolonization by native and introduced plant species along the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay Haul Road, Alaska. M. S. Thesis. San Diego State Univ. Lambert, J. D. H. 1972. Plant succession on tundra mud flows: preliminary observation·s. Arctic 25:99-106. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Lambert, J. D. H. 1968. The ecology and successional trends of tundra plant communities in the low arctic subalpine zone of the Richardson

-3- and British Mountains of the Canadian western arctic. Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. of B.C. 164 pp. Lambert, J. D. H. 1976. Plant succession on an active tundra mud slump, Garry Island, Mackenzie River Delta, Northwest Territories. Can. J. Botany 54:1750-1758. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Lawson, D., J. Brown, K. Everett, A. Johnson, V. Komarkova, B. Murray, D. Murray and P. Webber. 1978. Tundra disturbances and recovery following the 1949 exploratory drilling, Fish Creek, Northern Alaska. CREEL Report 78-28. (ARL) Lutz, J. J. 1956. Eco 1ogi ca 1 effects of fares t fires in the interior of Alaska. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Technical Bulletin 1133. McCown, B. H., J. Brown, and R. J. Barsdate. 1972. Natural oil seeps at Cape Simpson, Alaska: Localized influences on terrestrial habitat. pp. 86-90. IN Proc. of the symposium on the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ. Publ. on Northern Life No. 1. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. (ADF&G-HL, ARL) McGraw, J. B. 1980. Seedbank size and distribution of seed in cottongrass tussock tundra. Can. J. Bot. 58:1607-1611. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Miles, J. 1973. Natural recolonization of experimentally bared soil in Callunetum in northeast Scotland. J. of Ecology 61:399-412. Mitchell, W. W. and T. E. Loynachan. 1976. 1975 Progress Report to Alaskan Arctic Gas Pipeline Company on Revegetation Research at Prudhoe Bay, Kavik, and Palmer, Alaska. Univ. of Alaska, Agricultural Experiment Station, Palmer. 24 pp. (ARL) Mitchell, W. W. and T. E. Loynachan. 1977. 1976 Progress report to Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Company on revegetation research at Prudhoe Bay and Kavik, Alaska. Univ. of Alaska, Agricultural Experiment Station, Palmer. 38 pp. (ARL)

~1oore, J. M. and R. W. Wien. 1977. Viable seed populations by depth and potential site recolonization after disturbance. Can. J. Bot. 55:2408-2414. (ARL) Muller, C. H. 1952. Plant succession in arctic heath and tundra in northern Scandinavia. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 79:296-309. (ADF&G-IV, UAF) Palmer, L. J. and C. H. Rouse. 1945. Study of the Alaska tundra with reference to its reaction to reindeer and other grazing. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Fish and Wildl. Serv. Series Rept. 10. Pegau, R. E. 1970. Succession in two exclosures near Unalakleet, Alaska. Can. Field Nat. 84:175-177. (UAF)

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Peterson, K. M. and W. D. Billings. 1978. Geomorphic processes and vegetational change along the Meade River sand bluffs in northern Alaska. Arctic 31:7-23. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Racine, C. H. 1981. Tundra fire effects on soils and three plant communities along a hill-slope gradient in the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Arctic 34:71-84. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Strang, R. M. 1973. Succession in unburned subarctic woodlands. Can. J. For. Res. 3:140-143. (UAF) Van Cleve, K. 1972. Revegetation of disturbed tundra and taiga surfaces by introduced and native plant species. pp. 7-11. IN Proc. of the symposium on the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. Occ Publ. on Northern Life No. 1. (ADF&G-IV, ARL, UAA) Viereck, L. A. 1973. Wildfire in the taiga of Alaska. Quaternary Research 3:465-495. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Weber, M. G. 1974. Nutrient budget changes following fire in arctic plant communities. pp. 43-63. IN Recovery of vegetation in arctic regions after burning. R. W. Wein (Ed.). Task Force on Northern Oil Development Report No. 74-6. 63 pp. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Wein, R. W. and D. A. MacLean. 1973. Cotton grass (Eriophorum vaginatum) germination requirements and colonizing potential in the Arctic. Can. J. Bot. 51:2509-2513. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Wein, R. W. 1974. Recovery of vegetation in arctic regions after burning. Env. - Socia 1 Program Northern Pipelines Task Force on Northern Oi 1 Development. Report No. 74-6. 41 pp. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Wein, R. W. 1976. Frequency and characteristics of arctic tundra fires. Arctic 29:213-222. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Wein, R. W. and L. C. Bliss. 1973. Changes in the arctic Eriophorum tussock communities following fire. Ecology 54:845-852. Wein, R. W., T. W. Sylvester, and M. G. Weber. 1975. Vegetation recovery in arctic tundra and forest tundra after fire. Dept. of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa. ALUR Report 74-75-62. 115 pp.

