PRINCIPLES of FLIGHT SIMULATION Aerospace Series List
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PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT SIMULATION Aerospace Series List Handbook of Space Technology Ley, Wittmann April 2009 & Hallmann Surrogate Modelling in Engineering Forrester, Sobester August 2008 Design: A Practical Guide & Keane Aircraft Performance Theory and Swatton August 2008 Practice for Pilots Aircraft Systems, 3rd Edition Moir & Seabridge Introduction to Aircraft Aeroelasticity Wright & Cooper December 2007 and Loads Stability and Control of Aircraft Systems Langton September 2006 Military Avionics Systems Moir & Seabridge February 2006 Design and Development of Aircraft Moir & Seabridge June 2004 Systems Aircraft Loading and Structural Layout Howe May 2004 Aircraft Display Systems Jukes December 2003 Civil Avionics Systems Moir & Seabridge December 2002 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT SIMULATION David Allerton Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering The University of Sheffield A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first published 2009 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-0-470-75436-8 (Hbk) Typeset in 10/12 Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire For Clare, Fergus and Patrick – the best team I ever played for. Contents About the Author xiii Preface xv Glossary xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical Perspective 1 1.1.1 The First 40 Years of Flight 1905–1945 1 1.1.2 Analogue Computing, 1945–1965 3 1.1.3 Digital Computing, 1965–1985 5 1.1.4 The Microelectronics Revolution, 1985–present 6 1.2 The Case for Simulation 9 1.2.1 Safety 9 1.2.2 Financial Benefits 10 1.2.3 Training Transfer 11 1.2.4 Engineering Flight Simulation 13 1.3 The Changing Role of Simulation 14 1.4 The Organization of a Flight Simulator 16 1.4.1 Equations of Motion 16 1.4.2 Aerodynamic Model 17 1.4.3 Engine Model 18 1.4.4 Data Acquisition 18 1.4.5 Gear Model 19 1.4.6 Weather Model 19 1.4.7 Visual System 20 1.4.8 Sound System 21 1.4.9 Motion System 21 1.4.10 Control Loading 22 1.4.11 Instrument Displays 23 1.4.12 Navigation Systems 23 1.4.13 Maintenance 24 1.5 The Concept of Real-time Simulation 24 1.6 Pilot Cues 27 1.6.1 Visual Cueing 28 1.6.2 Motion Cueing 29 1.7 Training versus Simulation 30 1.8 Examples of Simulation 32 1.8.1 Commercial Flight Training 32 viii Contents 1.8.2 Military Flight Training 34 1.8.3 Ab Initio Flight Training 34 1.8.4 Land Vehicle Simulators 34 1.8.5 Engineering Flight Simulators 35 1.8.6 Aptitude Testing 36 1.8.7 Computer-based Training 36 1.8.8 Maintenance Training 37 References 37 2 Principles of Modelling 41 2.1 Modelling Concepts 41 2.2 Newtonian Mechanics 43 2.3 Axes Systems 51 2.4 Differential Equations 53 2.5 Numerical Integration 56 2.5.1 Approximation Methods 56 2.5.2 First-order Methods 58 2.5.3 Higher-order Methods 59 2.6 Real-time Computing 63 2.7 Data Acquisition 67 2.7.1 Data Transmission 67 2.7.2 Data Acquisition 69 2.8 Flight Data 74 2.9 Interpolation 77 2.10 Distributed Systems 82 2.11 A Real-time Protocol 91 2.12 Problems in Modelling 92 References 96 3 Aircraft Dynamics 97 3.1 Principles of Flight Modelling 97 3.2 The Atmosphere 98 3.3 Forces 100 3.3.1 Aerodynamic Lift 100 3.3.2 Aerodynamic Side force 104 3.3.3 Aerodynamic Drag 105 3.3.4 Propulsive Forces 106 3.3.5 Gravitational Force 107 3.4 Moments 107 3.4.1 Static Stability 109 3.4.2 Aerodynamic Moments 111 3.4.3 Aerodynamic Derivatives 113 3.5 Axes Systems 114 3.5.1 The Body Frame 115 3.5.2 Stability Axes 117 3.5.3 Wind Axes 117 3.5.4 Inertial Axes 118 3.5.5 Transformation between Axes 118 3.5.6 Earth-centred Earth-fixed (ECEF) Frame 119 3.5.7 Latitude and Longitude 122 3.6 Quaternions 122 Contents ix 3.7 Equations of Motion 124 3.8 Propulsion 127 