Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches
Edited by Dr. Saidu Tunenso Umar, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Adamawa State University, Mubi. Adamawa State, Nigeria.
First Edition Science and Education Development Institute, Nigeria
Knowledge for Global Development i
© All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.
This first edition Published 2019 Science and Education Development Institute, Nigeria 2 Church Avenue, Oke Eri Quarters Oba Ile P.O. Box 214, Akure Ondo State Nigeria
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ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.3369738
Knowledge for Global Development ii
BOARD
Abulude, F.O. (Nigeria) - President/CEO
List of Advisory Board Members
Balogun G. A. Sanni, Saag Chemical (Nig.) Ltd, 4 Sanni Way, Off Godwin Omonua, Off Banks Way, Isolo Illasamaja, Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria.
Prof. Mohammad S. Mubarak, Chemistry Department, University of Jordan, Amman- 11942, Jordan.
Prof. T. T. Adebolu, Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Ondo State, Akure, Nigeria.
Prof. Francisco Torrens, Universitat de València, Institut Universitari de Ciència Molecular, Universitat de València, Edificid'Instituts de Paterna, València, Spain.
Hon. Niyi Jones Akinyugha, 30B, Olufumilayo Str., Dideolu Estate, P.O.Box 4822K, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria.
Prof. V. A. Aletor, Elizade University, Ilara Mokin, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Mr. Sola Akitimehin, Akinrinaye Street, Ilesha Garage, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Prof. E. A. Aderinola, Department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
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Table of Contents
Board iii
Contents iv
Acknowledgment vi
Preface vii
Chapter One Role of Communication in Tackling Developmental 1 Issues: The Birinin Gwari Community Theatre Experience
Two Nigeria: A Country Groaning Under the Yoke 12 of Corruption, Nepotism, and Tribalism
Three Impact of Animal Agriculture on Forest Ecosystem 16
Four Cultural Festivities in Nigeria as a Tool for Sustainable 20 Development
Five Developing Entrepreneurial Skills through School Industry 30 Links
Six Depression, Anxiety, and Stress among Medical Education 37 Tutors: Issues for Academic Prospects
Seven Effects of Intercropping Celosia, Amaranthus and Corchorus 57 on the Growth and Yield of Cucumber (Cucumis Sativus L.)
Eight Factors Affecting Development of Education in Nigeria 70
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Nine The Role of Language in Addressing Nigeria’s Multifarious 81 Challenges
Ten Parent’s Behavior and Children Deviancy: Counselling Implications 88
Eleven Languages in Contact and its Influence on Igbo Speakers of 99 English Language
Twelve Influence of Non- Monetary Rewards System on Library 112 Staff Performance in Polytechnics in Nigeria
Thirteen Ambient Air Quality Assessment in Nigeria: Challenges 124 and Remedies
Fourteen Educational Policy in Nigeria 133
Fifteen Beyond Ballot Box: How Can We Save Nigeria? 139
Sixteen Digitization of Nigerian Polytechnics Library Resources 146 for Sustainable National Development in the 21st Century
Seventeen Prospects Accrued to Using Found Objects as Tools for Curbing 162 Land Pollution in Gombe Metropolis, Nigeria
Eighteen Agricultural Development and Sustainable Income to Farmers 172 in Osun State: Challenges and Prospects
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Acknowledgments
On behalf of the board members, I wish to thank God for the successful completion of this book project. I would like to acknowledge all the contributors in this book project for taking the pain to write and submit the manuscripts for publication considerations. It is worthy of note to thank the editor for the time taken to review the manuscripts. Lastly, my sincere appreciation also goes to the staff members of the institute. Kudos for their contributions since the inception of this citadel of learning. I appreciate you all for the efforts contributed so far.
Abulude, F.O. FNISLT, MIPAN, MICCON President/CEO August 2019
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Preface
Throughout the world, there are multifarious problems confronting different countries either as developed or developing. Each of the countries develops different methods using human or other resources with the aim of tackling and solving the problems. Nigeria is one of the countries, it has problems peculiar to the nation and efforts are geared up to providing solutions.
Part of the solution to the Nigeria problems is the production of this book chapter. Authors have identified multifarious issues within the nation and they have provided multidisciplinary solutions to them. The book is edited by Dr. Saidu Tunenso Umar, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Adamawa State University, Mubi. Adamawa State, Nigeria.
The book is made up of eighteen chapters. Chapter one is based on the use of communication in tackling developmental issues. The author emphasizes on the use of community theatre approach and strategy to pass development information to natives who only understand the local languages. Through this medium, communication and language barriers are solved.
In Chapter Two, the author identifies the problems encountered in Nigeria are largely due to Corruption, Nepotism, and Tribalism. If Nigerians want to succeed as a nation, there will be a need to start building the foundation of genuine federal character. The federal character operating presently is lopsided and depriving the citizenry of intelligent manpower. The solution to all these is to build a true and genuine national character.
Chapter three depicts the problem of disequilibrium in the forest ecosystem, it examines the issues revolving around the impacts of Agricultural production (Animal) on the forest ecosystem. The paper advocates for small scale form size as a way out for combating the disequilibrium in the forest ecosystem. In addition, it recognizes the need to formulate and implement a policy that will ensure safety, both in food production and forest ecosystem.
In chapter four, it is shown that cultural festivities in Nigeria can be used as a tool for sustainable development. The paper aims at describing the potentialities of cultural festivities in harnessing cultural resource for sustainable development. The paper also derives from environmental determinism perspective which describes the activity of man is largely determine by his own physical environment. Nigerians living in different areas of the country have learned to adapt to their environment as it determines the types of culture to practice in that particular environment.
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The author of chapter five is of opinion that learning should involve the acquisition of skills through practical involvement which can only be achieved through linking school with industry. This now brings the concept of entrepreneur and entrepreneurship education. It also looks into some strategies for inculcating entrepreneurial skills into youths so as to make them independent and, in the long run, become employers of labour. School link with industry allows students the opportunity of exploring firsthand real equipment and machinery in the industry where they are attached. It is concluded that entrepreneur and entrepreneurship education can bring a lasting solution to one of the multifarious issue in Nigeria – unemployment.
The results of the study in chapter six have been conducted to determine the prevalence levels of Depression, Anxiety and Stress (DAS) among medical educators in Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria using a descriptive survey developed by Lovibond and Lovibond, (1995). The results indicated that DAS prevalence levels were high among medical educators. Depression and stress tend to be high among medical educators, anxiety tends not to be prevalent. To prevent the problems of DAS, recommendations were made among which is to provide medical educators, counseling experts, and psychotherapists with information which is useful in planning, designing and strategizing interventions to effectively and efficiently deal with problems confronting students in our schools.
In Chapter seven, the author shows the advantage of intercropping as increasing crop productivity. It is noted that fruit and leafy vegetables are of great importance worldwide most especially in the human diet as they contain all the necessary minerals and vitamins needed for the proper functioning of the human system. Sadly, due to the problem of land scarcity and crop ranking, it has become difficult to cultivate them extensively. The author is of the opinion that if intercropping is practiced in Nigeria farms, there will be an increase in crop productivity which will reduce hunger and poverty.
The main focal point of chapter eight is to look at factors that affect the development of education in Nigeria with particular reference to socio-political, economic, environmental and cultural factors. The study highlights some of the problems or challenges education face in Nigeria and concluded by recommending improvement in funding, the motivation of the teachers, provision of a guideline, organizing seminar, workshop, conference and so on. All these will bring development to the educational system in Nigeria.
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Chapter nine is based on the roles of language in addressing Nigeria’s multifarious challenges. The paper reviews some of the challenges confronting the nation and the role of language in addressing them. In the paper the roles include: helping the society to keep evolving, a tool for personal and communal communication, elimination of misunderstanding of ideas, opinions, and feelings, and promotes cooperation in the society, used for sharing and exchange of ideas, a tool for enlightenment, education, social interaction, preservation of culture, storing of information, and transmission of history and also responsible for establishing and maintaining relationship with other people, societies and nations.
In chapter ten, the author examines the influence of parent’s actions and parenting style on their children and the counselling implications with a view of assisting parents to develop the right behavior that could help curb their children’s deviancy. The various concepts in the study were defined; types and causes of deviance were also explored. It further discussed parents’ behavior and their parenting styles that could result in deviant behavior in children. The study was concluded by recommending therapeutic counselling measures and parental skills that could be adopted to correct children deviant behavior. This piece reminds us that children are future leaders. They should walk on the right path.
The paper in chapter eleven examines the influence of languages in contact on Igbo speakers of the English language. It describes the concept of language in contact in Nigeria context with particular reference to the level of use and level of prestige of the two languages, English and Igbo, the social status of Igbo language in Nigeria and Problems of languages in contact especially the Igbo speakers of English. The use of English appears to be more prominent regardless of age: the older people use English even where Igbo should be appropriated while the younger ones use both languages but English more. The paper concludes that parents should teach their children their mother- tongue. The paper recommends that Igbo speakers should be admonished to speak and teach the language to their children.
According to authors of chapter twelve, they studied the effects of non- monetary rewards on the performances of library staffs in Nigerian polytechnics using purposive sampling technique. The study reveals that verbal recognition/praise, awards, office get- together/end of year celebration and special treats are the major forms of recognition that enhance staff members’ performances. It was suggested that Polytechnics library management should improve and sustain the culture of celebrating staff achievement and performance.
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Chapter thirteen shows that in Nigeria, there is an air pollution problem which is above the control of individuals, and this demands the action and efforts of stakeholders at the national, regional, and local levels. No doubt, air pollutions are generated in agricultural, waste management, transport, urban planning, individual homes, energy and the like. All the stakeholders should make sure that the policies put in place are successfully implemented to the letter. For example, clean technologies that can reduce industrial smoke/emission (the use of biogas) should be in place and implemented. Lighting, cooking, and heating should be overseen through the use of affordable clean household energy. In the area of urban planning, concerted efforts should be geared towards making the cities green and compact. Vehicular emission should be clean by the use of clean and low-emission vehicles and fuels. Agricultural and municipal wastes should be recycled, reused, and reprocessed. Generally, if the remedies outlined in this paper and others are strictly followed, the challenges will be a thing of the past on air quality, Nigeria will compare well with the developed world.
Chapter Fourteen: In this chapter, educational policy in Nigeria has since colonial times been a tool for the elites and not for national development. The author noted reliable data is not used in planning education in Nigeria, educational policy implementation is often hindered by political interplay fueled by ethnoreligious sentiments, educational policies have good intentions but planning is often defective and not empirical, and educational policy in Nigeria is elitist and does not favor those in rural areas or the poor. On these issues, it recommended that: Government and private organizations should invest more in research and empirical study to guide educational policy formulation, a homegrown and decentralized system of education that promotes regional strengths should be advanced to make education more relevant, educational policies should be more inclusive of the diverse forms of education and increased funding for education.
Beyond Ballot Box: How Can We Save Nigeria? is a review contribution in chapter fifteen. It reveals that like most countries in Africa particularly Nigeria, the corridor of power has been saturated by various autocratic leadership in spite of the unquantifiable quest for democracy and democratic processes. The most crucial and critical challenges have been how campaigns rallies are designed and pursued. Post ballot benefits are mostly shattered right at the processes of the campaign. As a follow-up to results from the ballot box, elected officials become mischief markers and blackmailers. Hence, the course of governance is turned out to be something else. Sequel to these trends, Academics, Professional bodies, Captains of industries and civil society groups have a lot to offer to the project of Nigeria as a nation-state.
Chapter sixteen is all about Digitization of Nigerian Polytechnic Library Resources for Sustainable National Development in the 21st Century. The case of Edo State, Nigeria.
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The findings reveal that improving library visibility, speedy retrieval of a document, improved library services, space conservation, and increased access to library materials, improve inter-library collaboration, effective preservation of library materials, and increase marketing are the major reasons for the digitization of polytechnics library resources in Edo State. However, the challenges of digitalization of the libraries are inadequate funding, insufficient management support, poor internet connectivity, high cost of purchasing equipment, erratic power supply, inadequate skilled personnel and lack of planning for digitization. To eradicate these problems, it is recommended that the Polytechnic management should ensure that library budget, library dues and other monetary allocations for the library are judiciously expended on library development especially in the area of digitization.
The study reported in chapter seventeen examines the prospects accrued to using found objects as a tool for curbing land pollution in Gombe metropolis, Nigeria. Study shows that several refuse dumpsites (Solid wastes like metals, plastics, woods, glasses, ceramics, leather, stones among others) are within the metropolis. Instead of these dumps to become a nuisance, they found usefulness to the artists known as found objects. The paper, therefore, recommends the need for using found object materials at the dump sites to creatively produce works of art known as found object sculptures.
Chapter Eighteen reveals that the dwindling oil price and expected population rise is a serious cause of concern for every Nigerian at home and in the Diaspora. This calls for the need to diversify the economy and expressly shift focus to once abandoned agriculture considering Nigeria abundant natural and human resources, and the role of agro-allied enterprises in economic development. It is noted that agricultural practices have the potential for the development of any economy which can manifest in employment generation, skills acquisition, economic growth, rural development, industrialization and better utilization of indigenous resources. In this study, the importance, challenges, and prospects of farmers in the socio-economic development of the rural community vis-à-vis the Osun State is addressed. Findings show that that small- scale farming has contributed to the growth and development of the economy, while there is no commensurate attention/contribution by the government. Developing agricultural sector is the best alternative to the oil economy, and an important strategic move to get the country out of her current economic predicament. The government should encourage local farmers and production of goods and services to promote small industries by buying/using locally made products and or services and allocating adequate funds for SMEs (more importantly agricultural sector) growth and development in the Nigerian economy.