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Effects of Surface Disturbance Adam, K. M. and H. Hernandez. 1977. Snow and ice roads: Ability to support traffic and effects on vegetation. Arctic 30:13-27. {ARL, UAA, UAF) Archer, S. and L. L. Tieszen. 1980. Growth and physiological responses of tundra plants to defoliation. Arctic and Alp. Res. 12:531-552. (UAA) Babb, T. A. 1973. High arctic disturbance studies. pp. 150-162. IN Botanical studies of natural and man-modified habitats in the Mackenzie Valley, eastern Mackenzie Delta region and the Arctic Islands. L. C. Bliss (Ed.). Task Force on Northern Oil Development Report No. 73-43. 162 pp. Babb, T. A. 1977. High arctic disturbance studies associated with the Devon Island Project. pp. 647-654. IN Truelove Lowland Devon Island Canada: A High Arctic Ecosystem. L. C. Bliss (Ed.). Univ. of Alberta Press, Edmonton, Alberta. (ARL) Babb, T. A. and L. C. Bliss. 1974. Susceptibility to environmental impact in the Queen Elizabeth Islands. Arctic 27:234-237. (ARL, UAA, UAF} Babb, T. A. and L. C. Bliss. 1974. Effects of physical disturbance on arctic vegetation in the Queen Elizabeth Islands. J. Appl. Ecology 11:549-562. (UAF) Barnett, D. M., S. A. Edlund, and D. A. Hodgson. 1975. Sensitivity of surface materials and vegetation to disturbance in the Queen Elizabeth Islands: An approach and commentary. Arctic 28:74-76. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Barrett, P. 1975. Preliminary observations of off-road vehicle disturbance to sedge meadow tundra at coastal lowland location, Devon Island, N.H.T. Dept. of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa. ALUR Report 73-74-71. 34 pp. Barrett, P. and R. Schulten. 1975. Disturbance and the successional response of arctic plants on polar desert habitats. Arctic 28:70-73. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Beattie, C. A., D. Erickson, D. Martin, and D. M. Gray. 1973. Energy budget studies in arctic over areas subject to different levels of vehicular activity - 1972-1973. Env. Soc. Committee on Northern Pipelines, Task Force on Northern Development Report 73-23. 32 pp. Bellamy, D., J. Radforth, and N. W. Radforth. 1971. Terrain, traffic, and tundra. Nature 231:429-432. (ADF&G-IV, ARL, UAA, UAF) Bliss, L. C. (Ed.). 1973. Botanical studies of natural and man-modified habitats in the Mackenzie Valley, eastern Mackenzie Delta region, and

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the Arctic Islands. Task Force on Northern Oil Development Report No. 73-43. 162 pp. (ARL) Bliss, L. C. and R. W. Wein. 1972. Plant community responses to disturbances in the western Canadian Arctic. Can. Bot. 50:1097-1109. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Bo 1 stad, R. 1971. King Creek fire 9492 cat 1i ne rehabi 1 i tati on project - experimental. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks. 17+ pp, (ARL)

Brown, J. 1976. Ecological and environmental consequences of off-road traffic in northern regions. IN Proc. Surface Protection Seminar. U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Anchorage. (ARL) Brown, J. and N. A. Grave. 1978. Physical and thermal disturbance and protection of permafrost. pp. 1-41. IN Proceedings . Third International Conference on Permafrost. Vol. 2. National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa. (ADF&G-HL) Brown, J., W. Rickard, and D. Vietor. 1969. The effect of disturbance on permafrost terrain. U.S.A. CREEL Special Rept. 138. Challinor, J. L. 1971. Vehicle perturbation effects upon a tundra so11-p 1ant system. M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley. 240 pp.

Challin~r,dJ. L.. 9nd P. L. Gesper. 1975. Vehicle perturbation effects upon a .un ra so11-plant system: II. Effects on the chemical regime Soil Sc1ence Soc. Amer. Proc. 39:689-695. (ADF&G-IV, ARL, UAF) . Chapin! F•. S.! II.I, and K. Van Cleve. 1978. Nitrogen and phos horous ~~dtr~ buf~ ant~ n an fA 1askan tussock tundra ecosystem: Natura 1 p~tterns .1mp 1ca 1ons or development. pp. 738-753 IN E · 1 Chem1stry and .cycling Processes. D. c. Adriano" and I. nl~ro~~f~firn (Eds.). Wash1ngton: Energy Research and Development Agency (ADF&G-IV) •

Chapin, F. S., III, and G. R. Shaver. 1981. Changes in soil properties and vegetation following disturbance of Alaskan arctic tundra. J. Appl. Ecology 18:605-617. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Chester, A. L. and G. R. Shaver. 1982. Seedling dynamics of some cottong~ass tussock tundra species during the natural revegetation of small d1sturbed areas. Hal. Ecology 5:207-211. (ADF&G-IV, ARL)

-7- Ferrians, 0. J., Jr., R. Kachadoorian, and G. W. Green. 1969. Pennafrost and related engineering problems in Alaska. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 678. (UAF) Fetcher, N. and G. R. Shaver. 1983. Life histories of tillers of Erio~horum va~inatum in relation to tundra disturbance. J. of Ecol. 71:1 1-147. ADF&G-IV, ARL) French, H. M. 1975. Man-induced thermokarst, Sachs Harbour airstrip, Banks Island, Northwest Territories. Can. J. of Earth Sciences 12:132-144. (ARL) Gartner, B. L. 1982. Controls over regeneration of tundra gramminoids in a natural and a man-disturbed site in arctic Alaska. M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. Gartner, B. L., F. S. Chapin, III, and G. R. Shaver. 1983. Demographic patterns of seedling establishment and growth of native gramminoids in an Alaskan tundra disturbance. J. Appl. Ecol. 20:965-980. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Gersper, P. L. and J. L. Challinor. 1975. Vehicle perturbation effects upon a tundra soil-plant system; Effects on morphological and physical properties in the soils. Soil Science Society of America Proc. 39:737-744. (ADF&G-IV, ARL, UAF) Gersper, P. L., J. L. Challinor, R. Benoit, and L. Tieszen. 1970. Stressed ecosystem research: Track disturbance. pp. 66-71. IN J. Brown and G. C. West (Eds.). Tundra Biome Research in Alaska. U.S. IBP-Tundra Biome Report 70-1, CRREL, Hanover. 148 pp. Gill, D. 1973. Ecological modifications caused by removal of tree and shrub canopies in the Mackenzie Delta. Arctic 26:95-111. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Haag, R. W. 1973. Energy budget changes following surface disturbance to two northern vegetation types. pp. 6-26. IN Botanical studies of natural and man-modified habitats in the Mackenzie Vally, eastern Mackenzie Delta region and the Arctic Islands. L. C. Bliss (Ed.). Task Force on Northern Oil Development. Report No. 73-43. 162 pp. (ARL) Haag, R. W. and L. C. Bliss. 1973. Energy budget changes following surface disturbance to upland tundra. J. Appl. Ecology 10:356-374. (ADF&G-IV) Hakala, J. B., R. K. Seenel, R. A. Richey, and J. E. Kiertz. 1971. Fire effects and rehabilitation methods -- Swanson-Russian River fires. pp. 87-100. IN Fire in the northern environment s m osium. C. W. Slaughter, R. • arney, an •• Dept. of Agriculture. 275 pp. (ADF&G-HL)

