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Community Rights, Conservation and Contested Land Community Rights, Conservation and Contested Land In memory of Alan Rodgers (1944–2009): ecologist, activist and mentor to several generations of conservationists in East Africa and beyond Community Rights, Conservation and Contested Land The Politics of Natural Resource Governance in Africa Edited by Fred Nelson publishing for a sustainable future London · New York First published in 2010 by Earthscan Copyright © IUCN 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as expressly permitted by law, without the prior, written permission of the publisher. ISBN: 978-1-84407-916-2 hardback Typeset by Bookcraft Ltd, 18 Kendrick Street, Stroud, GL5 1AA Cover design by Andrew Corbett For a full list of publications please contact: Earthscan 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Earthscan 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Earthscan is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Earthscan publishes in association with the International Institute for Environment and Development A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Community rights, conservation and contested land: the politics of natural resource governance in Africa / edited by Fred Nelson. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84407-916-2 (hardback) 1. Nature conservation–Government policy–Africa. 2. Conservation and natural resources– Government policy–Africa. 3. Biodiversity–Government policy–Africa. 4. Land tenure–Africa. 5. Community development–Africa. 6. Political participation–Africa. 7. Africa–Environmental conditions. 8. Africa Politics and government. I. Nelson, Fred, 1976- QH77.A4C56 2010 333.72096–dc22 2010000821 At Earthscan we strive to minimize our environmental impacts and carbon footprint through reducing waste, recycling and offsetting our CO2 emissions, including those created through publication of this book. Contents List of Figures, Tables and Boxes vii List of Contributors ix Preface xiii Acronyms and Abbreviations xv Part 1 Introduction 1 Introduction: The Politics of Natural Resource Governance in Africa 3 Fred Nelson 2 Agrarian Social Change and Post-Colonial Natural Resource Management Interventions in Southern Africa’s ‘Communal Tenure’ Regimes 32 James C. Murombedzi Part 2 Political Economies of Natural Resource Governance 3 The Politics of Community-Based Natural Resource Management in Botswana 55 Liz Rihoy and Brian Maguranyanga 4 Peasants’ Forests and the King’s Game? Institutional Divergence and Convergence in Tanzania’s Forestry and Wildlife Sectors 79 Fred Nelson and Tom Blomley 5 The Evolution of Namibia’s Communal Conservancies 106 Brian Jones 6 Historic and Contemporary Struggles for a Local Wildlife Governance Regime in Kenya 121 Ngeta Kabiri vi Community Rights, Conservation and Contested Land Part 3 Local Struggles and Negotiations across Multiple Scales 7 Windows of Opportunity or Exclusion? Local Communities in the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area, South Africa 147 Webster Whande 8 ‘People are Not Happy’: Crisis, Adaptation and Resilience in Zimbabwe’s CAMPFIRE Programme 174 Liz Rihoy, Chaka Chirozva and Simon Anstey 9 The Rise and Fall of Community-Based Natural Resource Management in Zambia’s Luangwa Valley: An Illustration of Micro- and Macro-Governance Issues 202 Rodgers Lubilo and Brian Child 10 External Agency and Local Authority: Facilitating CBNRM in Mahel, Mozambique 227 Marta Monjane 11 Adaptive or Anachronistic? Maintaining Indigenous Natural Resource Governance Systems in Northern Botswana 241 Masego Madzwamuse 12 Pastoral Activists: Negotiating Power Imbalances in the Tanzanian Serengeti 269 Maanda Ngoitiko, Makko Sinandei, Partalala Meitaya and Fred Nelson Part 4 Looking Forward 13 A Changing Climate for Community Resource Governance: Threats and Opportunities from Climate Change and the Emerging Carbon Market 293 Maxwell Gomera, Liz Rihoy and Fred Nelson 14 Democratizing Natural Resource Governance: Searching for Institutional Change 310 Fred Nelson Index List of Figures, Tables and Boxes Figures 7.1 The Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area and constituent protected areas 150 7.2 The forced removals from the Madimbo corridor 154 9.1 Governance and scale 203 9.2 A comparison of the organization structures and revenue flows of different organizational levels in the three project phases 210 10.1 General elements of the CBNRM model in Mozambique 229 11.1 Map indicating the location of Khwai and Xaxaba 250 12.1 Map of Loliondo 270 14.1 Differences in quality of governance across eastern and southern African nations as measured by the Ibrahim Governance