Commons Et Management Public Du Patrimoine

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Commons Et Management Public Du Patrimoine UNIVERSITE D’AIX-MARSEILLE ECOLE DOCTORALE DES SCIENCES ECONOMIQUES ET GESTION D'AIX MARSEILLE INSTITUT DE MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ET DE GOUVERNANCE TERRITORIALE CENTRE D’ÉTUDES ET DE RECHERCHE EN GESTION D’AIX MARSEILLE COMMONS ET MANAGEMENT PUBLIC DU PATRIMOINE CULTUREL À L’ÈRE NUMÉRIQUE Étude de cas de production et de diffusion des données culturelles sur des plateformes libres par les villes de Toulouse, Brest et Monmouth Thèse présentée pour l’obtention du grade de DOCTEUR EN SCIENCES DE GESTION de l’Université d’Aix Marseille Formation doctorale : Sciences de Gestion Discipline : Sciences de Gestion, Section CNU n°6 Présentée et soutenue publiquement le 9 décembre 2014 par : Adrien PENERANDA Composition du jury : Rapporteurs Claire GAUZENTE Professeur des Universités, Université de Nantes Sébastien DAMART Professeur des Universités, Université de Rouen Suffragants Cécile GODÉ Professeur des Universités, Université de Lyon 2 Régis MEISSONIER Professeur des Universités, Université de Picardie Robert FOUCHET Professeur des Universités, Université d’Aix-Marseille Directeur de Serge AMABILE, Maître de Conférences, recherche Habilité à Diriger les Recherches, Université d’Aix-Marseille « L‘Université Aix-Marseille n‘entend donner aucune approbation ni improbation aux opinions émises dans les thèses ; ces opinions doivent être considérées comme propres à leurs auteurs. » À Marie-Madeleine, Constance et Isabelle Rien n'est à nous, « Tu dis : “Cette pensée est à moi.” Non mon frère, Elle est en toi, rien n'est à nous. Tous l'ont eue ou l'auront. Ravisseur téméraire, Au domaine commun bien loin de la soustraire, Rend-la comme un dépôt : Partager est si doux ! » Henri-Frédéric AMIEL, Paru en 1880 dans le recueil “Jour à jour, poésies intimes” « Au temps où le développement des techniques était faible, l'élaboration de la culture par les hommes gouvernés suffisait au gouvernement à penser l'ensemble des problèmes du groupe : la récurrence de causalité et d'information était complète et achevée, car elle allait du groupe humain au groupe humain à travers le gouvernant. Mais cela n'est plus vrai : la culture est toujours à base exclusivement humaine ; elle est élaborée par le groupe des hommes ; or, ayant passé par le gouvernant, elle revient et s'applique d'une part au groupe humain et d'autre part aux machines : les machines sont régies par une culture qui n'a pas été élaborée selon elles, et dont elles sont absentes : cette culture leur est inadéquate, ne les représente pas. [...] Le manque d'homéostasie sociale provient de ce qu'il existe un aspect de la réalité gouvernée qui n'est pas représenté dans cette relation régulatrice qu'est la culture. » Gilbert SIMONDON, Du mode d’existence des objets techniques, Éditions Aubier, 1958, p.151 Remerciements Les mots sont insuffisants pour exprimer toute ma gratitude à mon directeur de thèse, Serge Amabile. Sa patience, son attention et sa tolérance à mon égard ont sauvé ce travail à bien des reprises. Je retiens de cette expérience à ses côtés que ce sont d’abord les qualités humaines qui font la grandeur du chercheur. Cette thèse a été une leçon de vie. Aussi puis-je lui redire librement, et tout en sachant que ce ne sera pas la dernière fois, Merci. Je dédie cette thèse à ma famille sans qui je n’aurais pas pu réaliser ce parcours. Mes parents en premier lieu. Je leur dois tout, même s’il m’est souvent arrivé de leur dire le contraire. Que cette thèse soit pour eux le symbole de la qualité de l’éducation qu’ils m’ont transmise. Ma femme tient ici une place spéciale. Son soutien sans faille à toutes les étapes de ce travail a été inestimable. Je la remercie du fond du cœur, tout comme j’adresse toute ma gratitude à mes beaux-parents et l’ensemble de ma belle-famille. Je souhaite exprimer toute ma reconnaissance au Professeur Robert Fouchet. Il a été le facilitateur qui m’a permis d’entrer dans le monde de la recherche et de mener à bien ce projet jusqu’au bout. Cette reconnaissance est indissociable de celle que je dois à l’institut qu’il a fondé et qui m’a accueilli tout au long de ma thèse. Je remercie donc tout particulièrement l’équipe de l’IMPGT, avec en tête son directeur, Olivier Kéramidas, et l’ensemble des enseignants et du personnel. Ils ont été pour moi une seconde famille à Aix-en-Provence. Je remercie les membres du jury qui ont accepté d’évaluer ce travail doctoral : les Professeurs Claire Gauzente et Sébastien Damart pour avoir bien voulu être rapporteurs, les Professeurs Cécile Godé, Régis Meissonier et Robert Fouchet pour leur participation à ce jury. Je veux rendre ici hommage au Professeur Jean-Louis Le Moigne et à son épouse Maguy. Leur affection et la disponibilité de Jean-Louis pour me recevoir au Repère pendant toute