-8- Hernandez, H. 1972. Surface disturbance and natural recolonization in the Mackenzie Delta region. pp. 143-174. IN Proc. of the Canadian Northern Pipeline Research Conference. L. C. Bliss and R. W. Wein (Eds.). National Research Council of Canada. Hernandez, H. 1973. Natural plant recolonization of surficial disturbances, Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula Region, Northwest Territories. Can. J. Bot. 51:2177-2196. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Hodgson, D. A. and S. A. Edlund. 1975. Surficial geology, geomorphology and terrain disturbance Ellesmere Island. Canada, Geological Survey Paper 75-1, Part A. 411 pp. Hok, J. R. 1969. A reconnaissance of tractor trails and related phenomena on the North Slope of Alaska. U.S. Dept. Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks. 66 pp. (ADF&G-HL, ARL, UAA) Hok, J. R. 1971. Some effects of vehicle operation on Alaskan arctic tundra. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks. Hopkins, D. M. 1949. Thaw lakes and thaw sinks in the Imruk Lake Area, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. J. Geol. 57:119-131. (UAF) Kerfoot, D. E. 1972. Tundra disturbance studies in the western Canadian Arctic. Canada, Dept. of Indian and Northern Affairs, ALUR Report No. 71-72-11. Kevan, P. G. 1971. Vehicle tracks on high arctic tundra: an 11-year case history around Hazen Camp, Ellesmere Island, N.W.T. Canada, Defense Research Board. 17 pp. Klein, P. R. 1970. The impact of oil development in Alaska. (A photo essay). pp. 209-242. IN Proceedings of the Conference on Productivity and Conservation in Northern Circumpolar Lands. W. A. Fuller and P. G. Kevan ( Eds.). Int' 1 Union for Conservation of Nature and Natura 1 Resources, Switzerland. 344 pp. (UAF) Kuc, M. 1972. The response of tundra plants to anthropogenic habitats in the High Arctic. Canada, Geological Survey, Report of Activities, Paper 72-1, Part B. pp. 105-113. Lachenbruch, B. E., F. S. Chapin, III, and G. R. Shaver. 1981. The role of natural disturbance in seedling establishment of Eriophorum vaginatum in arctic tussock tundra. Bull. Ecol. Soc. of Am. 62:79. Lawson, D., J. Brown, K. Everett, A. Johnson, V. Komarkova, B. Murray, D. Murray, and P. Webber. 1978. Tundra disturbances and recovery following the 1949 exploratory drilling, Fish Creek, Northern Alaska. CREEL Report 78-28. (ARL}

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MacKay, J. R. 1970. Disturbances to the tundra and forest tundra environment of the western Arctic. Can. Geotechnical Journal 7:420-432. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Price, L. W., L. C. Bliss, and J. Suoboda. 1974. Origin and significance of wet spots on scraped surfaces in the high arctic. Arctic 27:304-306. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Racine, C. H. 1977. Tundra disturbance resulting from a 1974 drilling operation in the Cape Espenberg area, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Report prepared for U.S. Dept. of Interior, National Park Service. 47 pp. (ARL, UAF) Radforth, J. R. 1973. Long-term effects of summer traffic by tracked vehicles on tundra. Dept. of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa. ALUR Report 72-73-12. 60 pp. Radforth, J. R. 1973. Immediate effects of wheeled vehicle traffic on tundra during the summer. Dept. of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa. ALUR Report 72-73-12. 32 pp. Reed, J. C. 1958. Exploration of Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 and adjacent areas of northern Alaska, 1944-53. USGS Prof. Paper 301. Reynolds, P. 1978. Effects of seismic activity on vegetation. Bureau of Land Mangaement, National Petroleum Reserve - Alaska. (ARL) Rickard, W. 1972. Preliminary ecological evaluation of the effects of air-cushion vehicle tests on the arctic tundra of northern Alaska. USA CRREL Special Report 182. 22 pp. Rickard, W. E. and C. W. Slaughter. 1973. Thaw and erosion on vehicular trails in permafrost landscapes. J. Soil and Water Conservation 28:263-266. (UAF) Rickard, W. E. and J. Brown. 1974. Effects of vehicles on arctic tundra. Env. Conserv. 1:55-62. (UAF) Sparrow, S. D., F. J. Wooding, and E. H. Whiting. 1978. Effects of off-road vehicle traffic on soils and vegetation in the Denali Highway region of Alaska. J. Soil and Water Conservation 33:20-27. (ADF&G-IV, UAF) Strang, R. M. 1973. Studies of vegetation, land form and permafrost in the Mackenzie Valley: Some case histories of disturbance. Env.-Social Comm. Northern Pipelines, Task Force on Northern Oil Development Rep. 73-14. Ottawa. Walker, D. A., P. J. Webber, K. R. Everett, and J. Brown. 1977. The effects of low-pressure wheeled vehicles on plant communities and soils at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. CREEL Special Report 77-17. 49 pp. (ARL)

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Walker, D. A., K. R. Everett, P. J. Webber, and J. Brown. 1980. Geobotanical atlas of the Prudhoe Bay Region, Alaska. CRREL Report 80-14. 69 pp. (ADF&G-IV) Webber, P. and J. Ives. 1978. Damage and recovery of tundra vegetation. Env. Conserv. 5:171-182. (UAF) Werbe, E. 1980. Disturbance of a gravel highway upon Alaskan upland tundra vegetation. M. S. Thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder.