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Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches
Chapter One
Role of Communication in Tackling Developmental Issues: The Birinin Gwari Community Theatre Experience.
Ihuoma Okorie Department of Theatre and Performing Arts, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Abstract
The importance of development to the growth of any nation cannot be overemphasized. Communication, on the other hand, is an indisputable instrument of development hence, for the development goals of a nation to strive, communication has to be put in its proper context; this lies in the fact that communication can be said to be the only viable tool that can be used to bring development to the doorstep of its citizenry. Therefore, for communication to be successful, the decoding process must be an indication of proper understanding. In Nigeria, however, inadequate communication linkages have stood as a bane to development both in the Urban and rural areas coupled with the fact that the people whom development is meant for are often times, excluded from the development process hence, the utmost need to place communication in its proper context for development. In view of the above, this paper focuses on the people which the paper captures as the Natives and their role in the process of communication using a development communication approach and strategy known as Community Theatre. Findings from the paper show that through Community Theatre, the Natives were able to immerse themselves in the development process via participation thus, accentuating the fact that development cannot be devoid of the people whom it is meant for. This, therefore, is a pointer to the fact that strategic communication plays a huge role in development is adequately utilized.
Introduction
In the recent past, many projects have left in a deplorable state and the people been initiated both in the urban and rural whom the development was planned for areas with the objective of bringing left worse than they used to be; This development to the doorstep of these suggests that the projects are not communities. However, most of these sustained to achieve their intended projects have either been abandoned or lifespan. Therefore, it is important to state at this juncture that one of the This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 1 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches important factors that can sustain understood, effective communication development projects is communication. must take place.
It is then right to state that Basically, Mefalopulos, (2008) sees communication is more complex than communication as a social process that information because its processes are produces changes in the knowledge, composed of multiple complementary attitudes, and behaviors of individuals, informative processes. This suggests and groups through providing why communication and development motivational or persuasive messages as are viewed as closely intertwined well as facilitating the learning process phenomena, where one is believed to and social environments. These results guarantee the other (Servaes, 2008). might then lead to an increase in the mastery of crucial skills by the individual Using the concept of the Native as well as enhance the achievement of Narrative Voice which places emphasis goals. on the Native in the communication process, this paper hopes to take a deep This paper, therefore, sees look at how communication interfaces communication as a process which often with development using a community leads to a product because of the theatre experience which took place at exchange of ideas that takes place which Brinin Gwari in 2009. often yields positive results. Hence, in the context of development, The Concept of Communication and communication can be viewed as a Development Defined medium, a process and a product, used Communication as a discipline has for the purpose of the intervention. attracted several definitions by different scholars in the field. Clevenger (1959) Development on the other hand as posited communication to be any captured by Nwosu, (1990) is a widely dynamic information sharing process participatory process aimed at bringing while Keyton (2011) defined social and material advancement for the communication as the process of majority of people through gaining transmitting information and common control of their environment. He went understanding from one person to further to state that sustainable another. Lunenburg (2010) draws development is that which all the above- attention to Keyton’s definition that mentioned growth are attained without unless a common understanding results any negative effect on the environment from the exchange of information, there and the totality of development plans, is no communication. This is a pointer to projects, programs, and policies being the fact that for the message to be able to endure for a long time for the
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 2 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches benefit of today’s and tomorrow’s development without the native who is generations. usually at the center of the communication process. In a similar development, Gboyega (2003:54) captures development as an A “native” is also synonymous with idea that embodies all attempts to “indigenous” or “locals”, a son or improve the conditions of human daughter of the soil; in local parlance, existence in all ramifications. It implies Alubo, (2009:4) refers to it as the ascribed an improvement in the material identity of being born in a particular wellbeing of all citizens and not the most location into a specific ethnic group powerful and rich alone, in a sustainable considered to have a ‘homeland’ within way such that today’s consumption does the locality. not imperil the future. Simply put, the word native simple This paper, therefore, defines denotes a person born in a specified development as a communication place or associated with a place by birth process which often leads to behavior or by virtue of residence. This suggests change through the people’s active that a native does not only constitute one participation. For behavior change to be who has indigenous affiliations with a achieved, the right communication tool particular place but also one who resides must be ascertained and deployed. in a particular location and has naturalized to be called a citizen of that Bringing both concepts together, this particular place. That aside, the paper defines communication for individual must have settled or occupied development as a conscious and a particular location by way of deliberate effort of using appropriate interacting with the community and communication techniques and channels their culture and is satisfied with it between the natives and facilitators to hence, knowing the community well. come to an understanding of their development issues with a view to Thus, anyone who has his or her ethnic deploying an effective communication genealogy elsewhere but has lived all his strategy to support and sustain the goals life in a particular location is also of development. regarded as a native. This lies in the fact that being a native either by birth or The Concept of the Native Narrative naturalization is a permanent identity; Voice thus, representing the society in a This concept as captured by this paper positive light and participating in the explains the relatedness between affairs of that society becomes the community members (Natives) and obligation and duty of the native. development such that there is no
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 3 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches
Therefore, the core of the concept extent of the native’s involvement in the basically is the duty of the native to keep communication process. alive his attention and contributing in a way that would be of benefit to him and In view of the above, it is pertinent to the community/society at large. Hence, state that his inputs are necessary from it is the duty of the native to use his best the onset of the intervention plan if he is and unremitting endeavors to preserve left out, then the plan would be frivolous; and uplift his society through This lies in the sovereignty and authority communication. This lies in the fact that he possesses by virtue of being a native. power resides in the hands of the native to engender the change he so desires in This connotes that without the Native the society where he resides. Thus, it is of narrative voice, there can be no true paramount importance to state that the development and communication. native here is a member of the society Hence, the native is an eminent, and a critical participant whose influential and outstanding member of suggestions and opinions (narratives) his society whose voice is required for are critical if change and sustainable meaningful change and development to development are to be achieved. be achieved. Therefore, without the critical narrative the native, who is often Be that as it may, it is pertinent to state at the center of the process, ownership, that depending on whatever continuity, sustainability, and change, methodology deployed in the will be achieved at the peripheral level development process, the native is hence, trivial. Thus, it can be said that the usually at the center of the indices of development begin with the communication hence, his critical voice native who in turn, develops other facets in the communication process which of his society. often brings about behavior and social change in the lives of the individuals and The native therefore constitute anyone in community at large. This suggests that the community who contribute he is fully part of the preliminary visit positively by way of dishing out useful through to the follow-up stage information which fosters and engenders change in the society wherein he lives. Even more, the native has unique Thus, the native can be the Community cultures and ways of relating with heads, the members who make up the people and the environment hence, the Community Based Organizations, The facilitators have a duty of paying rapt Community Based Influencers, the attention to the culture of the native for trader, the battered wife, the market the purpose of achieving change. This is woman and others whose narrative voice because the extent to which the culture of is very key, critical and influential in the the native is respected determines the development process. This lies in the fact
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 4 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches that they all have a stake and run the symbols within the community to community affairs. Thus, it can be capture the problems of a community inferred that theatre has the power to inform a play which in turn provides engender change but the ultimate power information and awareness which will resides in the hands of the native. instigate community members to engage in debate and discussion of the issues In applying this concept to this paper, it raised by the drama. This will then lead is pertinent to state that at the center of to a kind of critical consciousness, a kind any TFD intervention is the native whose of awareness that moves community narrative voice at the different stages of members to action. the development intervention is critical if change and development are to take In Community Theatre, the audiences place. Thus, they contribute by way of who are active participants are storytelling, performance and dishing encouraged to intervene and change the out information often by way of telling story. stories, from the research gathering process down to the implementation In the community theatre project, it is stage. This lies in the sovereignty and pertinent to state that the students pick a authority that is bestowed on them by target community, take up residence virtue of being a Native. with the community members from one to two weeks. During their period of Community Theatre residence, they collaborate with the Among the many communication tools villagers to identify and prioritize local available, theatrical representation is a problems and together with the villagers, favorite in many parts of Africa. This is they devise plays based on the issues because, through theatrical performance, with the village member directing, the masses are able to determine what guiding the stories and acting the roles. they consider to be the uses, abuses, and This approach is a participatory method misuses of power in their own of conducting development usually environment hence, it can be used to meant to help the community to evolve totally transform society. strategies for dealing with their problems. In view of the above, Okwori, (2004) posited that Community theatre is one This Corroborates with the view of that is localized with a particular Eugene, (2001) who states that human community which addresses issues and Development requires participation and problems within the community. He participation, in turn, requires went further to state that Community communication. This lies in the fact that Theatre uses the language, the artistic Communication plays an important role forms of expression and the codes and by involving community members from
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 5 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches the inception and completion of a project begins with the preliminaries where the to curb all the other factors. animators who engage in community Communication plays a key role in the theatre work begin by linking up with participation process which in turn the project modalities and logistics. affects human behavior change including the behavior that is part of As a praxis, therefore, how can we show development. that communication has a place in the development process? What is the For this reason, Diouf, (1994) states that relationship and at what point to the Unless people themselves are the interface? Note that a positive interface driving force of their own brings about a positive outcome (change) development, no amount of and vice versa. What kind of investment or provision of communication has what kind of effect technology and inputs will bring on the aspects of development? about any lasting improvements in their standard of living. Communication interfaces with Communication is therefore development at various stages right from central to this task by way of the planning stage through to the enabling planners when evaluation stage. This lies in the fact that identifying and formulating communication here is seen as a development programs to consult deliberate intervention to affect with people in order to take into behavior, the social and economic account their needs, attitudes and change that holds the most interesting traditional knowledge. Only with possibilities. communication will the project beneficiaries become the principal This, therefore, suggests that the use of actors to make development communication carries wider programs successful. implications, as dialogue and dialogic approaches require from all parties the From the above, it can be deduced that flexibility and openness to adjust to development ultimately is supposed to unexpected outcomes. That is why it is affect people because it requires important that whenever the team interaction between one person and considers using communication, they another or a group of people hence, what make sure to have a clear mind on the communication does here is to facilitate scope of the intervention and which kind that sharing process or interaction at of communication is needed. More every point in time. importantly, Loose, (1991) is of the view that in the development context, As regards the methodology, Okwori, communication can be divided into two (2004) states that community theatre main modalities; one-way
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 6 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches communication (also referred to as Village head as well as his chiefs were monologic communication) and two- excited and hoped that the exercise way communication (also referred to as would yield a positive result. dialogic communication) in the one way monologic approach, the objectives of This visit ushered the team into the the communication intervention are second stage which is the community usually pre-defined in a specific way research. As aptly captured by Okwori, while the objectives in a dialogic (2004) Community research is necessary approach are defined very loosely as to articulate the community’s problems/ they serve as guidelines to guide the issues as seen by the people themselves. process rather than defining outputs. From the foregoing, it can be said that community research is a participatory Communication hence becomes approach where the team associates instrumental in facilitating a joint search freely with the natives, living with them, for the best available option which is eating with them and at the same time, likely to be more sustainable given the sharing in their activities while at the fact that will be shaped by the local same time, respecting their culture and stakeholders themselves (Loose 1991). tradition. This helps to build rapport, trust, and confidence. Precisely, the class began the development journey by paying courtesy According to the World Congress on visits to discuss the idea with the Communication for Development community, as well as take permission (WCCD) (2006), the key to success in from the community elders and development initiatives is to start with authority and collect basic information the participatory analysis of the needs of on the communities. Okwori, (2004) local institutions and stakeholders, further states that the organization and taking into account local culture and operational arrangements should be values, and promoting a concerted action determined and handled by and with the for the development. people because this stage helps to identify available communication Therefore, Participatory analysis of the channels and cultural factors without needs of the beneficiaries can best be which the development project cannot done with the help of communication. In happen or succeed. This prepared the view of the above, the class was shared class to move into the community. into groups to gather information from the different districts in the community. Suffice to say at this point that there was At the point of the team convergence a visit to the village head of Brinin Gwari after collecting, researching and where the team registered their presence gathering information from the and stated the purpose of their visit. The community, various issues found to be
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 7 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches the teething problems of the community that the rehearsals increased their were poor road network, lack of potable awareness and understanding of the drinking water and a poor drainage issues at stake thereby, getting system. empowered. This stage of conscientization and empowerment is During the data analysis which involved itself, development. Even more, the both the team and the natives, there was people were excited at the whole process an interface between communication and those who were initially shy gave in and development because the issues by contributing in a way that the were extensively discussed by everyone performance would capture the real in terms of how the issues came about, issues they were facing. their effects and consequences as well as the possible mitigation strategies. This is However, it is pertinent to state that because the people critically understood rehearsals become performances once the problems and strategies that may be the playmaking process crystalizes. used to critically overcome them. During the performance, community members were allowed to intervene The next stage where communication because the team engaged them interfaced with development was the regularly even while the performance is scenario building stage. Here, the ongoing by throwing actions and debates problems as discussed were analyzed in to them. Immediately after the a dramatic way such that it would performance, the village heads all provoke discussion and challenge the converged to re-examine the issues natives to take action. As stated by raised in the play as well as plan Okwori, (2004) this is the point where strategies for action. appropriate cultural forms are identified and integrated. This to a large extent At the different stages of the project, determined the style of the performance. communication was deployed which in Here, the team facilitated the process of turn facilitated the whole process. This the story creation together with the suggests that helping people at all levels natives. In the process, there was an to communicate empowers them to interface between communication and recognize important issues and find development though not fully attained common grounds for action. This builds but the process to the attainment a sense of identity and participation in involved communication. order to implement their decisions.