3.8.1 Piston Engines 128 3.8.2 Jet Engines 136 3.9 The Landing Gear 138 3.10 The Equations Collected 143 3.11 The Equations Revisited – Long Range Navigation 148 3.11.1 Coriolis Acceleration 150 References 154 4 Simulation of Flight Control Systems 157 4.1 The Laplace Transform 157 4.2 Simulation of Transfer Functions 161 4.3 PID Control Systems 163 4.4 Trimming 169 4.5 Aircraft Flight Control Systems 171 4.6 The Turn Coordinator and the Yaw Damper 172 4.7 The Auto-throttle 176 4.8 Vertical Speed Management 179 4.9 Altitude Hold 182 4.10 Heading Hold 185 4.11 Localizer Tracking 189 4.12 Auto-land Systems 191 4.13 Flight Management Systems 195 References 201 5 Aircraft Displays 203 5.1 Principles of Display Systems 203 5.2 Line Drawing 205 5.3 Character Generation 211 5.4 2D Graphics Operations 214 5.5 Textures 216 5.6 OpenGL 219 5.7 Simulation of Aircraft Instruments 227 5.8 Simulation of EFIS Displays 235 5.8.1 Attitude Indicator 237 5.8.2 Altimeter 239 5.8.3 Airspeed Indicator 240 5.8.4 Compass Card 241 5.9 Head-up Displays 242 References 246 6 Simulation of Aircraft Navigation Systems 247 6.1 Principles of Navigation 247 6.2 Navigation Computations 250 6.3 Map Projections 252 6.4 Primary Flight Information 254 6.4.1 Attitude Indicator 254 6.4.2 Altimeter 255 6.4.3 Airspeed Indicator 255 x Contents 6.4.4 Compass 255 6.4.5 Vertical Speed Indicator 255 6.4.6 Turn Indicator 255 6.4.7 Slip Ball 255 6.5 Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) 255 6.6 VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) 257 6.7 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) 258 6.8 Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) 259 6.9 The Flight Director 260 6.10 Inertial Navigation Systems 263 6.10.1 Axes 264 6.10.2 INS Equations 264 6.10.3 INS Error Model 268 6.10.4 Validation of the INS Model 272 6.11 Global Positioning Systems 274 References 282 Further Reading 283 7 Model Validation 285 7.1 Simulator Qualification and Approval 285 7.2 Model Validation Methods 288 7.2.1 Cockpit Geometry 291 7.2.2 Static Tests 291 7.2.3 Open-loop Tests 294 7.2.4 Closed-loop Tests 294 7.3 Latency 298 7.4 Performance Analysis 305 7.5 Longitudinal Dynamics 312 7.6 Lateral Dynamics 323 7.7 Model Validation in Perspective 328 References 329 8 Visual Systems 331 8.1 Background 331 8.2 The Visual System Pipeline 332 8.3 3D Graphics Operations 336 8.4 Real-time Image Generation 343 8.4.1 A Rudimentary Real-time Wire Frame IG System 343 8.4.2 An OpenGL Real-time IG System 347 8.4.3 An OpenGL Real-time Textured IG System 350 8.4.4 An OpenSceneGraph IG System 352 8.5 Visual Database Management 364 8.6 Projection Systems 370 8.7 Problems in Visual Systems 374 References 376 9 The Instructor Station 377 9.1 Education, Training and Instruction 377 9.2 Part-task Training and Computer-based Training 378 9.3 The Role of the Instructor 379 Contents xi 9.4 Designing the User Interface 380 9.4.1 Human Factors 382 9.4.2 Classification of User Operations 383 9.4.3 Structure of the User Interface 384 9.4.4 User Input Selections 388 9.4.5 Instructor Commands 394 9.5 Real-time Interaction 398 9.6 Map Displays 404 9.7 Flight Data Recording 409 9.8 Scripting 413 References 421 10 Motion Systems 423 10.1 Motion or No Motion? 423 10.2 Physiological Aspects of Motion 425 10.3 Actuator Configurations 428 10.4 Equations of Motion 432 10.5 Implementation of a Motion System 436 10.6 Hydraulic Actuation 443 10.7 Modelling Hydraulic Actuators 447 10.8 Limitations of Motion Systems 451 10.9 Future Motion Systems 453 References 454 Index 457 About the Author David Allerton obtained a BSc in Computer Systems Engineering from Rugby College of Engineer- ing Technology in 1972 and a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) in physical education from Loughborough College of Education in 1973.