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Effects of Oil Spills Barsdate, R. J., V. Alexander, and R. E. Benoit. 1972. Natural oil seeps at Cape Simpson, Alaska: aquatic effects. pp. 91-95. IN Proc. of the symposium on the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ. Publ. on Northern Life No. 1. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. (ADF&G-HL, UAA) Belsky, J. 1982. Diesel oil spill in a subalpine meadow: nine years of recovery. Can. J. Botany 60:906-910. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Bliss, L. C. 1970. Oil and the ecology of the Arctic. Trans. Roy Soc. Can. Series IV 8:361-372. Deneke, F. J., B. H. McCown, P. I. Coyne, W. Rickard, and J. Brown. 1975. Biological aspects of terrestrial oil spills - USA CREEL oil research in Alaska 1970-1974. USA CREEL Research Rept 346. (ARL, UAA) Dickman, M. and V. Lunardini. 1973. Some effects of a deliberate small scale oil spill on the overlying vegetation and thaw depth near Inuvik, N.W.T. pp. 52-55. IN Proceedings of the Conference on Oil and the Canadian Environment. D. Mackay and W. Harrison (Eds.). Univ. of Toronto. Everett, K. R. 1978. Some effects of oil on the physical and chemical characteristics of wet tundra soils. Arctic 31:260-276. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Freedman, W. and T. C. Hutchinson. 1976. Physical and biological effects of experimental crude oil on low arctic tundra in the vicinity of Tuktoyaktuk, N.W.T., Canada. Can. J. Bot. 54:2219-2230. (ARL) Greene, G., D. Mackay, and J. Overall. 1975. Clean-up after terrestrial oil spills in the Arctic. Arctic 28:140-142. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Hutchinson, T. C. and J. A. Hellebust. 1974. Oil spills and vegetation at Norman Wells, N.W.T. Environmental-Social Program, Northern Pipelines Task Force on Northern Oil Development. Report No. 73-42. (ARL) Hutchinson, T. C. and W. Freedman. 1975. Impact of crude oi 1 spi 11 s on arctic and subarctic vegetation. Proceedings Circumpolar Conference on Northern Ecology. 15-18 Sept 1975. Ottawa. Hutchinson, T. C. and W. Freedman. 1975. Effects of experimental crude oil spills on taiga and tundra vegetation of the Canadian Arctic. pp. 733-740. IN Proc. Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oi 1 Spills. Hutchinson, T. C., J. A. Hellebust, and M. Telford. 1976. Oil spill effects on vegetation and soil microfauna at Norman Wells and

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Tuktoyaktuk, N.W.T. Dept. of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa. ALUR Report 74-75-83. 143 pp. Jenkins, T. F., L. A. Johnson, C. M. Collins, and T. T. McFadden. 1978. The physical, chemical, and biological effects of crude oil spills on black spruce forest, interior Alaska. Arctic 31:305-323. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Johnson, L. A., E. B. Sparrow, T. F. Jenkins, C. M. Collins, C. V. Davenport, and T. T. McFadden. 1980. The fate and effects of crude oil spilled on subarctic permafrost terrain in interior Alaska. CRREL Report 80-29. 67 pp. (ARL) McCown, B. H. 1971. Effect of oil seepages and spills on the ecology and biochemistry in cold-dominated environments. USA CRREL Internal Report. McCown, B. H., J. Brown, and R. P. Murrmann. 1970. The impact of oil spills on arctic and subarctic terrestrial ecosystems - a literature survey. USA CREEL Tech. Note. McCown, B. H. and F. J. Deneke. 1972. Plant germination and seedling growth as affected by the presence of crude petroleum. IN Proceedings of the symposium on the impact of oil research development of northern plant communities. Occ Pub. on Northern Life No. 1. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. (ADF&G-HL, ARL) McCown, B. H., J. Brown, and R. J. Barsdate. 1972. Natural oil seeps at Cape Simpson, Alaska: Localized influences on terrestrial habitat. pp. 86-90. IN Proc. of the symposium on the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ. Publ. on Northern Life No. 1. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. (ADF&G-HL, ARL) McCown, B. H., F. J. Deneke, W. Rickard, and L. L. Tieszen. 1972. The response of Alaskan terrestrial plant communities to the presence of petroleum. pp. 34-43. IN Proc. of the symposium on the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ. Pub. on Northern Life No. 1. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. (ADF&G-HL, ARL) McKendrick, J. D. and W. Mitchell. 1978. Effects of burning crude oil spilled onto six habitat types in Alaska. Arctic 31:277-295. (ARL, UAA, UAF) McKendrick, J. D. and W. Mitchell. 1978. Fertilizing and seeding oil-damaged tundra to effect vegetation recovery: Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Arctic 31:296-304. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Rickard, W. E. and F. Deneke. 1972. Preliminary investigations of petroleum spillage, Haines-Fairbanks military pipeline, Alaska. CRREL Special Report 170. (ARL)

-13- Troth, J. L., W. E. Rickard, F. J. Deneke, and F. R. Kautz. 1973. Artificial revegetation of sites contaminated by refined petroleum spills. CREEL Tech. Note. Walker, D., P. Webber, K. Everett, and J. Brown. 1978. Effects of crude and diesel oil spills on plant communities at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, and the derivation of oil spill sensitivity maps. Arctic 31:242-259. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Wein. R. W. and L. C. Bliss. 1973. Experimental crude oil spills on arctic plant communities. J. Appl. Ecology 10:671-682. (ADF&G-IV, UAF)