Subsequently, rehearsals began which Lastly is the follow-through which is was done in the open and at their usually done by way of revisiting the convenience. Some agreed to play roles communities and giving them while others declined. Suffice to say here
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 8 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches encouragement that helps to motivate It can, therefore, be said that and re-motivate them. development was achieved by, with, and for the community through At this juncture, it is pertinent to state communication; once the awareness is that communication interfaced with created and the community in question is development at different levels and involved, their fate lies in their hands. stages. Firstly, interpersonal communication was used to contact the However, despite the fact that Native people of all levels of education in communication interfaced with the community. The class mostly, development at different levels, both deployed interpersonal communication project implementers and communities to inform the communities about their faced challenges in sustainable projects; this assisted the class in development projects. outlining the advantages of the process and how it will help develop the Though the Community Theatre project communities. Even more, the drama in Brinin Gwari involved the brought to bear, the critical issues that stakeholders in the community there the community faced and the dialogue were still loopholes and gaps in the (Interpersonal communication) which communication process/ method followed afterward. deployed.
In view of all that has been said, possible It is expedient to note at this point that consequences of communication when very often, formal systems of gathering deployed in the development context information will not augur well, this was include enhancement of the native’s self- exactly the case with the group, rather esteem which was crystal visible, well- than immerse themselves in the being through participation in social life, community, they were so formal in their increasing the individual perceived interaction with the natives, though, it efficacy in dealing with other people, didn’t really pose a huge problem but it reinforcing mutual respect and is something that should be discouraged enhancing confidence among social because of its tendencies to hamper the groups and building trust within communication process deployed to communities. The outcomes are the achieve development. ingredients that contribute to the creation of these positive individual, Even more, communication in community and societal changes that community theatre is brief, sudden and together are often referred to as not regular to enhance sustained “development”. Communication can development hence, the need for training thus positively influence development. and re-training.
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In view of all that has been said, this paper advocates for effective Clevenger, Theodore (1959). What is implementation of developmental goals communication? Taskgroup letter in the host communities through number 2, NSCC committee on extant deploying a means of communication theory. Journal of Communication, 9: 527. that the community is quite conversant with. Diouf, J. (1994). Communication. A Key to Human Development. Food and Conclusion Agricultural Organisation: New York. Eugene, E.V. (2001). Community Drama: Communication is not only about raising Global Perspectives. London: Routledge, awareness, informing, persuading, or 2001. changing behavior. It is also about listening, exploring, understanding, Gboyega, A. (2003). ’Democracy and empowering, and building a consensus Development. The Imperative of Local for change. Thus, the role of Governance”: An Inaugural Lecture, Communication in Development is an University of Ibadan pp6-7. empowerment process that helps distinguish it from other forms of Keyton, J. (2011). Communication and communication hence, the view of Organisational Culture: A Key to Mefalopulos, (2003) who states that for Understanding Work Experience. development projects to be truly Thousand Oaks C.A. Sage. significant and meaningful, participation needs to be based on the application of Losee, R., (1991) “Communication genuine two-way communication Defined as Complementary Informative principles and practices. This lies in the Processes” Journal of Information, fact that two-way communication places Communication and Library Science, 5(3). the Native in the right position for Pp 1-15: 1991 development to be attained. In sum, it can, therefore, be said that development Lunenburg, F.C (2010). Communication cannot be devoid of communication and and the Process, Barriers and Improving vice versa. Effectiveness. Belmont, C.A: Wadsworth Cengage. References Mefalopulos, P. (2008). “Development Alubo, O. (2009). “Citizenship and and Communication Source Book”: Identity Politics in Nigeria” in CLEEN Broadening the Boundaries of Conference Proceedings, Citizenship Communication: The World Bank, and Identity Politics in Nigeria. CLEEN Washington D.C. Foundation.
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………………. (2003). “Theory and Third World. Theory and Practice for Practice of Participatory Empowerment: Sage Publications. Communication: The Case of FAO Project” in Communication for Nwosu, I.E. (1990). Mass Communication Development in Southern African Doctoral and National Development, Aba: Frontier Dissertation. The University of Texas Publishers Limited. at Austin. Okwori, J. Z. (ed.) (2004). Community ………………. (2001). “The Use of Theatre: An Introductory Coursebook. Zaria: Communication in Development Tamaza Publishing Co. Ltd. Projects” assessed from accounts/1000/shared/downloads/Th Servaes, J. (2008). Communication for e use of communication in development Development and Social Change. USA: Sage projects%232_Development Publications. Marketplace.html. World Congress on Communication for Melkote, S.R, and Steeces, H.Z. (2001). Development (2006). Lessons, Challenges Communication for Development in the and the Way Forward, World Bank, Washington D.C.
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Chapter Two
Nigeria: A Country Groaning Under the Yoke of Corruption, Nepotism, and Tribalism
Femi Abulude Affection School, 3 Femi Abulude Close, Off Boundary Road, Ita Oluwo Bus Stop, Ikorodu, Lagos.
Introduction
The present political regime in Nigeria under the All Progressive Congress For instance, before a qualified (APC) led government by General contractor could be given a contract Mohammed Buhari (Retd) has been he/she must be ready to cough out a waging a yeoman war against reasonable percentage of the contract corruption. The dictionary meaning of money. How then can such contractor Corruption being illegal or dishonest perform a credible job that can stand the behavior. Buhari having won the election test of time? Some may not even perform to run for another term of four years has the job. The story may end there because sworn to continue with the battle. the officials who are supposed to Unfortunately, in Nigeria, corruption has supervise the job have been become an enormous timber that has compromised. That is why you see branches. Some of these evil branches are abandoned projects all over the place. dishonesty, immoral behaviors, bribery The Ajaokuta Iron and Steel and all forms of illegalities that you can Company that was inaugurated since the think of. Corruption has eaten deep into 70s remained a mirage. The Osogbo Steel the fabrics of the nation. It has mixed Rolling Mills and the Iron and Tools with the water and blood running in our Industry remained moribund. They have veins that in some instances, it is being been constructing the West-East road supported surreptitiously by the state. since only God knows when. The Lagos- Therefore, instead of being Ibadan Expressway has become an aberration, it has become the norms, perpetually a construction site spanning that is why stopping it has become a several years, many foreign nationals herculean task. It is on the above from India and China who had background that this piece of work functional rail services in their countries examines how the menace of corruption could not make our own rail system could curtail in Nigeria’s body polity work because of corruption.
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calamity waiting to happen or should I Electricity, as important as it is, is not say this is already having an effect on us. working in Nigeria. Right from the We heard it in the media already where generation, transmission and some children of the rich and prominent distribution stages, the operation is people in the society were rigged into the fraught with fraud and corruption. The prestigious military college. Majority of light is not regular, as if this is not these children died during the course of enough, the consumers are cheated with the training because they were not a crazy or estimated bill, thus they have mentally and physically qualified to be in to pay for the electricity not used. The that institution. operators refused to supply the consumers with the prepaid meters Moreover, rickety and faulty vehicles which would indicate the exact that are not road worthy ply our roads. consumption. The system allows their The traffic and security agents who are staff to milk the consumer dry on a supposed to discipline the driver and monthly basis. They go about with ban the vehicles from the road look the ladder threatening helpless consumers other way because bribes have who are always on the losing end. exchanged hands.
In the same vein, one would wonder why The people at the helm of affairs are not decades after hitting oil at commercial helping the matter. They have been quantity in Nigeria, we are still diverting our commonwealth into their importing petroleum products. Our private accounts, emptying the national refineries are deliberately unproductive treasury in the process. One can go on and we refuse to build more just because and on. The effect is seriously telling on some greedy individuals are benefitting the nation’s economy. Nothing is from the importation. moving. The only thing that is moving is our commonwealth that is being shipped In the manpower, we sacrifice out of the country by these corrupt competence for incompetence. A people to foreign lands. candidate who performs woefully in an examination is given admission over If we say corruption is bad, its other those who performed well because his sisters, namely nepotism and tribalism parents had paid his way through. What are worse. While we can liking type of citizen would he turn out to be in corruption to acquired immune society? Same goes for a job interview. deficiency syndrome (AIDS), nepotism What type of worker would such be? and tribalism are like Ebola! While Have you thought of the effect on our nepotism is the practice of giving the best medical, engineering, law, education, jobs to a member of your family when construction, aviation, etc.? This is you are in the position of authority;
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 13 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches tribalism is the state of being organized beyond farmers’/Fulani herdsmen into tribes or behavior and attitudes that imbroglio. It is unfortunately amusing are based on strong loyalty to your tribe. that the havoc on the plateau are easily The irony of it all is that when corruption attributed to the Fulani herdsmen while is at play, the nepotism and tribalism the killings in Zamfara States and Sokoto cards are hidden. The spoilt of States are attributed to armed bandits. corruption is therefore taken to the tribal The conspiracy here is that they know coven for protection. It is in this country that Zamfara and Sokoto states are called Nigeria that a former state populated by the Fulanis, therefore it governor who had milked his state dry would sound ridiculous to say that the and laundered the money in a foreign Fulani are killing their own. It has now land was arrested and jailed by his been discovered that the killings in country of the host. This country had Zamfara were caused by miners. zero tolerance for corruption, unlike Nigeria. After completing his jail terms, The solution to all these is to inculcate the his kinsmen rolled out the drums to give true and genuine national character. As him a rousing welcome. With this type of at now, all the regions, federating units royal treatment for a corrupt and or geo-political zones seem to be at per as indicted politician, how will the younger regards to educational attainment. No generation not follow suit or even do the region can be said to be backward again. worse? Let us jettison this dubious tribal and state of Origin sentiment. Let’s build a The common practice in Nigeria is that if united and virile nation where anybody your kinsman is in a position of can be free anywhere. Unfortunately, as authority, he should not be criticized no it is now, foreigners are even more matter how despicable his actions might secured here in Nigeria than we the be. It is in the same manner that we nationals. quickly run down those leaders that are not from our own part of the country. For instance, the moment a Nigerien or Suspicion is all over the land. It is this Chadian enters our territory, he becomes issue of tribalism and nepotism that a Nigerian. His Hausa or Fulani brethren some factions of notorious Boko Haram absorbs him because of religious, cashed in upon at the initial stage of their cultural, social and language affinity. operation. They knew the hatred that has The same goes for Yoruba speaking been created for Fulani herdsmen, they people from the Benin Republic, it is, in seized the opportunity to wreak the same manner, the people from the continuous havoc on helpless villagers. I South-East and South-South embrace am not absolving the Fulani herdsmen foreigners from Cameroon, Equatorial from their perceived aggression, but Guinea and other nationals from Bight of what we are witnessing had gone Benin. This is at the detriment of the real
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Nigerians. We really need to create our building the foundation of genuine national identity and play down on our federal character. The federal character state of origin and tribal affiliations. we are operating now is lopsided and depriving us of intelligent manpower. We always rush to copy or make Let a Nigerian sees himself as a Nigerian reference to United State of America First. Let us start using a place of birth or (USA) when it is convenient for us to do abode instead of a place of Origin, you so but fail to copy what hold her together will see how nepotism and tribalism as a federation under Uncle Sam’s tall would melt away naturally. In the like and big hat of many colors. manner, corruption would reduce drastically. In conclusion, if we really want Nigeria to succeed as a nation, we need to start
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Chapter Three
Impact of Animal Agriculture on Forest Ecosystem
Adedeji Mojirola Silifat Department of Basic and General Studies, Federal College of Forestry, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
It is apparent that agricultural growth and development will continue as long as the population keeps on increasing. To the pursuit of this, an attempt is made in this paper to re-examine the issues revolving around the impacts of Agricultural production (Animal) on the forest ecosystem. Consequently, the paper advocate for small scale form size as a way out for combating the disequilibrium in the forest ecosystem. In addition, it recognized the need to formulate and implement a policy that will ensure safety, both in food production and forest ecosystem.