Index (y-axis) and Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index (x-axis) 319 14.2 Levels of ‘voice and accountability’ across different developing areas, as ranked by the World Bank’s Governance Indicators database 323 14.3 Simplified alternative models for providing external support for natural resource decentralization reforms 327 Tables 3.1 CBOs with joint venture partnerships in Ngamiland, Botswana 67 4.1 Current coverage of CBFM across Tanzania 84 4.2 Area of forest land under timber concessions in select African countries 86 4.3 Selected areas of forest under village management and their revenue generation potential, Tanzania 89 4.4 A comparison of key aspects of the governance frameworks for community-based management of wildlife (WMAs) and forests (VLFRs) in Tanzania 97 6.1 Kenya Wildlife Service expenditures, 1998–2003 131 viii Community Rights, Conservation and Contested Land 6.2 Tourism earnings in Kenya, 2000–2007 137 6.3 Kenya Wildlife Service income and expenditure, 1998–2004 138 6.4 Contributions by IFAW to various Kenyan organizations in 2005 and 2006 138 8.1 Household dividend payments and proportion of overall revenue in Mahenye, 1996, 1997 and 2004 184 9.1 An assessment of annual performance (participation, benefits, financial accountability, information flows) at different levels of community administration in the three phases of the programme 209 9.2 A comparison of information on finances in communities between the ‘participatory’ (1997–1999) and ‘recentralization’ (2007) phases 220 11.1 Annual benefits derived from CBNRM activities in Khwai and Xaxaba 251 14.1 Key findings from select national cases regarding patterns of change and reform in natural resource governance, and the underlying drivers of those changes 314 Boxes 13.1 Key predicted climate change impacts in Africa 296 List of Contributors Simon Anstey was born in Tanzania and has spent most of his working life in western and southern Africa, with three years in central Asia and the Middle East. In 1992, he initiated IUCN’s Mozambique programme, supporting post-conflict protected area rehabilitation and pilot community natural resource management initiatives until 2002. He has a doctorate on the politics of natural resource govern- ance and Yao history in northern Mozambique from the University of Zimbabwe and is currently the Director of ResourceAfrica UK. Tom Blomley is a community-based natural resource management specialist, with a strong background in east Africa. From 2003 to 2008 he advised the Tanzanian government on the development of a national multi-donor programme in support of participatory forest management. He currently lives in the UK and works as a freelance natural resource management consultant. Brian Child is Associate Professor in the Geography Department at the University of Florida, and editor of Parks in Transition (2004). He worked for wildlife depart- ments in Zimbabwe for 12 years, subsequently supported park and community- based initiatives in Zambia’s Luangwa Valley, and has worked within the wildlife sector in Uganda, Kenya, Namibia and South Africa. Chaka Chirozva is currently studying for a PhD with the Communication and Innovation Studies Group of Wageningen University, The Netherlands. He is a Lecturer at the Centre for Applied Social Sciences at the University of Zimbabwe and is also Facilitator with the IDRC-funded Scenario Planning, Iterative Assessment and Adaptive Management Project, a regional research and devel- opment initiative which uses participatory scenario planning methodologies with communities in the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area. Maxwell Gomera is a resource economist with experience in community devel- opment issues, biodiversity conservation, commercialization of natural products and community-based natural resource management. He managed the IUCN Regional Office for Southern Africa’s engagement with the mining and extractive industries and was co-chair of the International Working Group on Mining and Metals that produced the mining and metals supplement to the Global Reporting Initiative. Currently, Maxwell is working with the United Nations Environment Programme based in Nairobi, Kenya. x Community Rights, Conservation and Contested Land Brian Jones is an environment and development consultant and researcher, working mainly on CBNRM policy and governance issues in Namibia and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region. He worked as a government official in the Namibian Ministry of Environment and Tourism for ten years where he coordinated the ministry’s CBNRM programme, and has recently worked as a CBNRM policy advisor
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