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Effects of Pipelines Brown, J. and R. L. Berg (Eds.). 1980. Environmental engineering and ecological baseline investigations along the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay Haul Road. CRREL Report 80-19. 187 pp. (ARL) Carson, A. and G. Milke. 1976. Environmental problems caused by construction of a fuel gas line from Prudhoe Bay to Pump Station No. 4. pp. 58-65. IN Proc. 27th Alaska Science Conference. Volume 2. D. Norton (Ed.). American Association for the Advancement of Science, Alaska Division. Claridge, F. B. and A. M. Mirza. 1981. Erosion control along transportation routes in northern climates. Arctic 34:147-157. Dabbs, D. L., W. Friesen, and S. Mitchell. 1974. Pipeline revegetation. Arctic Gas Biol. Rept. Series. Vol. 2. Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Co. 67 pp. (ADF&G-HL) Hernandez, H. 1974. Possible effects on vegetation of the proposed gas pipeline from Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, and the Mackenzie Delta to Alberta. pp. 37-68. IN: Environment Impact Assessment of the Portion of the Mackenzie Gas Pipeline from Alaska to Alberta. Env. Protect. Boards, Winnipeg. How, G. T. S. 197 4. Effects on the terrain of the construction and operation of the proposed Mackenzie gas pipeline project. pp. 1-27. IN Research Reports, Vol. IV of Environmental Impact Assessment of the Portion of the Mackenzie Gas Pipeline from Alaska to Alberta. Environmental Protection Board, Winnipeg. Hubbard, G. E. 1980. Environmental mitigation and regulation compliance on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. Hubbard, J. 1980. Revegetation restoration for the trans-Alaska pipeline system. pp. 113-125. IN Proceedings, High Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 4. C. Jackson and M. Schuster (Eds.). Col. School of Mines, Golden. Marr, J. W., D. L. Buckner, and D. L. Johnson. 1974. Ecological modification of alpine tundra by pipeline construction. pp. 10-23. IN Proceedings of a workshop on revegetation of high altitude disturbed lands. W. A. Berg, J. A. Brown, and R. L. Cuany (Eds.). Environmental Resources Center, Information Series No. 10. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 88 pp. Mitchell, W. W. 1970. A scientific tour of pipeline route. Agroborealis 2:4-5, 22. (UAA)

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Pamplin, W. L. 1979. Construction-related impacts of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline system on terrestrial wildlife habitats. Joint State/Federal Fish and Wildlife Advisory Team. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage.

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Seeding Studies Alaska Rural Development Council. 1983. A revegetative guide for Alaska. Cooperative Extension Service, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 88 pp. (ADF&G-IV) ARCO Chemical Co. 1972. A three-year study on the establishment and propagation of hardy grass types on disturbed tundra in , the A1 askan Prudhoe Bay area. Report to the ARCO/Humble Environmental Subconmittee. 15 pp. Bliss, L. C. (Ed.).- 1973. Botanical studies of natural and man-modified habitats in the Mackenzie Valley, eastern Mackenzie Delta region, and the Arctic Islands. Task Force on Northern Oil Development Report No. 73-43. 162 pp. (ARL) Bolstad, R. 1971. King Creek fire 9492 cat line rehabilitation project­ experimental. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks. 17+ pp. (ARL) Bolstad, R. 1971. Catline rehabilitation and restoration. pp. 107-116. IN Fire in the northern environment - a s m osium. C. W. Slaughter, R. J. arney, an ansen ept. of Agriculture. 275 pp. (ADF&G-HL) Bonde, E. K., M. F. Foreman, T. D. Babb, S. Kjeliuk, J. D. McKendrick, W. W. Mitchell, F. J. Wooding, L. L. Tieszen, and W. Younkin. 1973. Growth and development of three agronomic species in pots ("photometers"). pp. 99-110 IN E. C. Bliss and F. E. Wielgolaski (Eds.). Primary production and production processes, Tundra Biome. Proceedings of the Conference, Dublin, Ireland, April 1973. Chapin, F. S., III and M. c. Chapin. 1980. Revegetation of an arctic disturbed site by native tundra species. J. App 1 . Eco 1. 17:449-456. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Dabbs, D. L. 1976. Revegetating the North. Agrologist 5(4):28-30. Dabbs, D. and W. Friesen. (Northern Engineering Services Co. Ltd.}. 1973. Sans Sault revegetation report, 1972. Prepared for Canadian Arctic Gas Study Limited. Calgary Alberta. 92 pp. (ARL) Dabbs, D. L., W. Friesen, and S. Mitchell. 1974. Pipeline revegetation. Arctic Gas Biol. Rept. Series. Vol. 2. Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Co. 67 pp. (ADF&G-HL) Densmore, R. and J. C. Zasada. 1978. Rootin9 potential of Alaskan willow cuttings. Can. J. For. Res. 8:477-479. (UAF) Hakala, J. B., R. K. Seenel, R. A. Richey, and J. E. Kiertz. 1971. Fire effects and rehabilitation methods -- Swanson-Russian River fires.