Keywords: Animal, Ecosystem, Forest, Agriculture
Introduction
Forest clearances on a massive scale for million hectares and more than 75 Agricultural development, urban percent of which has been used to growth, Industrial expansion and produce meat and dairy. Nearly 1/3 of general pressure from an increasing the earth land surface is actually population have reduced the extent, dedicated to raising livestock, thus diversity, and stability of the Nigerian reducing the potential of forest in the Forest FAO (1984). Nigeria through provision of protective coverage, careless exploitation and husbandry income-generating activities and destroys about 600,000 hectares of her environmental amelioration with the forest every year, whereas the attendant challenge of disposing of over reforestation efforts of about 25,000 500 million forest-dependent people of hectares a year replenishes only about which 200 million are indigenous people. 4(%) percent of the loss Okafor (1988). Vennard (2017) the service forests provide are key to sustainable During the last 50 years, Agricultural development and human well-being. land has expanded by roughly 500
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Trading tropical forest for farmland is consumption are fed monoculture one of the most destructive things we do grains such as corn and soybeans. to the environment and it rarely done to (2) Loss of forest cover and benefits 850 million people who, are still biodiversity Alebisou et al., (2009). hungry and unable to meet the minimum In Brazil alone, it is reported that animal protein requirement as animal agriculture is responsible recommended by FAO (1970). for between 70-80 percent of Amazon Forest loss. The potential of Animal agriculture in (3) Contribution to global warming. meeting the shortfall in animal protein Methane from ruminant is said to supply in Nigeria cannot be over- be responsible for 2.5 percent of emphasized. Atimo and Akinyele (1983) total greenhouse gases. observed that protein from livestock is (4) Resource degradation and needed for physical and intellectual environmental damage caused by development as well as for developing deforestation, overgrazing, and immunity against diseases. Animal pollution. agriculture also serves various crucial (5) Climate change roles in the livelihood of marginalized (6) Erosion and poor people. It contributes to the (7) The inability of animal agriculture local diet, provide cash, draught power, to meet National target for animal organic fertilizer and as a means of protein. transportation of heavy equipment. (8) Desert Encroachment. (9) Pollution of Dams and water However, the importance of animal bodies (Rivers and stream) i.e. agriculture as an efficient and Effluent from farms. economical means of food production (10) Conflicts between crops farmers has been challenged and the impacts and livestock rearers (Nomadic have been expressed on a number of Fulanis). issues notably: (1) Competition with alternative land Getting Animal agriculture and use and with the use of cereals Forestry moving and some roots and tubers as Agricultural production as it were, can animal feed or human be reconciled with a healthy consumption. Research has environment. In this connection, it must shown that eating animals has be emphasized that any measure to been said to drive an increase in encourage agriculture and forestry pesticide and fertilizer intensive development in the direction of high crop production. Since most productivity in our rural communities animals raised for human should among others consider:
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(1) A change in the behavior of (8) Promotion of better natural producers and conservators. In resource management. this regard, the conservation (9) Ensuring careful analysis and organization need to accept assessment of livestock farmers as partners that needs to development strategies towards take eco-agriculture into account better use of local resources. through raising awareness of the importance of sustainable Farm size strategy agriculture which is not the At present, the relationship between importance of sustainable farm size and agriculture productivity is agriculture which is not only to of considerable important vis-a-viz preserve biodiversity but also to maintenance of forest eco-system. In feed the world, maintain Nigeria, policymakers and their sustainable agriculture, livelihood technocrats seem to advocate for large and enhance human well-being. scale farming as a strategy of increasing (2) Modification of the production agricultural productivity. This position is process through identification of supported by a number of arguments, appropriate technology and but unfortunately, there has been very define the strategy for livestock little recognition in the immense development that is applicable to magnitude of the environmental crisis the various agroecosystem. and ecological disequilibrium which, (3) Pure research in developing a most of these large scale farming has production system that meets initiated. Hence, these papers propose biodiversity objective. and advocate for small scale form size. (4) The dissemination of the result of problem-solving research and The small form sector is of tremendous operate a feedback Mechanism importance for developing countries like through a revamped and effective Nigeria, especially in this time of extension service. growing economy, ecological crisis and (5) Ensuring that communities and agricultural enterprise conflict. their leaders are encouraged to recognize that their forest has Literature have not supported the commercial potential and can be a economies of scale argument for large source of income. scale farming Igbozurike (1977), Mu’Azu (6) Having agriculture tailored to (1981). By promoting diversity based current and future climate change small farming, especially agroforestry, to ensure food production. high amount of carbon dioxide can be (7) Maintaining the old rule of tied up in soil organic matter, much planting a tree when one is cut larger and trees. Small farms are more down. resilient to climate-related hazards like
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 18 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches drought, floods, and storms. However, FAO (1984) Food and Agricultural the aim here is to find out which Organization Forest Destruction and production system/process will achieve Agriculture in Nigeria. Rome. the twin objective of food production and forest ecosystem stabilization. FAO (1970): Provisional Indication plan for Agricultural Development vol. I & II Conclusion FAO Rome.
Agriculture and Forestry in their various Igbozurike U.M. (1977): Agriculture at forms, types, and structures serve a the crossroad: A comment on number of useful roles and hold out Agricultural ecology, Ile-Ife University good promises for development. of Ife Press. However, these potential and promise can only be achieved if solid efforts are Mu’Azu (1981): “Green Evolution and made too much maintenance of the ecosystem A Biological memo in ecosystem and progress in agricultural G.O.I. Abelu Y. Abdulahi and A.M. Iman development – a cost-benefit balance (ed). The Green Revolution in Nigeria between economic growth and Zaria Department of Agricultural environmental integrity. Such efforts Economics & Rural Sociology, Ahmadu should have a policy dimension, Bello University. Pp 22-26. therefore, Nigerian should formulate and implement a policy that will ensure Okafor F.C. (1988): Rural Development safety. and the environment Degradation versus protection in P.O. Sada and F.O. References Odemerho (ed) Environmental issues and management in Nigeria Alebiosu Isaac B and Oyeleye B. (2009) Development. Evans Brother (Nigeria Effect of shade of Nurse Crops on published) e.d. pg 150-163. Infestations of Hypsipy larobusta MOORE on Khaya Ivorensis in Journal of Forestry Vennand D. (2017): we’re lousy al at and Management vol. 6, p9 65-75. Describing sustainable food, but it doesn’t have to be that way/world Atimo O and Akinyele O. (1983): resources institute (internet) sustainable Nutrition and Food policy of Nigeria brands.com 2017. (cited 2017 Sep 12 published by National Institute for Available from policy and strategic studies Kuru, Jos http://www.wri.org/blog/2017/03 pp3 – 10. were lousy deserving sustainable food- it-doesn’t-have-be-way.
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Chapter Four
Cultural Festivities in Nigeria as a Tool for Sustainable Development
Umar Abba and Ahmad Said Abubakar Department of Geography, Aminu Kano College of Islamic and Legal Studies
Abstract
Festival is a way of life for people. In Nigeria for instance, there are different types of festivals and masquerades to praise the Holy Spirit or mark the return of the spirits to human societies and to celebrate or regain the fertility of people and fields. What constitutes the African theatre today can rightly be attributed to traditional festivals that epitomize the culture and religion of the Africans. However, this paper aimed at describing the potentialities of cultural festivities in harnessing cultural resource for sustainable development. The paper also derives from environmental determinism perspective which describes the activity of man is largely determine by his own physical environment. Nigerians living in different areas of the country have learned to adapt to their environment as it determines the types of culture to practice in that particular environment. This is the reason why almost every state in Nigeria has its own particular festival to showcase in a given place over a specific period of time. Moreover, Kano state has major festivities such as Sallah Durba, Maukibi, Takutaha; Ikeji and Iwaji Festivities are in Abia State, in Lagos State there are Eyo Festival, Food Festival
Introduction
Nigeria is enriched with diverse cultural festivities in harnessing cultural resource festivities because of multi-cultural for sustainable development. The paper communities in the country. The also derives from environmental physical configuration of Nigeria is determinism perspective which blessed to the extent that many festivities describes the activity of man is largely rely upon. Most of the requirements determine by his own physical needed for Nigerian cultural exhibition environment. are not par fetch, so it can easily mobilize the available resources that largely Culture is a way people make a living. remain untapped. This paper aimed at Human beings are members of social describing the potentialities of cultural groups with shared and unique sets of culture which involve behaviors, This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 20 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches attitudes, language, food, dress, festivals, festivals that are rich in mythology, religion, etc. Arreola et al (2008) defined which can be harnessed to generate culture as the total of knowledge, revenue. Festival is taken to be a time attitudes, and behaviors shared by and for showing appreciation to the ancestors passed on by the members of a specific for having seen them through the group. It acts as a blueprint for how a planting season and for protection. group of people should behave if they During the festivals, there are displays of want to fit in with the group. It ties us to traditional music, magic, masquerading, one group and separates us from other dressing and so on and so forth during groups and helps us to solve the the period. Festival attracts people from problems that all humans face. all works of life and serves as a form of Therefore, the lifestyle of people is the re-union to all indigenes. main aspect of culture that differs with geographical locations and every State Physical Environment and Festivities has its own way of doing things which is The difference in location, landform, almost peculiar to them. climate, soil, vegetation, etc. determine the prevailing human activity in the area Every social group has its organized and consequently to their cultural series of acts and performances to festivities. Climate is a principal present their own festivals and holiday determinant of culture. The cultures in occasions for the celebration of the tropics where living is ‘easy’ and heat happiness or otherwise. People celebrate is thought to induce lethargy are inertia ceremonies based on their cultural to underdevelopment (Frenkel, 1992 and heritage at a different time and special Gallagher, 1993). As the prevailing days in the year. Many demonstrations reality expresses, the environment has a of diverse cultural heritage are capable of notable effect on the culture and custom attracting patronage from national and of the dwellers in general, and with a international tourists. The cultural slight effect on their dressing and eating diversity of places therefore serves as a cultures. For instance, the dressing and natural gift to the extent that each eating culture of cold and hot areas geographic region has colourful events differ. With regard to eating, the people to present at a different time in the year. of the cold region eat more food to get However, on many occasions, people calorie to be able to cope with the dress up in their cultural attires to environment; but the warm area is not showcase their cultural attributes which so. Environment influence the style of has a positive effect on the world cultural artistic work which reflects economy. materials available in the region and cultural themes. Okpoko (1990) argued that African countries like Nigeria have cultural
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The traditional approaches to the study of showcasing the rich, vast and of the relationship between geography beautiful cultural inheritance of our and religion involved the theological great country (Nigeria) (Ebhota, 2018). explorations of the workings of nature, a Therefore, cultural festivities are such highly environmentally deterministic products of heritage that are passed on approach, which identifies the role of from one generation to another geographical environments in generation. Ogirisi (2016) put it forward determining the nature and evolution of that heritages are significant different religious traditions (Kong, endowments emanating from man and 1990). According to Semple and Ratzel nature. Following from the above, nature argue religions are not free from the plays a vital role in laying the foundation influence of the environment (Fekadu, of cultural festivities. As people living in 2014). For example, Buddha, born in the different places in the world, learn how hot region, suffering from heat and to adapt to their own environment. Their humidity, pictured his heaven as environment affects the work or business ‘Nirvana’- the cessation of all activities people do, the food they eat, dress they and individual life. Thus, it influences wear, the religion they practice and even both cultures at large and religion in the kind of homes they build. particular. Take for example two major religions in Nigeria, Christianity Culture and Development dominate South due to early contact with The role and potentialities of culture in missionaries and Islamic culture in the the overall economic development is still North because of trading with Arabs in seriously under-recognized (CSES, 2010). the olden days. Thus, religion plays a That is why many people ask why public role in determining the festival and treasury is spent on cultural festivities? cultural events and most of the cultural This reflects the difficulty to bring festivities have their roots in religion. cultural policy issues at the top ranks as Arreola et al (2008) argue that religion is it has been seen as an economically un- an aspect of culture that has a great deal productive activity. Based on the of influence on people’s lives. It consists knowledge of European economy on of a belief in a supernatural power or decisions and policymaking Sacco (2011) powers that are regarded as the creators argues that policies were operating and maintainers of the universe through outside the cultural realm, the cultural established beliefs and values that define sectors are at best a minor, low- how people worship the divine being or productivity branch of the economy, divine forces and how they behave largely living on external subsidies, and toward each other. which is, therefore, absorbing economic resources more than actually generating Festivals are part of our cultural heritage. them. Not surprisingly, as a coherent Without them, there would be no means consequence of this wrong
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 22 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches conceptualization on cultural activities Consequently, such class may decide to are one of the first and easiest targets of put some of their resources to ensure that public funding cuts during phases of cultural producers could make a living, economic crisis. This situation is mainly thereby getting the possibility to enjoy the consequence of a persisting gap in the the outcome of creative production and conceptualization of the role of culture in to share it with their acquaintances. sustainable development. Patronizing culture, of course, maybe an effective means for further building There has been, in fact, a long record of one’s social status and reputation successful culture-led development of thereby generating income that can be cities, regions and sometimes even used for regional development. Kovari countries. CSES (2010) highlights and Zimanyi (2010) opine that culture is impressive figures that have emerged one of the tourism products, its scope from first attempts at measuring the covers more and more countries and economic size of cultural and creative regions in the world and not only highly sectors in Europe that attracted much developed countries enable to generate attention from administrations at all out-going tourism flows are getting levels, including ones that never paid involved in tourism but also countries of real interest to these issues, have the so-called third world. For them, henceforth begun to devote more energy tourism is part of its economic and resources to culture-focused development strategy. development policies. People misperceive the role of culture in socio- Cultural festivities are very important in economic and make the society to live in stimulating the growth and development peace, this can be traced back to the of industries since culture is highly persistence of obsolete demanding and involves activity absorbs conceptualizations of the relationship a lot of resources produced in other between cultural activity and the sectors of the economy. However, generation of social-economic value culture provides a market to a wide added (Sacco, 2011). The cultural range of goods and services namely exhibition is such cultural products that modern printing, photography, can be exported globally. People need to entertainment gadgets, radio and acquire new knowledge from a foreign television broadcasting, textile materials, culture and need to see what they have food items, transporters, accommodation never seen before. People with large providers and many others. This also financial possibilities and high social allows massive production of goods and status need to have self-actualization and makes them available as well as they can satisfy their needs through increasingly affordable prices most of the witnessing a cultural event which is time. uncommon to the people around them.