la durée de ma thèse ont été précieuses. Je remercie à travers lui tous les collègues de MCX. Je remercie l’équipe de recherche de mon directeur et les doctorants du CERGAM dont certains sont devenus de vrais amis. Leur aide a été constante tout au long de ma rédaction, et ils m’ont toujours soutenu, y compris (et surtout !) dans mes moments de doute. Il y a parmi eux un frère qui se reconnaitra. Sommaire Introduction 1 Chapitre 1 Politique et culture 26 Chapitre 2 Management public du patrimoine culturel 49 Chapitre 3 Ingénierie des systèmes de partage des données culturelles 88 Chapitre 4 Épistémologie et méthodologie de la recherche 120 Chapitre 5 Résultats de l’étude de cas de collaborations Public-Commons 144 Chapitre 6 Analyse inter-cas et discussion générale 188 Conclusion 233 Bibliographie 239 Index 253 Liste des figures 254 Liste des tableaux 255 Liste des encadrés et synthèses 257 Table des matières 258 Annexes 262 Introduction générale Contexte de la recherche Problématique générale Logique de la recherche Méthodologie de la recherche Introduction générale Introduction « Tout le monde le voit et le dit, notre civilisation est en train de devenir numérique1 » (Berry, 2008, p. 1). Par l’intermédiaire du processus de numérisation, des pans entiers de la culture parmi lesquels la musique, l’écriture, l’édition ou encore le patrimoine sont aujourd’hui transformés en contenu virtuel, en données culturelles 2 . Ces nouveaux artefacts sont accessibles depuis une grande variété de terminaux informatiques et mobiles sur des réseaux de télécommunication tels que l’Internet. Ainsi, le monde a été le témoin au 20ème siècle de l’évolution spectaculaire des technologies de l’information et de la communication. Toutefois, c’est l’accélération des innovations technologiques permettant de dématérialiser et diffuser sur des réseaux numériques les biens publics culturels qui a véritablement bouleversé le secteur des industries culturelles au début du 21ème siècle (le coup d’envoi dans le domaine de la musique ayant été donné par Napster en 2001 aux États-Unis). Ce mouvement a également pris de l’ampleur en France à la fin des années 90 avec la mise en œuvre de programmes de numérisation et le lancement de la bibliothèque numérique publique Gallica par la BNF. Internet constitue là aussi une innovation de rupture dans le champ des vecteurs de diffusion des connaissances et d’accès à la culture. Le cas de la France est particulièrement intéressant en raison de la richesse exceptionnelle de son patrimoine culturel et de la volonté des pouvoirs publics d’utiliser cet atout pour dynamiser l’économie nationale, avec des secteurs comme le tourisme qui en bénéficient directement3. Fin 2012, près de 22 millions de foyers disposaient d’une 1 Par ces mots, Gérard Berry ouvrait sa Leçon inaugurale au Collège de France en 2008 à l’occasion de la création de la chaire d’Innovation technologique. 2 Expression employée par le Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication en France, dans le Guide data culture (2013). 3 La France est toujours en 2013 le pays le plus touristique au monde avec plus de 84,7 millions de visiteurs pendant l’année (source : http://www.lesechos.fr/28/01/2014/lesechos.fr/0203275942740_la- france-reste-la-premiere-destination-touristique-mondiale.htm, consultée le 03/09/2014). 1 Introduction générale connexion4 pour naviguer sur la Toile. Cet accès leur permet de visiter les galeries virtuelles du Louvre, de regarder les images d’archive de l’INA.fr, ou encore de se former à distance sur le site du CNED. Musées, bibliothèques publiques, instituts d’archives, et autres organisations publiques ont dû réadapter leur mission afin de rendre accessible sur le Web leur patrimoine culturel à tous les citoyens. Le numérique est devenu une part importante de la réalité de ces institutions qui se transforment sur le Web en producteurs de données culturelles (Baujard, 2012). Ce qu’est devenu l’industrie culturelle au sens large est donc parvenu à un tournant historique, similaire à celui que vécurent les autres pays européens lors de l’invention de l’imprimerie par Gutenberg en 1452 (Barbier, 2002). Les inventions techniques ont toujours joué un rôle incontournable dans les moyens de transmission des connaissances, depuis l’apparition de l’écriture jusqu’aux livres imprimés en pâte à papier au 21ème siècle5. Pourtant, sous l’effet de la formidable explosion technique du numérique, le rapport de l’homme avec ses semblables, sa culture et son histoire, semble être entré dans un bouleversement profond qui atteint la racine même de sa nature et de la nature du monde qui l’entoure. Comme le souligne Bomsel : « la dématérialisation de l’écriture, sa circulation mondiale instantanée font rupture, tant dans l’histoire de la coordination des individus que, possiblement, dans ses représentations » (2010, p.
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