-17- pp. 87-100. IN ..;_F...;.,;ir,...;e;.._;,.~~~-~.,...... ,.~~...... r-~--,..,;r..,...;;.o~~,.;;.;;,;. C. W. Slaughter, . Dept. of Agriculture. Hernandez, H. 1973. Revegetation studies - Norman Wells, Inuvik, and Tuktoyaktuk, N.W.T. and Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. pp. 77-149. IN Botanical studies of natural and man-modified habitats in the Mackenzie Valley, eastern Mackenzie Delta region and the Arctic Islands. L. C. Bliss (Ed.). Task Force on Northern Oil Development. 162 pp. (ARL) Hodgson, H. J., R. L. Taylor, A. C. Wilton, and L. J. Klebesadel. 1971. Registration of Nucket Kentucky bluegrass. Crop Science 11:938. (UAF) Hubbard, J. 1980. Revegetation restoration for the trans-Alaska pipeline system. pp. 113-125. IN Proceedings, High Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 4. C. Jackson and M. Schuster (Eds.). Col. School of Mines, Golden. Johnson, A. and S. Kubani s. 1980. The revegetation of disturbed sites along the Yukon River to Prudhoe Bay Haul Road. pp. 16-29. IN Proc: High Altitude Revegetation Workshop No. 4. C. Jackson and M. Schusta (Eds.). Col. School of Mines, Golden. Johnson, L. 1976. Nutrient considerations for management of disturbed sites. p. 227. IN Science in Alaska, 1976: Proc. 27th Alaska Science Conf. Johnson, L. 1978. Biological restoration strategies in relation to nutrients at a subarctic site in Fairbanks, Alaska. pp. 461-466. IN Proceedings. Third Int•l Conference on Permafrost. Vol. 1. National Research Council of Canada. (ADF&G-IV, ARL, UAA) Johnson, L. A. 1980. Revegetation and restoration investigations. pp. 129-155. IN Environmental engineering and ecological baseline investigations along the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay Haul Road. J. Brown and R. L. Berg (Eds.). CRREL Report 80-19. 187 pp. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Johnson, L. A. 1980. Problem areas of Alaska revegetation. p. 38. IN Proc. 31st Alaska Science Conf. Johnson, L. A. 1981. Revegetation and selected terrain disturbances along the trans-Alaska pipeline, 1975-1978. CRREL Report 81-12. 115 pp. (ARL) Johnson, L., W. Quinn, and J. Brown. 1977. Revegetation and erosion control observations alon9 the trans-Alaska pipeline. CREEL Special Report 77-8. 36 pp. (ARL) Johnson, L. A., S. D. Rindge, and D. A. Gaskin. 1981. Chena River Lakes project revegetation study: three-year su11111ary. CRREL Report 81-18. 59 pp. (ARL)

-18- Klebesadel, L. J. 1965. Response of native bluejoint grass (Calamagrostis canadensis) in subarctic Alaska to harvest schedules and fertilizers. Proc. IX Int'l Grassland Congress, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Klebesadel, L. J. 1969. Agronomic characteristics of the little-known northern grass Arctagrostis latifolia var. arundinacea (Trin.) Griseb., and a proposed common name, tall arctic grass. Agronomy Jounral 61:45-49. (ADF&G-IV, UAF) Klebesadel, L. J. 1969. Agronomists evaluate native grasses. Agroborealis 1:5. (UAA) Klebesadel, L. J. 1969. Siberian wildrye (Elymus sibiricus L.): Agronomic characteristics of a potentially valuable forage and conservation grass for the North. Agronomy Journal 61:855-859. (UAF) Knapman, L. 1982. Fireline reclamation on two fire sites in interior Alaska. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Resource Management Note 1. 23 pp. (ARL) Kubanis, S. A. 1980. Recolonization by native and introduced plant species along the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay Haul Road, Alaska. M.S. Thesis. San Diego State Univ. Larson, J. E. 1980. Revegetation equipment catalog. U.S.D.A., Forest Service, Equipment Development Center, Missoula, Montana. 198 pp. May, D. E., P. J. Webber, and T. A. May. 1982. Success of transplanted alpine tundra plants on Niwot Ridge, Colorado. J. Appl Ecol. 19:965-976. (UAA) McGrogan, J. F., A. C. Condo, and J. Neubauer. 1971. Tundra restoration: Two-year response study of generic related grass types introduced onto disturbed Prudhoe Bay area tundra. Soc. Pet. Eng. Paper 3249, Am. Inst. Mining, Metallurg. and Pet. Eng., Dallas. 12 pp. McKell, C. M., C. Duncan, and C. H. Muller. 1969. Competitive relationship of annual ryegrass (lolium multiflorum lam). Ecology 50:653-657. Mitchell, W. W. 1968. Taxonomy, variation, and chorology of three chromosome races of the Calamagrostis canadensis complex in Alaska. Madrono 19:235-245. (UAF) Mitchell, W. W. 1970. Revegetation problems and progress. Agroborealis 2:18-19,22. (UAA) Mitchell, W.W. 1973. Using native plant resources for conservation. Agroborealis 5:24-25. (UAA) Mitchell, W. W. 1973. Adaptions of species and varieties of grasses for potential use in Alaska. pp. 2-6. IN Proceedings of a symposium on