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Another advantage derived from the Cultural Festivities In Some States In festival is organizing and presenting Nigeria various cultural exhibitions during a Festivals are organized to depict the particular festival that gives the culture of a particular geographical space opportunity to understand and accept on a specific given time which contains different cultural heritage among people various cultural identities and makes of different cultural background thereby people appreciate their cultural heritage preparing society to be a crisis-free and the way their fore-fathers live as well society, through collective consciousness as to be connected with their historical in terms of national or regional and cultural root. Communal and cooperation and fostering peaceful co- seasonal celebrations involving carefully existence. planned cultural programs, for rejoicing established by the group or sponsored by As people come to witness cultural event various cultural groups or organizations they have to spend money on buying are so common in most part of the world. things or payment of services thereby Nigeria has amazing customs and increasing multiplier effect from cultures, some of which are showcased participants as income circulates within during festivals. These festivals are some the host community. of the tourist attraction which even foreigners love to witness because of Culture serves as a medium through their pomp, pageantry, cultural displays which people became creative. All and unbelievable scenes that may not cultures have ways of expressing found elsewhere. Thus, every state in themselves creatively. Cultures produce Nigeria there is more than one attractable performing arts such as music, dance, cultural festival in the year. theatre, and film or drama. Visual arts which include architecture, painting, Abia State sculpture, textiles just mentioned a few. Abia like any other state in Nigeria has Culture also promotes literature like its own colourful traditional festivals poems, folk tales, and stories. popularly known as Ikeji, Iwaji and Ekpe festivals. These festivals are celebrated at On the other way round, cultural various seasons in the year to mark an festivities prevent society from culture important event such as the beginning of loss thereby turning people back from the planting and harvesting time. They the preference of other people way of life are conducted for thanks given to God which is consequently brings about for the good harvest. culture clash, extinction of local culture as well as lost one’s history. Ikeji is an annual festival of thanksgiving, merriment, and propitiation, which comes in either
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March or April every year. It is very rich are very colourful festivities (Galadima, in both historical and cultural festivities. 2016). It is filled with scintillating performances from masquerades, memorable sights, Therefore, beautiful costumes, variety of comic acts and magical dances from decorated horses, horse racing, gunshots different dance groups. The festivals and series of cultural exhibitions are all began as a ceremony to mark the end of part of this festivity. Everybody the planting season and the beginning of especially young girls and boys, dressed harvest season. up in their best traditional attires line up along major streets of the city to greet the Iwaji is usually held at the end of the emir and his councils as they pass in an rainy season during the harvesting time organized and controlled fashion. in early August. It is events of welcoming a new yam where the custodian of Eid-El- Maulud: The festival is annual tradition eats the first yam because it is (on the 12th day of third Islamic believed that they are the intermediaries Calendar) in order to commemorate the between the people and the God of the day which the Holy Prophet Muhammad land. The rituals are meant to express the (PBUH) was born (Barau, 2007). gratitude of the community to the Gods Therefore, on the eve of the day, the night for making the harvest possible (Ebhota, atmosphere of Kano is filled with 2017). recitation of Holy Qur’an, Hadith (what Prophet did, asked people to do, Ekpe festival is another celebration somebody did it before Him and He peculiar to Umuahia people and is silenced on it or affirmed it, His culture celebrated in January. It is a lively or description of His body), chanting cultural festival that attracts people songs and praises for the beloved within and outside the state. prophet. Seven days after is christened as naming ceremony day called ‘Takutaha’. Kano State On the day before 19th Rabiul Awwal (3rd Sallah Durbar: Kano is among the most Islamic Month), children slaughter known ancient cities in Africa and it is chicken and fowls and in some places, the main transit point for the Trans animals are slaughtered while some buy Saharan trade. It has a lot of attractions to it from the abattoir. On the Takutaha attract tourist, especially during Sallah day, Kano people especially teenager festival if you are interested in history visit Babban Malami’s house (the great and culture. Kano is well known for its scholar of Madabo) for blessing and take Durbar celebrations. It takes place twice their picnic on top of Dala-hill from in a year (1st - 5th of Shawwal and 10th - morning till evening. The event is multi- 15th Zul-Hijja Islamic calendar). The emir colored and fascinating. of Kano hosts these celebrations which
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Qadiriyya Day: This is the one-day have attained the age of 15 and are of festival that attracts not only people from good moral conducts, into womanhood. southern Nigeria but even foreigners North Africa and the Middle East. This is Aboko festival: The Aboko festival is an done once in a year (on every 2nd annual event of the Igala people in Idah. Saturday of 4th Islamic Calendar) to It is one of the flagship festivals in Igala commemorate the birthday of the Iraqi- land, featuring boat regatta and born spiritual and Islamic scholar, traditional performances from locals. Sheikh Abdulqadir Al-Jilani. It is also called Maukibi day (day of the Ekuechi festival: This is an occasional procession) (Barau, 2007). festival in Ebira land, held to mark the end of the lunar year. The festival is Therefore, on the morning of the day, the characterized by dances and jubilant amass at Qadiriyya House philosophical songs. opposite Kano central mosque and move towards Kurmi market, to Koki, and Lagos State move through Katsina Road to the Eyo festival: This is one of the well- Airport Road where the Graveyard known festivals in Lagos. This festival called Waliyyai is. The site of the presents masquerades dancing in white occasion is an homage to some departed robes. The grand finale, which attracts a mystics. It is alluring to see the fine and huge crowd, is often held in the Tafawa multi-colored costume of the celebrants. Balewa square. The week of the carnival They move in batches beating ‘bandir’ is often embellished with performances and ‘sahana’ drums, singing songs and from Eyo groups in different colors. The burning scents. festival is sometimes taking place in February. Kogi State Italo festival: Is an annual festival that Food festival: This festival showcases gathers all Igala sons and daughters at the rich diversity in Nigerian cuisine and home or abroad. During this festival, delicacies, thereby creating strong traditional music and dances are cultural awareness. It celebrates the only displayed at Anyigba. The Attah Igala thing that unites all Nigerians to love for (paramount ruler of Igala kingdom) is tasty foods. The annual event is usually known to always address his subjects held over the weekends or during during the event. independence celebrations. The best food, chefs, restaurants across the state Ovia-Osese festival: This is a traditional are always display. festival by the Ogori-Magongo people. It is about the initiation of young girls who Black Heritage Festival: This festival takes place in April. Carnival
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 26 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches processions are held in the streets in Nigerians but the world in general. It remembrance of the slave trade in Africa. brings happiness and strength to the During this festival, dance performances lives of people by spreading the message are displayed about the story of the slave of brotherhood, add structure to our trade for seven days of festivity. Art socio-economic wellbeing as well as exhibitions and films are presented to enlighten us about other customs and retell the stories. traditions we do not know about. The economy is mobilizing during festivals Plateau State more especially when looking at unusual Nzem Berom cultural festival: This is a congestion of markets and roads at a festival that people use to connect with particular period of the event. their heritage. It is celebrated in the 4th month of every year amidst royal Nigerian people living in different areas procession, traditional dances, and of the country have learned to adapt to exhibition of cuisine, artifacts and craft. their environment as it determines the types of culture to practice in that Tarok festival: Ilum O`tarok is an annual particular environment. Their event that depicts the culture and environment affects the type of tradition of the Tarok people of Plateau occupation and business they have. It State. It has also been a uniting force for affects the kind of food they eat, the Tarok people. home they build and even the kind and nature of festivals they do. Wushiri cultural festival: This festival is held in thanksgiving for a bountiful Recommendations harvest. It usually takes place in January and is celebrated by Kulere ethnic group i. Emirs, kings, chiefs and other of Bokkos L.G.A. traditional rulers should have a direct monthly allocation from Bel/Sombi cultural festival: This festival Federal government and absolute is a seasonal ceremony. During the constitutional right in conserving celebration, various entrainments take and promoting matters that are place. Late elderly community members related to cultural activities, arts, are mourned and new chiefs are and festivals. installed. It is done by the Angas ethnic ii. A cultural celebration should be group of Pankshin L.G.A. (Ebhota, 2018) promoted through organizing events in the form of culture or Conclusion native day in our lower and higher institutions as well as Festival is a means for demonstrating the community level. rich cultural heritage of not only
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 27 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches iii. There is a need for promotional Barau, A.B. (2007). The great attractions activities in order to increase of Kano. Unpublished research book. awareness of Nigerian festivities. Tourism stakeholders can CESD (2010). Consumer Demand and communicate that through Operator Support for Socially and various tools such as billboard, Environmentally Responsible Tourism. newspaper, television and radio CESD/TIES Working Paper No. 104. channels, web pages, and another form of publications including Ebhota, E. (2018). Festivals in Taraba social media groups such as State. 16, Jan. 2018 Teen Trust, P.6 Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Fekadu, K. (2014). The Paradox in etc. Environmental Determinism and iv. Strengthening peace and internal Possibilism: A literature review. Journal security. Development cannot be of Geography and Regional Planning. Vol.7 in place without peace and (7), pp. 132-139 security of lives and properties. Peace brings about progress, Frenkel, S. (1992). Geography, Empire, growth, happiness and sustained and Environmental Determinism development in the society. Geographical Review 82(2):143-153. Society can be in peace through social justice, good governance Galadima, M. (2016). Bikin Sallah A Kano and respecting our individual www.kanoonline.com differences among others. v. Improving infrastructural Gallagher, W. (1993). The Power of Place: facilities. Improved infrastructure How Our Surroundings Shape Our is a foundation for national and Thoughts, Emotions, and Actions. New regional development. Road, York: Poseidon Press. power, communication, water system, waste management, etc. Kovari, I. and Zimányi, K. (2010). Safety have a tremendous effect on our and Security in the Age of Global Tourism: daily life as well as annual The Changing role and Conception of festivities. Safety and Security in Tourism. Agroinform Publishing House, Budapest References Kong, L. (1990). Geography and religion: Arreola, D. D; Deal, M. S; Petersen, J. F, trends and prospects. Progress in Human and Sanders, P. R. (2007) World Geography 14 (3): 355–371. Geography. McDougal Littell, a division of Houghton Mifflin Company. Ogirisi, B. N. (2016). Nigerian Cultural Heritage: Preservation, Challenges and
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Prospects. A New Journal of African Sacco, P. L. (2011). Culture: A new Studies Vol. 12(1) Perspective for the EU 2014-2020 Structural Funds Programming. OMC Okpoko, P.U. (1990). The Role of Working Group on Cultural and Cultural Resources in Tourism in Creative Industries Nigeria. West African Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 20(1)
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Chapter Five
Developing Entrepreneurial Skills through School Industry Links
ADAMS Omolola Taiwo Federal College of Forestry, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
Learning should not only be theoretical but what we learnt should be practical. Learning should involve the acquisition of skills through practical involvement which can only be achieved through linking school with industry. This paper looks into the concept of entrepreneur and entrepreneurship education. It also looks into some strategies for inculcating entrepreneurial skills into youths so as to make them independent and, in the long run, become employers of labor. School link with industry allows students the opportunity of exploring firsthand real equipment and machinery in the industry where they are attached; the students are taught and are able to handle the instrument. Other methods of developing entrepreneurial skills are also highlighted.
Keywords: Entrepreneurial, Skills, School, Industry, Links
Introduction
All over the world, it is a known fact have almost lost focus of the future and that the governments of a country this has left them in a complete don’t have the strength to employ more aberration or staying away from the than 50% of its working force right paths or what is not normal”. population except in some cases where the population is small. As a result, Entrepreneurship priority area over youths are faced with unemployment. the years is the development of more Most youths do not have enough effective links between schools and resources to create jobs and businesses industries. Both employers and for themselves, so according to students are recognizing the benefits of Nnamani (2007),” many youths becoming involved with each other at between the ages of 10 and 35 years an earlier time. Through school- industry links, students receive practical job experience by working This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 30 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches part-time in an industry or business oriented individuals driven to seek establishment or by working as challenges and new accomplishments.” resource persons to impart some skills Jean Baptiste also defined an that would make them reliant and entrepreneur as an individual “who employed in society. These various combines the land of one, labor of schemes contribute to human another, and capital of yet another to development by bringing about produce a product. By selling the effective training for future product in the market, he pays interest technologists, technicians, engineers, on capital, rent on land, and wages to etc and ensuring high skilled personnel labor. What remains is his profit. He is trained, developed, and produced to has to surmount obstacles, suppress contribute to the development of the anxieties, repair misfortunes, and society. device expedients.”
In view of the above backdrop In all, an entrepreneur is a creative therefore, the paper examines how the thinker and a risk-taker who can link between entrepreneur and recognize a business opportunity, take industrial development can lead to the a decision to act upon the analysis of transformation of life quality and life the opportunity and assemble the chances among the youths in Nigeria. required human and material resources to execute a program Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship resulting in a new business enterprise Education to yield profit. The concept of an entrepreneur has existed for centuries, though it has Entrepreneurship is a concept that is been viewed differently by numerous attracting a lot of attention presently, authorities. According to Joseph especially now that there is a reduction Schumpeter, “An entrepreneur is an in the availability of paid employment. individual who introduces something Shane and Venkataraman (2000) write new in the economy- a method of “entrepreneurship is the scholarly production not yet tested by experience examination of how, by whom, and in the branch of manufacture with what effects opportunities to concerned, a product with which create future goods and services are consumers are not yet familiar, a new discovered, evaluated, and exploited.” source of raw material or of new Hisrich, Peters, and Shepherd (2007) markets and the like.” Entrepreneurs defined entrepreneurship as “creating are those who bring resources together something new with value by devoting in unusual situations to generate profit. the necessary time and effort, assuming Karl Vesper opined that the accompanying financial, psychic, “entrepreneurs are achievement and social risks, and receiving the
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 31 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches resulting rewards of monetary and institutions through the school- personal satisfaction and industry link. independence.”Gana (2001) defined entrepreneurship as “the willingness School-Industry Links and and the ability of an individual to seek Entrepreneurial Skills for investment opportunities in an The school-industry link is one of the environment and be able to establish best didactic ways to improve a and run an enterprise successfully student’s learning experiences. It refers based on the identified opportunities.” to a mutual relationship between schools and industries in which schools In the listed definitions of the concept give and draw assistance from and many others, the issue of industries while industries expose organizing and managing a business students to practical job experiences. stands out. Consequently, This is duly appreciated when we entrepreneurship education is planned reminisce that the school trains and out carefully to impart supplies man-power to industries entrepreneurship skills adequate for while industries shape the school efficient living. Entrepreneurship curriculum and offer work experience education is an instrument that to the school. empowers youths to be in control of their future. It creates jobs and Davis (1983) has identified three types businesses; gives youths more of industrial work experience opportunities to exercise creative programs: freedom; and provides individuals Work-study plan and work exploration with higher self-esteem. In plans: a plan of study where students entrepreneurship education, one starts are enrolled in vocational programs to by building appropriate objectives obtain employment in related based on one's interest, talent, and industries with the approval of their dreams. Entrepreneurship education educational institutions. has diverse benefits which include, among others, economic Co-operative vocational education: this empowerment, self-reliance, self- involves a greater co-operation confidence, ability to take risks and between schools and employing overcome hardship, and reduction of agencies. This type of industrial work social vices. experience develops occupational competencies using employment in All these been said, it becomes real jobs as sources of learning. imminent that the inculcation of entrepreneurial skills on our youths Internship and practicum: this type should be emphasized especially in prepares individuals for their dream
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 32 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches profession. Usually, an internship is To provide students with an taken at the end of a training program opportunity to apply their knowledge just prior to the completion of the in real work situations thereby program of study. It allows the bridging the gap between college work students to apply the knowledge and actual practices. acquired in school to an actual job setting. To enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement with the entire education SIWES, Students Industrial Work process of preparing students for Experience Scheme, was introduced by employment in industry (Industrial the government of Nigeria in a bid to Training Fund, 1975). foster school-industry link. The organization is managed by the Also, the benefits of entrepreneurship Industrial Training Fund (ITF) for course among others are: colleges of education, polytechnics, and universities. The goals of SIWES To provide an opportunity for students are: to identify entrepreneurial qualities and skills To provide an avenue for students in institutions of higher learning to To expose students to concepts in acquire industrial skills and entrepreneurial skills experiences in their course of study especially, in engineering and allied To create awareness about fields. entrepreneurship and its values.