-19- the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ. Publ. Northern Life No. 1. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. (ADF&G-HL, ARL) Mitchell, W. W. and J. Evans. 1966. Composition of two disclimax bluejoint stands in southcentral Alaska. J. Range Manag. 19:65-68. (UAF) Mitchell, W. W. and T. E. Loynachan. 1976. 1975 Progress report to Alaskan Arctic Gas Pipeline Company on revegetation research at Prudhoe Bay, Kavik, and Palmer, Alaska. Univ. of Alaska, Agricultural Experiment Station, Palmer. 24 pp. (ARL) Mitchell, W. W. and T. E. Loynachan. 1977. 1976 Progress report to Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Company on revegetation research at Prudhoe Bay and Kavik, Alaska. Univ. of Alaska, Agricultural Experiment Station, Palmer. 38 pp. (ARL) Mitchell, W. W. and J. D. McKendrick. 1974. Progress report (1973) Tundra rehabilitation research: Prudhoe Bay and Palmer Research Center. A report to Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., Atlantic Richfield Co., Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd., Exxon Co., Shell Oil Co., and Union Oil Co. Mitchell, W. W. and J. D. McKendrick. 1975. Progress report (1974) Tundra rehabi 1 i tat ion research: Prudhoe Bay and Pa 1mer Research Center. A report to Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., Atlantic Richfield Co., Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd., Exxon Co., Shell Oil Co., and Union Oil Co. 72 pp. Mitchell, W. W., J.D. McKendrick, and M.A. Barzee. 1973. Annual Report (1972-73) tundra rehabilitation research: Prudhoe Bay, Palmer Research Center. A report to Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., Atlantic Richfield Co., Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd., Exxon Co., Shell Oil Co., and Union Oil Co. 72 pp. Mitchell, W. W., J. D. McKendrick, F. J. Wooding, and M. A. Barzee. 1974. Agronomists on the banks of the Sagavanirktok. Agroborealis 6:33-35. (UAA) Native Plants, Inc. 1980. Phase 1: Revegetation assessment for the proposed Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System. Final Report to Northwest Alaskan Pipeline Company and Fluor, Inc. Vols 1-111. Utah: Native Plants, Inc. Native Plants, Inc. 1981. Phase II: Revegetation studies in disturbed habitats adjacent to the proposed Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System. Final Report to Northwest Alaskan Pipeline Company and Fluor, Inc. Utah: Native Plants, Inc. 94 pp. Neiland, B. J. 1978. Rehabilitation of bare sites in interior Alaska. Agroborealis 10:21-25.

-20- Palazzo, A. J., S. Rindge, and D. Gaskin. 1980. Revegetation at two construction sites in New Hampshire and Alaska. CRREL Report 80-3. {ADF&G-IV, ARL) Richey, R. A. 1976. Access and effects of oil and gas development on Kenai National Moose Range Lands. pp. 103-107. IN Surface Protection Seminar, U.S. Bureau of Land Management. 228 pp. {ADF&G-IV, ARL) Sutton, R. K. 1975. Why native plants are used more. Soil Water Conserv. 30:240-242. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1972. A Revegetation Guide for Alaska. SCC M7-N-22612. Portland. {ARL) Van Cleve, K. 1972. Revegetation of disturbed tundra and taiga surfaces by introduced and native plant speices. pp. 7-11. IN Proc. of the symposium on the impact of oil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ Publ. on Northern Life, No. 1. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. (ADF&G-IV, ARL, UAA) Van Cleve, K. 1977. Recovery of disturbed tundra and taiga surfaces in Alaska. pp. 422-485. IN Recovery and Restoration of Damaged Ecosystems. J. Cairns, Jr., K. L. Dickson, and E. E. Herricks (Eds.). University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Wein, R. W. 1971. A preliminary report on revegetation trials related to the proposed Arctic Gas Pipeline. IN: Towards an environmental Impact Assessment of a gas pipeline from Prudhoe Bay, Alaska to Alberta. Interim Report No. 1. Younkin, W. and H. Martens. 1976. Progress report on rig site seeding tests in the Mackenzie delta region, N.W.T. Chapter 3 IN Revegetation studies in the Northern Mackenzie Valley region. W. E. Younkin (Ed.). Arctic Gas Biol. Rept. Series. Vol. 38. Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Co. (ADF&G-HL, ARL) Younkin, W. E. 1972. Revegetation studies of disturbances in the Mackenzie Delta region. pp. 175-229. IN Botanical studies of natural and man-modified habitats in the eastern Mackenzie Delta region and the arctic islands. L. C. Bliss and R. W. Wein (Eds.). Dept. of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, ALUR Report 71-72-14, Ottawa. (ARL) Younkin, W. 1973. Autecological studies of native species potentially useful for revegetation, Tuktoyaktuk Region, N.W.T. pp. 45-76. IN Botanical Studies of natural and man-modified habitats in the Mackenzie Valley, eastern Mackenzie Delta region and the Arctic Islands. L.C. Bliss \Ed.). Task Force on Northern Oil Development Report No. 73-43. 162 pp. (ARL)

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Younkin, W. E. (Ed.). 1976. Revegetation studies in the northern Mackenzie Valley region. Biol. Rept. Series Vol. 38 Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study Co. 119 pp. Younkin, W. E. and W. Friesen. 1974. Progress report on CAGSL revegetation studies north of 60°. Report to Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. 56 pp.

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Related Papers Benninghoff, W. S. 1952. Interaction of vegetation and soil phenomena. Arctic 5:34-44. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Beschel, R. E. 1963. Observations on the time factor in interactions of permafrost and vegetation. pp. 43-56. IN Proc. of the First Canadian Conference on Permafrost. R. J. E. Brown (Ed.). National Research Council, Ottawa. Billings, W. D. and H. A. Mooney. 1968. The ecology of arctic and alpine plants. Biol. Rev. 43:481-529. Bliss, L. C. 1958. Seed germination in arctic and alpine species. Arctic 11 : 180-188. Bliss, L. C., G. M. Courtin, D. L. Pattie, R. R. Riewe, D. W. A. Whitfield, and P. Widden. 1973. Arctic tundra ecosystems. Ann. Rev. Ecol. and Syst. 4:359-399. (UAF) Brown, J. (Ed.). 1975. Ecological investigations of the tundra biome in the Prudhoe Bay region, Alaska. Biol. Pap. Univ. of Alaska, Special Report No. 2, Fairbanks. (UAA, UAF) Brown, R. and T. Pewe. 1973. Distribution of permafrost in North America and its relationship to the environment; a review 1963-1973. pp. 71-100. IN Permafrost, North American Contribution to the Second Int'l Conference on Permafrost. Nat'l Acad. Sci., Wash. D.C. Chapin, F. S., III. 1980. Nutrient allocation and responses to defoliation in tundra plants. Arctic and Alp. Res. 12:553-563. Chapin, F. S., K. Van Cleve, and M. Chapin. 1979. Soil temperature and nutrient cycling in the tussock growth form of Eriophorum vaginatum. J. Ecol. 67:169-189. (ADF&G-IV, UAF) Chapin, F. S., III, D. A. Johnson, and J. D. McKendrick. 1980. Seasonal movement of nutrients in plants of differing growth form in an Alaskan tundra ecosystem: Implications for herbivory. J. Ecol. 68:189-209. (UAA) Chester, A. L. and G. R. Shaver. 1982. Reproductive effort in cotton grass tussock tundra. Hal. Ecol. 5:200-206. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Densmore, R. 1979. Aspects of the seed ecology of woody plants of the Alaskan taiga and tundra. Ph. D. Dissertation, Duke Univ., Durham. Everett, K. R. 1980. Distribution and properties of road dust along the northern portion of the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay haul road. pp. 101-128. IN Environmental engineering Investigations along the Yukon

-23- River-Prudhoe Bay Haul Road. J. Brown and R. L. Berg (Eds.). CRREL Reprot 80-19. 187 pp. (ARL) Fetcher, N. and G. R. Shaver. 1982. Growth and tillering patterns within tussocks of Eriophorum vagina tum. Hal. Ecol. 5:180-186. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) Goodman, G. T. and D. G. Perkins. 1968. The role of mineral nutrients in Eriophorum communities. III. Growth response to added inorganic elements in two E. vaginatum communities. J. of Ecology 56:667-683. Haag, R. W. 1974. Nutrient limitations to plant production in two tundra communities. Can. J. Bot. 52:103-116. {ARL) Hopkins, D. M. and R. S. Sigafoos. 1957. Frost action and vegetation patterns on Seward Peninsula, Alaska. U.S. Geological Survey Bull. 974-B:51-100. (UAF) Horn, H. S. 1974. The ecology of secondary succession. Ann. Rev. Ecol. and Syst. 5:25-37. (UAF) Kerfoot, D. E. 1969. The geomorphology and permafrost conditions on Garry Island, N.W.T. Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. of B.C., 308 pp. McCown, B. H. 1972. The influence of soil temperature on plant growth and survival in Alaska. pp. 12-33. IN Proceedings of the symposium on the impact of soil resource development on northern plant communities. Occ. Publications on Northern Life No. 1. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. (ARL) McGraw, J. B. and G. R. Shaver. 1982. Seedling density and seeding survival in Alaska cottongrass tussock tundra. Hal. Ecology 5:212-217. (ADF&G-IV, ARL) McKendrick, J. D., V. J. Ott, and G. A. Mitchell. 1978. Effects of nitrogen and phosphorous fertilization on the carbohydrate and nutrient levels in Dupontia fisheri and Arctagrostis latifolia. pp. 509-537. IN Vegetation and Production Ecology of an Alaskan Arctic Tundra. L. L. Teiszen (Ed.). Springer-Verlag, New York. (ARL)

McKendrick, J. D., G. 0. Batzli, K. R. Everett, and J. C. Swanson. 1980. Some effects of mammalian herbivores and fertilization on tundra soils and vegetation. Arctic and Alp. Res. 12:565-578. (UAA} Nicholson, F. H. 1978. Permafrost distribution and characteristics near Schefferville, Quebec: Recent studies. pp. 427-433. IN Proceedings Third Int'l Conference on Permafrost. Vol. 1. Nat'l Research Council of Canada. (UAA) Patterson, W. A. and J. G. Dennis. 1981. Tussock replacement as a means of stabilizing firebreaks in tundra vegetation. Arctic 34:1BB-189.

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Roberts-Pichette, P. 1972. Annotated bibliography of permafrost - vegetation - wildlife - land form relationships. Forest Mgmt. Inst. Info. Rept. FMR-X-43 Ottawa. 350 pp. Shaver, G. R., Chapin, F•• S., III, and W. D. Billings. 1979. Ecotypic differentiation in Carex a~uatilis on ice-wed9e polygons in the Alaskan coastal tundra. J. Ecol. 7:1025-1046. (UAF) Shaver, G. R. and F. S. Chapin, III. 1980. Response to fertilization by various plant growth forms in an Alaskan tundra: nutrient accumulation and growth. Ecology 61:662-675. (ARL) Sigafoos, R. S. 1951. Soil instability in tundra vegetation. Ohio J. of Science 51:281-298. Stuart, L. and P. C. Miller. 1982. Soil oxygen flux measured polarographically in an Alaskan tussock tundra. Ho 1 • Eco 1 ogy 5:139-144. (ADF&G-IV, ARL, UAA) Unififed Industries Incorporated. 1981. ANGST revegetation comparative cost analysis. A report to the Office of the Federal Inspector. Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System. Walker, D. A. and P. J Webber. 1979. Relationships of soil acidity and temperature to the wind and vegetation at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. Arctic 32:224-236. (ARL, UAA, UAF) Wein, R. W. 1968. Biological flora of the British Isles: Eriophorum vaginatum L. J. Ecol. 61:601-615. (ADF&G-IV, UAA) Wein, R. and L. C. Bliss. 1974. Primary production in arctic cottongrass tussock tundra communities. Arctic and Alp. Res. 6:261-274. (UAA) Zasada, J. C. and R. A. Gregory. 1969. Regeneration of white spruce with reference to interior Alaska: a literature review. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Res. Paper PNW-79. 37 pp.

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