To expose students to work method The Pasadas Fashion Incubation Centre and techniques in the handling of was established in 1994 to primarily equipment and machinery that may not promote and develop clothing be available in their institution. entrepreneurs from disadvantaged communities in South Africa. This To prepare students for the working program equips young entrepreneurs situation which they will encounter with practical, relevant training after graduation. programs leading to job creation and stimulation for self-employment. It To make a transition from school to the exposes trainees to other disciplines world of work easier and to enhance through multi-skilling programs students’ contact for later job offered by other institutions and placements. employs them with soft skills and life skills. The center also encourages out- of-school youths, in particular, to
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 33 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches proceed with their education, utilizing workshops and placement a number of local resources. opportunities, allows students to learn more about the realities of small The nine-month course consists of two business and to explore their own days’ orientation, six months of potential for self-employment. Such training, and three months’ on-the-job students gain a better understanding of experience (incubation stage) the overall operation of the business involving entrepreneurial skills and and an opportunity to meet and production under supervision. The interact with positive role models in course covers hard skills, business employment. skills, entrepreneurial skills, and life skills. Developing Entrepreneurial skills Davis (1983) suggested ways of Young Achievement Australia (YAA) inculcating entrepreneurship skills in a is a non-profit organization which student at the primary secondary and attempts to bridge the gap between tertiary level, Educators should give a business and education by teaching simple explanation of market system to young people hands-on business skills students in the early years of education while they are still in school. It and also provide more in-depth provides business education programs discussions as the students go higher. to over 14,000 students each year with Shape students’ attitude towards the help of 600 companies. YAA runs understanding the relationship Business Alive which is a curriculum- between the market system and based enrichment program in which a themselves and quality of life. Analyze teacher teams up with a consultant a the market system, develop a positive sponsor organization. The consultant attitude towards it and begin to express spends approximately one hour per values of the market system to society. week with the students over a ten-week Introduce extra-curricular activities period. One of the classes involves an which have a small business industry visit which further establishes orientation like business fraternities, the link between theory and the real cooperative education programs and workplace. students chapter of professional associations. Using small business The link between education and owners in educating youths in industries allows students to explore entrepreneurial skills. Igbo (2006) the opportunities of practical and identified six assignment-related and direct involvement of local businesses six games/simulations methods of to be self-employed. This program inculcating entrepreneurship in which targets students of any students. The specific ones to use will discipline for a range of training,
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 34 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches depend on the level/grade of the 2. Organizing group fundraising students. These include: activities lead to profit-making 3. Organizing business projects like A Teacher-Oriented Method school talk shop 1. Teachers career talk on how to run a 4. Formation of future business business. executive clubs. 2. Film shows on how to conduct business board meetings. Conclusion 3. Self-paced instructions on entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship revolves around 4 Co-operative work experience creativity, wealth and risk-taking. programs. People/individual should be given the 5. The building of self-confidence into opportunity to develop and actualize students. their talents and potentials for 6. Encouraging students to interact meaningful existence and development with big-time related through in all human endeavors. Education excursions to big firms. which is the bedrock of development has a lot to contribute to equipping Students Oriented Method individuals for entrepreneurship. 1. Interviewing employers and community leaders. The system should provide a 2. Formation of business clubs e.g. framework for youth to acquire Fashion Designers club. knowledge, work skills and strategies 3. Interaction with small business to practice what is learnt theoretically owners. hence they gain practical knowledge 4. Developing a class model business. through direct involvement in 5. Class discussion on experiment industries and firm. Therefore, in Nigeria, the school-industry link Assignment Related Method should be used as an effective strategy 1. Developing a business idea and how in imparting entrepreneur skills among to identify business opportunities youth. 2. Writing a business plan and presenting it to the class. References 3.Students developing adverts for their favorite companies and recommending Davis, J.F. (1983): Small Business them to the companies. Management Fundamentals, (6th Ed) New York: McGraw Hill Inc. Games and Stimulation Method 1. Students playing the role of persons Gana J.S.S. (2001): Towards Inculcating selling products. Entrepreneurship Skills In Senior
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Secondary School Home Economics Lecturers in Colleges of Education 19th Students: Journal of Home Economics - 25th September. Research Association Vol. 1.No.1. Hisrich, P, and Shepherd. (2007): Venkatoraman, K.H. (2000): Review of "School Industry Links: The Introduction and Summary of Consequences of Minding other Entrepreneurial Research in C.A. Kent, People's Business". Australian Journal of D.L. Sexton and K.H. Vesper (ed) Educational Technology. Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship. Eagle Wood Cliffs. Prentice Hall Inc. Nnamani M. (2007): Entrepreneurship Education for Secondary Schools, Igbo, C.A. (2006): Entrepreneurship Enugu. CIDJ AP Printing Press. Initiative in Colleges of Education Programs. Paper presented at the ITF (1975): The Role of SIWES in workshop on Capacity Building for Human Resource Development. Nigerian Vocational Journal Vol. ix.
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Chapter Six
Depression, Anxiety, and Stress among Medical Education Tutors: Issues for Academic Prospects
Abdullahi Sabo Muhammad Department of Education (Technical), College of Science and Technology, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna
Abstract
The present study has been conducted to determine the prevalence levels of Depression, Anxiety and Stress among medical educators in Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria. Five research questions and hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. A descriptive survey research design was utilized for the study. Simple random sampling technique was used to select the participants. The instrument for data collection was adapted from an internationally-developed tool used in various similar researches (DASS 21) constructed by Lovibond and Lovibond, (1995). The tool consists of three sub- scales with seven items each measured on 3-point rating format with different classification levels. The data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicated that DAS prevalence levels were high among medical educators. There was a significant relationship among DAS with the respondents. While Depression and stress tend to be high among medical educators, anxiety tends not to be prevalent. Based on these findings, recommendations were made among which is to provide medical educators, counseling experts, and psychotherapists with information which is useful in planning, designing and strategizing interventions to effectively and efficiently deal with problems confronting students in our schools.
Keywords: Depression, Anxiety, Stress, Medical Education, Tutors
Introduction
Today, there is an upsurge increase in process of education is a very stressful students’ population seeking admission experience. University students into tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The encounter a great deal of academic, situation is even more worst in personal and social stress during their professional programs compared to academic activities. The medical school academic programs. According to environment has been also recognized as Manpreet and Maheshwari (2011) the a stressful one with the negative effects This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 37 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches on the academic performance, physical anxiety, tension, and depression. They and psychological well-being of the reported that these conditions students (Firth-Cozen, 2011). Students contributed to poor grades in courses. could be presented with failure to cope in anxious situations, test or performance It is an axiomatic fact that depression anxiety, social phobia and sometimes anxiety and stress were found to be severe forms of depression and panic interrelated to each other. The disorders (Elzubeir, Elzubeir, and overlapping symptoms of these three Magzoub, 2010). psychological problems can lead to all sorts of academic problems that can give Depression, anxiety, and stress are impact to academic achievement among among the psychological problems that medical education tutors. It is well are common among students including known that stress is associated with the Medical Education trainee-tutors. development of anxiety and depression, Supporting this assertion several studies a positive relationship between stress, have reported a higher prevalence of anxiety, and depression is well psychological problems such as stress, established (Kurebayashi, Prado and anxiety, and depression among medical Silva, 2012; Manpreet and Maheshwari, students than even in general population 2015). In addition, according to the and age-matched peers (Dahlin, Psychological Foundation of Australia Joneborg and Runseon, 2005; Abdullah (PFA, 2014), these three problems and Gabr, 2014). Some researchers like indicate a composite state of negative Schmitter, Leidi, Beck, and Rammelsberg emotional symptoms. (2001) explained that by the fact that medical students face unique academic In terms of consequential effects, these challenges that render them more problems can lead to poor psychological vulnerable to stress and anxiety than well-being that interferes with learning students of the other disciplines. and limits the academic performance of According to Yasin and Dzulkifli (2011) students (Chemomas and Shapiru, 2015), citing Porter (1990), up to 60% of and lower productivity, increase suicidal university students left university thoughts and minimize the quality of life without finishing their degrees, the (Manpreet and Maheshwari, 2015). In majority of these students leave within addition, it has been found that student’s the first two years due to inability to performance in school, college and manage these psychological conditions university is influenced by the symptoms especially, to cope with stress. Similarly, of depression (Fine and Carlson, 1994; Steinberg and Darling (1994) reported Stark and Brookman, 1994), stress that 50% of the university students (Dusselier, Dunn, Wang, Shelly and consulted mental health service Whalen, 2005) and anxiety (Auson, complained of difficulties in study Bernstein and Hobfoll, 1984) which
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 38 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches could lead to difficulties in unable to perform well in academic life concentration, lack of motivation and because they do not have courage in interest, poor attendance and physical what they are doing. Medical educators health such as headache and fatigability. may feel that they are not reaching the These conditions will invariably standard performance set for them. influence a student’s academic Consequently, they continuously feel achievement. disappointed and despairing, perceiving things negatively and thus consider Therefore, to detect these psychological themselves as failures. This condition if problems among medical education allowed to accumulate, definitely can students may lead to increased mental contribute to many serious psycho-social illness morbidity with undesired effects problems in their academic life such as throughout their teaching careers and poor grades or dropping out of the lives. Early detection of such problems programs. Buttressing further, Surtees, shortens the duration of the episode and Wainright, and Pharoah (2002) in their events, the social impairment in the long survey, found these conditions reduced term (Pignone et al., 2012). It is important the likelihood of achieving a first-class to identify the prevalence of and risk degree among first-year students, factors of psychological problems although this relationship disappeared among, this unique group of medical when adjustment was made for other education tutors which not only affect factors such as homesickness. However, their health but also their academic the study used nursing students and is in achievement. This research was therefore a university while this study is in a carried out to determine the prevalence polytechnic and with Medical educators of depression, anxiety, and stress among who are more matured and responsible. medical education tutors in Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna. Many clinical descriptive reports speculated that depression may be a Depression among Medical Educators constituting factor in poor academic There is a plethora of studies related to performance (Fine and Carlson, 1994). depression, anxiety, and stress among Due to these reasons, several approaches nursing or medical students. A have been conducted to investigate and depressed mood can be conceptualized determine the pattern of correlation as the experience of unhappiness or between depression and academic distress. Depression indeed may involve achievement. For instance, Stark and feelings of being sad, weak, melancholic, Brookman (1994) cited by Yasin and disappointed, frustrated, helpless and Dzulfiflii (2011) obtained teachers and hopeless (Sarson and Sarson, 2012). parents global ratings of students’ Many depressed individuals, medical academic performance and ratings of education tutors inclusive, may be severity of students’ depressive
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 39 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches symptoms. The former was an Nathan, O’Leary, and Clark (1990) had instrument used to measure students’ earlier expressed that it is a blend of Academic Performance and study habit, thoughts and feelings characterized by a while ratings of severity of students’ sense of uncontrollability and depressive symptoms were used to unpredictability over potentially adverse measure the depression level of the life events. Series of researches had been students. The result of the studies conducted both in a laboratory and revealed that there was an inverse natural settings exploring the relationship between academic relationship between anxiety and achievement and depression. academic performance. Individual students experiencing anxiety do show This research stand-point was further apprehensions that often interfere with supported by the findings of Zaid, Chan, performance in everyday life as well as and Ho (2007) whose study on emotional academic situations. Generally speaking, disorders among medical students in one anxiety is expected to exert a negative of the Malyasian private college effect on performance. discovered that students who experienced depression had lower A very consistent research finding shows academic performance. However, the that individual students or learners who study reviewed investigated Malaysian have a high level of anxiety usually students and not Nigerian medical perform less well than those who have educators as was the case with the low anxiety on evaluative tasks (Vogel present study. Similarly, a study by and Collins, 2001). Supporting this Sharina, Lekhraij, and Nadarajan (2003) assertion, in a study conducted by revealed that 41.9% of students in one of Anson, Bernstein, and Hobfoll (1984) on the Malaysian public institutions were the relationship between anxiety and found to have depression, and this had academic performance, it was found that affected their academic performance. anxiety was significantly and negatively This then invariably shows that correlated with grades obtained by the depression is capable of adversely students. affecting the performance of the students, implying that the higher the In addition, numerous studies have depression, the lower is likely to be the shown that socio-demographic data such academic achievement of the students. as gender, family residence, father’s educations, father’s work and student Anxiety among medical Educators grade of the previous year were According to Yasin et al., (2011) anxiety is associated with negative emotional a psychological disorder that is symptoms (Amr, El-Gilan, El-Moafee, associated with significant suffering and Salama and Jimenez, 2011). Furthermore, impairment in functioning. Wilson, interest in the field of study and various
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 40 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches stressors such as fear of failure, self- examining how it relates to academic reported anxiety, and depression, performance among students. increased class workload, accommodation problems, congested In a related study, Andrews and Wilding classroom, students assignments, stress- (2004) revealed that 40% of a cohort of related parent cares, stress from teachers students in a University college that and nursing staff, dissatisfaction about attended the students’ health clinic for the training environment, boredom at psychological problems is characterized work, fear of failure in examinations, by anxiety, tension, and poor conflict situations with colleagues, concentration. Compared with the unavailability of professional counseling norm, the cohort of the students as a services, death of a family member or a whole also had elevated neuritosim close person, increasing arguments with scores. Consequently, their distress family members and missing levels were found to be associated with opportunities to meet loved ones were lower academic performance. However, associated with negative emotional the study investigated students in an symptoms and may negatively affect Indian University and not Nigerian academic performance of students students in a polytechnic. (Akhu-Zahaya et al., 2015; Amr et al., 2011; Dahir and Mazloum, 2012; Another study on anxiety conducted by Rathnayoke and Ekanayka, 2016). Seligman and Wuyak (2007) found that highly anxious students were Similarly, the way and manner students significantly more likely to score lower perceive and experience their academic- on measures of academic achievement related matters as important or less and peer acceptance for, longitudinal important is also one of the factors that analyses revealed that highly-anxious could affect the performance of the students scored significantly lower on students. Highlighting this Vogel and measures of academic achievement, Collins (2000) expressed that if an aggression, and peer acceptance individual’s experience of the previous compared to their less-anxious peers. achievement is negative, then the anxiety level is higher and this leads to lower It could be seen with all the reviewed performance. Invariably, if the literature that anxiety can directly experience is positive, then the anxiety positively or negatively influence level is lower and this leads to higher student’s academic achievements. It was performance. In brief, it is significant to reported that anxiety could affect consider motives, aptitudes, cognitive students’ academic achievement in the assessments of the task and past sense that students with high anxiety experience when analyzing anxiety and level perform poorer compared to those with low anxiety.
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Stress among Medical Educators Research shows that there exists a Depression, anxiety and stress levels in relationship between stressful life events the academic community are considered and poor academic performance among as significant indicators for medical college students and there is a connection health. Thus, failure to detect and between health-related quality of life and address these psychological problems stress (Dusselier et al., 2005; Misra and properly will, unfortunately, lead to McLeani, 2000). Because stress often increase psychological morbidity with adversely affect psychological and undesirable impact on student’s physical health, undergraduates’ performance, their profession and lives. students reported that stress was the Stress is a mechanism of an internal or most common health factor impacting external demand made-up on the body their academic performance (Dwyer and (Dusselier, Dom, Wang, Shellas and Cummings, 2011). Buttressing further, Whalen, 2003). It is considered as a state Sefree, Yasin and Dzulkifli (2011) of the individual that results from their specified that 50% of University students interaction with the environment that is who consulted mental health service perceived as too demanding and a threat complained of challenges in study, to their well-being. The stressors are not anxiety, tension, and depression which only physical but may also be social, contributed to poor grades in courses. psychological, emotional and academic Demakis and McAdams (1994) found in nature. With respect to the source of that undergraduate students who stressors, the top ten stressors chosen by reported heightened levels of stress had the students were namely academic and significantly more physical health personal factors (Redeef, Faisal, Ali and problems and less satisfaction towards Ismail, 2014). academic achievement compared to those reporting lower levels of stress. Academically speaking, stress was found The perceptual notion of stress by the to be part of a student’s life and could students could also play significant roles impact how students cope with the as far as it seriousness is concerned. demands of academic life. It is a fact that When stress is perceived negatively or students often report experiencing becomes excessive, according to Murphy academic stress at predictable times each and Archer (1996), students experience semester with the greatest sources of physical, psychological impairment. academic stress resulting from taking Indeed, excessive stress levels among and studying for examinations, grades students were found to reduce the completion, and the large amount of effectiveness of their study which content master in a student’s amount of invariably contributes to bad habits and time (Rawson, Blamer and Kendall, results in negative long-term 1999). consequences which include
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 42 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches absenteeism, poor academic psychological and psycho-social changes performance and dropping out of school that are connected to the development of (Yasin and Dzulfifli, 2011). Wintre and autonomous personal life and Yefle (2000) further revealed that additionally they have to cope with the increase in stress during the first year academic and social demands that they predicated decreased overall adjustment encounter in their studies and on their and made the students more vulnerable preparation for professional careers. The to many social and physiological relationship between students’ problems, thus contributed to lower expectation and their satisfaction with grade point average (GPA) in the final the quality of the services provided by year. The findings reviewed in the educational institution plays an previous studies found that stress important role in shaping their influence academic achievements. The reputation of academic institutions. presence of stress could adversely affect Understanding and knowing the a student’s performance in their expectations of students may constitute a academic life. Consequently, the higher source of information for higher the stress level, the lower the academic education institutions and these could be performance. involved in the creation of their strategy of developing their service quality. Related to this research, students who Hence, it is very much crucial to are experiencing psychological problems periodically assess and examine the such as depression, anxiety, stress, being psychological well-being of students. It is unhappy, sad, they may face problems in against this background that this present managing their academic performance. study intends to investigate and Consequently, this may lead to determine the prevalence levels of educational dissatisfaction. Educational depression, anxiety, and stress among satisfaction leads to happiness and students in Nigerian polytechnic. contentment. Happiness according to Demirbati (2011) can be described as Research Questions often being in a state of joy or as a state Four research questions were formulated of satisfaction. In previous studies, many to guide this study. variables have been shown to be related 1. What is the prevalence level of to happiness (Seligman, 2008). Depression, Anxiety and stress among Happiness and educational satisfaction Medical trainee- students? leads to progress. 2. What is the difference between the depression, anxiety and stress levels of Psychological stability is indeed an PHC and DNE medical trainee-students? important predictor that could 3. What is the difference between the contribute to high academic depression, anxiety and stress levels of achievement. Students need to cope with
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 43 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches male and female medical trainee- determine the relationships that exist students? between specific events. In the context of 4. To what extent will age bracket this work, the variables of interest are influence the depression, anxiety and prevalence levels of depression, anxiety, stress level of medical trainee-students’ and stress. students? Area of the Study: The research was Research Hypothesis conducted among two academic The following null hypotheses were programs, Diploma in Primary Health postulated and tested at .05 alpha levels Care Tutors (PHCT) and Diploma in 1. Medical Students prevalence Nursing Education (DNE), in Kaduna levels of depression, anxiety and Polytechnic, Kaduna. stress will not be significantly high. Participants: The participants in this study are the entire Medical Education 2. There is no significant difference tutors in the two programs numbering 90 in the depression, anxiety and during the 2016/2017 academic session. stress levels of PHC and DNE This consisted of 41 DNE two, and 45 medical trainee- students. PHC. However, only 70 copies of the questionnaire were returned. It is thus a 3. There is no significant difference in census study. the depression, anxiety and stress levels of male and female medical trainee- The instrument for data collection: A students structured and adapted questionnaire 4. The depression, anxiety and stress was used as a tool for data collection in levels of medical trainee-students will this work. The tool consists of two parts. not be influenced significantly by their Section A elicited the demographic age brackets. profile of the Medical Educators while section B measured the different research Methodology constructs as described below:
Research Design: This research was a (1) The Depression, Anxiety and quantitative work that used descriptive Stress Scale (DASS 21): The survey design. According to Cohen, DASS is an internationally Manion, and Morrison (2014), surveys developed tool and used in collect data at a particular point in time various similar studies (Abdullahi with the intention of describing the and Gobir, 2014; Safree, Yasin and nature of existing conditions or Dzulfifli, 2011). The DASS is identifying standards against which designed to assess aspects of existing conditions can be compared or depression, anxiety, and stress
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using a multidimensional easily upset/agitated, irritable/over- approach in adolescents and reactive and impatient. adults (Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995). The DASS is a set of three- Each of the three scales consists of 7 items self report scales designed to answered using a 0 – 3 rating options, measure the negative emotional where 0 = did not apply to me and 3 = states of DAS. applied to me very much or most of the time. The DASS 21 as used in this The DASS 21 is a set of a self- research implies the total score for each administered instrument with well- scale is obtained by summing up the established psychometric properties in scores the respective scale items and clinical and non-clinical samples and has multiplying it by 2 (i.e. the range of been shown to differentiate between the possible scores for each scale is 0-21 three states of DAS. This tool measures multiply by 2 for the DASS 21 compared the current symptoms of DAS. The to DASS 42). Consequently, the Depression scales assess dysphasia, minimum score is 0 and the maximum hopelessness, devaluation of life, self- score is 42. deprecation, lack of interest/involvement, anhedonia and The scores considered in the normal inertia. The Anxiety scale assesses range differ across the scales. It is 0-9 for autonomic arousal, skeletal muscle Depression, 0-7 for Anxiety and 0-14 for effects, situational anxiety and subjective Stress. Scores above these ranges indicate experience of anxious effects. The Stress the degree of the problem from mild to scale is sensitive to levels of chronic non- extreme. The final score of DASS can be specific arousal. It assesses difficulty categorized as shown in Table 1. relaxing, nervous arousal, and being
Table 1: Severity of Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale. RATING DEPRESSION ANXIETY STRESS Normal 0-9 0-7 0-14 Mild 10-13 8-9 15-18 Moderate 14-20 10-14 19-25 Severe 21-27 15-19 26-33 Extremely Sever 28-42 20-42 34-42 Source: Lovibond and Lovibond (1999) and Grawford and Hary (2003).
The developers of the scale calculated the is a reliable scale to be used for data the internal consistency for each scale of collection as these reliability estimates DASS as Depression = .91, Anxiety = .84 are above the recommended threshold and Stress = .90. This then shows that it This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 45 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches level of .70 (Nunnally, 1994, Gliem and is voluntary. Confidentiality of the Gliem, 2003; Field, 2010). participant’s information given was guaranteed. They were given ample time Ethical Consideration: This research to complete all sections which lasted meets the expected ethical standards; the about 15 minutes. principle of confidentiality, informed consent permission (from an authority, Data Analysis: Data were analyzed participants) and right to withdraw from using both descriptive and inferential the study were followed by the statistics. The descriptive statistics used researchers. include frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviations. The parametric Data Collection: The copies of the tests of one sample (population and questionnaire were administered to the independent t-tests, ANOVA) were used respondents in a classroom situation. to test the hypotheses. All hypotheses The researcher briefed the respondents were tested at .05 alpha levels. The on the purpose of the research and the statistical analysis was facilitated with procedures involved. Participants were the help of IBM SPSS version 23. then informed about the right not to participate in the study, for participation
Results
Table 2: Demographic characteristics of respondents (N=70) Variables Frequency Percentage Program: (a) PHC 30 43 (b)DNE 40 57 Gender: (a) Male 29 41 (b) Female 41 59 Age Brackets (a) 27-30 Years 11 16 (b) 31-40 years 33 47 (c) 41-50 years 21 30 (d)51-60 years 5 7 Marital Status (a) Single 6 9 (b) Married 60 86 ©Separated 4 6 Working Experiences 12 17 (a) 1-5 years (b) 6-10 years 18 26
(c) 11-15 years 21 30
(d) 16-20 years 9 13
(e) 21 years and above 10 14
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The total no of respondents was 70, with Hypothesis-by-hypothesis presentation 30(43%) been PHC medical educators while 40(57%) been DNE medical HO1: Medical Students prevalence educators. Gender distribution reveals levels of depression, anxiety, and stress that 29(41%) are male while 41(59%) are will not be significantly high. female. The age brackets statistics reveals that 11(16%) is between 27 – 30 years old, The respondent’s scores on the DAS scale 33(47%) between 31-40 years, 21(30%) measured by the7 items each were between 41-50 years while 5(7%) are summed-up and multiplied by 2. Based between 51-60 years. Marital status data on the scale scoring interpretation levels, have shown that 61(9%) are single a level of Depression, Anxiety and Stress respondents, 60(86%) are married while prevalence levels to be considered 4(6%) are separated. Working significantly high, it should be higher experiences shows that 12(17%) had than (Depression = 9, Anxiety = 7 and between 1-5 years working experiences, Stress = 14 respectively) out of a 18(26%) between 6-10 years, 21(30%) maximum of 42 scores. This comparison between 11-15 years, 9(13%) between 16- was done using t-test of One-sample 20 years while 10(14%) from 20 years and (also known as population t-test). The above. results are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Population t-test analysis of medical educator’s prevalence levels of DAS Measures N Sample Sample Reference T P - Remark Mean SD test-value value Depression 70 1.30 .73 9 -88.34 <.001 S Anxiety 70 1.66 1.05 7 -42.66 <.001 S Stress 70 1.13 .41 14 -259.94 <.001 S
The empirical data analysis revealed levels of depression, anxiety, and stress statistically low significant prevalence among medical education students are levels of DAS among the medical significantly low. A closer look reveals students. With Depression, the results significant negative t-values for DAS and produced (M=1.30, SD = .73, t(69) = - comparatively, the reference test values 88.34, p<.001, anxiety produced (M=1.66, higher than the sample mean values. SD = 1.05, t(69) = -42.66, p<.001 while Furthermore, Table 3 tends to shed more stress revealed a statistically significant light showing the distributions of the results of (M=1.13, SD = .41; t(69) = - DAS prevalence levels based on the scale 259.94, p<.001. With these results, the classification criterion. first null hypothesis was therefore not supported and thus has to be rejected. This then implies that the prevalence
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Table 4: Prevalence levels of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress among medical educators Category Frequency Percentage Mean ± SD Cronbach Alpha (α) DEPRESSION: 58 83 1.3( SD ±.73) .83 (a) Normal (b) Mild 5 7 (c) Moderate 5 7 (d) Severe 2 3 (e) Extremely Severe - - ANXIETY 45 64 1.66(SD ± .72 (a) Normal 1.05) (b) Mild 11 16 (c) Moderate 9 13 (d) Severe 3 4 (e) Extremely Severe 2 3 STRESS: 63 90 1.13(SD ± .41) .76 (a) Normal (b) Mild 5 7 (c) Moderate 2 3 (d) Severe - - (e)Extremely Severe - -
Table 4 shows the distribution of the stress, 5(7%) are suffering from mild medical educators spread across the stress, 2(3%) from moderate stress. DAS. The analysis reveals that 58(83%) of Comparatively, it could be seen that the medical educators’ depression is 12(17%) are suffering from depression, normal, 5(7%) each are mild and 25(36%) are suffering from Anxiety while moderate while 2(3%) are facing severe 7(10%) are suffering from Stress. depression. In terms of Anxiety, 45(64%) are normal, 11(16%) are suffering from HO2: There is no significant mild anxiety, 9(13%) moderate anxiety, relationship between depression, 3(4%) suffering from severe anxiety anxiety, and stress among medical while 2(3%) suffering from extremely educators. severe anxiety. With stress, 63(90%) of the medical educators have normal
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Table 5: Mean, Standard deviations and inter-correlations matrix of the variables VARIABLE MEAN SD DEPRESSION ANXIETY STRESS DEPRESSION 1.30 0.73 1.0 ANXIETY 1.66 1.05 .781** 1.0 STRESS 1.13 0,41 .830** .737** 1.0
**Correlation is significant at .01 levels (2-tailed)
In testing this second null hypothesis, With these results, the second null Pearson product moment correlation hypothesis is hereby not supported and coefficient was utilized and the results hence rejected. It implies that there is a revealed a significant moderate positive significant relationship among medical relationships between depression and educators as it relates to DAS. anxiety r(68) = .781, p < .001, depression and stress r(68) = .830, p < .001, and HO3: There is no statistically anxiety and stress r(68) = .737, p<.001. significant difference between DAS levels of PHC and DNE Medical educators.
Table 6: An independent t-test on whether there are differences in the DAS level of PHC and DNE Measures Program N M SD Df T P- Remark value Depression PHC 30 1.53 0.94 68 2.19 .034* S DNE 40 1.13 0.46 Anxiety PHC 30 1.80 1.32 68 0.92 .362 NS DNE 40 1.55 0.78 Stress PHC 30 1.27 0.58 68 2.21 .034* S DNE 40 1.03 0.16
Independent sample t-tests were the means (mean difference =.41, 95%CL: conducted to test this hypothesis .032 - .185) was moderate (eta squared between depression, anxiety and stress =.066 based on Cohen, 1988). With the and PHC and DNE medical educators. second part dealing with Anxiety the The results yielded significant findings. results revealed a no significant Firstly, there was a significant difference difference in the scores of PHC educators in scores of PHC medical educators (M=1.80, SD=1.32) compared to the DNE (M=1.53, SD=0.94) and DNE medical educators (M=1.55, SD=0.78; t(68) = .92, educators (M=1.13, SD=0.46), t(69) = 2.19, p=.36. The magnitude of the difference in p=.03. The magnitude of the difference in the means (mean difference = .250, This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 49 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches
95%CL: -.297 - .792) was very small (eta in the means (mean difference =.242, squared = .014). 95%CL: = .019 - .464) was very small (eta squared = .015). The third t-test analysis on Stress produced a significant difference HO4: There is no statistically between the scores of PHC educators significant difference between the DAS (M=1.27, SD=.58) and that of DNE levels of male and female medical educators (M=1.03, SD=0.16; t(68) = 2.21, educators. p=.034. The magnitude of the difference
Table 7: An independent t-test on whether there are differences in the DAS level of male and female medical educators Measures Gender N M SD Df T p- Remark value Depression Male 29 1.34 0.67 68 0.43 .67 NS Female 41 1.27 0.78 Anxiety Male 29 1.62 1.05 68 -0.24 .81 NS Female 41 1.68 0.06 Stress Male 29 1.14 0.44 68 0.16 .88 NS Female 41 1.12 0.40
In testing null hypothesis four, Similarly with Anxiety, there was no independent t-tests were employed to significant difference in the scores of test the constructs of DAS against gender male educators (M=1.62, SD = 1.05) (male and female). The results produced compared to the female educators a non- statistically significant differences (M=1.68, SD= 1.68; t(68) = -.24, p=.81). in the levels of DAS of both male and The magnitude of the difference in the female educators. means (mean difference = -.062, 95%CL: -.573 to .449) was very small (eta Commencing with Depression, there squared). The third construct of Stress was no significant difference in the also revealed a no statistically significant scores of male educators (M=1.34, SD= difference in the scores of male educators 0.67) compared to female educators (M=1.14, SD=0.44) when compared with (M=1.27, SD=0.78; t(968) = .43, p=.67). the female educators (M=1.12, SD=0.40; The magnitude of the difference in the t(68) = .16, p=.88). The magnitude of the means (mean difference =.077, 95%CL: - difference in the means (mean difference .279 to .432) was very small (eta squared = .076, 95% CL: -.186 to .216) was also =.014). very small (eta squared = .014). With these results, the fourth null hypothesis is thus supported and hence upheld. It
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 50 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches then implies that there is no significant no statistically significant difference difference in the levels of depression, among the four age bracket groups as it anxiety, and stress between male and relates to DAS. Results of depression female educators in Kaduna Polytechnic. indicated no significant influence F(3,66) = .73, p=.54 . While the result of Anxiety HO5: The DAS levels of Medical revealed F(3,66) = .23, p=.88. Lastly Stress Educators will not be influenced by indicated F(3,66), = .86, p=.47. With these their age bracket significantly. results, the fifth null hypothesis is therefore supported and thus sustained. The One-way ANOVA was conducted to It then implied that DAS levels of explore whether DAS levels of medical medical educators were no significantly educators will not be influenced by their influenced by their age bracket groups in age bracket groups significantly. The Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna. results presented in Table 8 indicated a
Table 8: One-way ANOVA of the influence of age bracket groups on DAS levels of medical educators. Age Bracket Groups N Mean Standard Deviation Depression: (a) 21-30 years 11 1.27 0.91 (b)31-40 years 33 1.18 0.53 © 41-50 years 21 1.48 0.87 (d)51-60 years 5 1.40 0.89 Anxiety: (a) 21-30 years 11 1.82 1.33 (b)31-40 years 33 1.61 0.97 © 41-50 years 21 1.71 1.10 (d)51-60 years 5 1.40 0.89 Stress: (a) 21-30 years 11 1.09 0.30 (b)31-40 years 33 1.06 0.35 © 41-50 years 21 1.24 0.54 (d)51-60 years 5 1.20 0.45 ANOVA Source of Variance SS df Ms F Sign Depression: Between Groups 1.171 3 .390 .725 .541 Within Groups 35.529 66 .538 Total 36.700 69 Anxiety: Between Groups 0 .771 3 .257 .226 .878 Within Groups 75.001 66 1.136 Total 75. 771 69 Stress: Between Groups 0.445 3 .148 .860 .466 Within Groups 11.397 66 .173 Total 11.843 69
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Discussion of Findings Carlson, 1994, Dusselier et al., 2005: Anson et al., 1984) which could to This empirical research examined the difficulties in concentration, lack of prevalence of depression, anxiety, and motivation and interest, poor attendance stress and their interrelationship among and physical health such as headache medical educators in Kaduna and fatigability. Therefore, early Polytechnic. Kaduna. The first finding of recognition of students under poor this study indicated that the prevalence psychological states is very important in levels of DAS were low among the enhancing their psychological health. respondents. Comparatively, 12(17%) of Thus, interventions need to be in place to the students reported mild to severe improve the psycho-social health depression, 25(36%) reported mild to conditions of medical educators who will extremely severe anxiety while 7(10%) assist in nurturing the country’s health reported mild to moderate symptoms of care workers. stress. These findings are in agreement with similar researches conducted The findings in relation to hypothesis among nursing students (Rothnayake three reveal significance in depression and Eilanyaka, 2011; Dahlin et al., 2005; and stress while anxiety was not found to Abdullahi et al., 2014). In addition, be significant among the respondents. researchers like Schmitter et al. (2008) This indeed is not surprising because explained that by the fact that medical earlier in the entire respondents were students face unique academic found to have low depression, anxiety, challenges that render them more and stress, possibly due their exposure vulnerable to stress and stress than a and maturity. With these results, in spite student of other disciplines. of the fact that the PHC students had a greater mean in terms of anxiety Moreover, this study found a strong compared to the DNE students, the t-test positive correlation between depression, results were not statistically significant. anxiety, and stress. This result Is similarly consistent with findings of The fourth finding of this study reveals previous studies conducted in other that there was no statistically significant countries (Kurebayahi et al., 2012; difference in DAS between male and Manpreet and Maheshwari, 2015). These female students. The finding of this three problems indicate a composite state research is contrary to that of Abdullah of negative emotional symptoms among and Gabr (2014) who found that males medical educators. These negative were found to be more prone to emotional symptoms lead to poor depression than females (54% vs. 46%), psychological well-being that interfere this liability was inverted regarding with learning and limit the academic anxiety and stress, where females were performance of these students (Fine and more vulnerable to anxiety and stress
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 52 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches than males (55% vs. 45%) and (62% vs. and other stress interventions’ and 38%) respectively. However, this management in the school. research finding is parallel with that of (Tech, et al., 2015) who did not find any Conclusion significant association between age, sex, and study course with depression, The results of this research reveal that anxiety, and stress. Medical Educators are also at risk of depression, anxiety and stress. The low Lastly, the findings of the fourth prevalence levels of DAS Are similar to hypothesis revealed a no statistically what was found in other students. The significant influence of age brackets of findings of this descriptive study may medical educators on their DAS levels. help identify through psychological This finding is in agreement with the assessment, those who are at risks of research findings of Tech et al., (2015) developing DAS among this special who revealed that there is no significant group of students. These results may also correlation between the demographic serve to provide medical educators, factors of (age) with depression, anxiety counseling experts and psychotherapists and stress. On the other hand, this with information which is useful in research finding is contrary to the planning, designing and strategizing findings of Rathnayake et al., (2016) who interventions to effectively and revealed that age was found to be efficiently deal with problems significantly associated with depression, confronting students in our schools. anxiety, and stress. In addition, Papazisis et al., (2008) also found that anxiety was References higher among students in senior classes than junior classes. Usually, parallel to Abdullah, A. R., and Gabr, A. M. (2014). this increasing age, students in senior Depression, anxiety, and stress among classes face many problems and first-year medical students in an challenges in their academic and Egyptian public university. Int. Research personal life compared to younger Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, students. Heavy academic work load, 2(1), 11-19. completing all practical components, assignments, final research project with Akhu-Zaheya, L. M., Shaban, I. A. and deadlines, passing all examinations Khater, W. A. (2015). Nursing students without carry over(s), preparing for new perceived stress and influence in clinical roles are all factors than can trigger DAS. performance. International Journal of These factors may contribute to high Advanced Nursing Studies, 4(2), 44-48. DAS symptoms among the medical educators. Therefore, they may need Amr, A., El-Gilany, A., El-Moafe, H, some attention in counseling services Salama, L. and Jimenez, C. (2011). Stress
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Amr, A., El-Gilany, A., El-Moafee, H., Dusselier, I., Down, B., Wang, Y. Shelley, Salam, L., and Jimanez, C. (2011). Stress M.K. and Whelan, D. F. (2005). Personal, among Mansoura (Egypt) baccalaureate Health, academic and environmental nursing students. Pan African Medical predictors of stress for residence hall Journal, 8(26), 123-130. students. Journal of American College Health, 54, 15-24. Andrews, B. and Wilding, J. M. (2004). The relation of depression and anxiety to Dwyer, A. L. and Cummings, A. L. life stress and achievement in students. (2001). Stress, self-efficacy, social support British Journal of Psychology, 95(4), 509- and coping strategies in University 522. students. Journal of American College Health,54, 15-24. Anson, A. Bernstein, J and Hobfoll, S. E. (1984). Anxiety and performance in two Elzubeier, M. A Elzubeir, K. E. and ego threatening situations. Journal of Magzoub, M. E. (2010). Stress and coping Personality Assessment, 48(2), 168-172. strategies among Arab medical students towards a research agenda. Educ. Health Chernomas, W. M. and Shapiro, C. (Abingdon), 23(1), 355. (2013). Depression, anxiety and stress among undergraduates nursing Fine, J. M. and Carlson, C (1994). A students. Int. Journal of Nursing Education system ecological perspective on home- Scholarship, 10(1), 255-266. school intervention. In J. M. Fine and C. Carlson (Eds.). The handbook of family- Dahlin, M, Jonebong, N. and Runeson, school interventions: A system perspective. B.(2005). Stress and depression among Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon. medical students: a cross-sectional study. Med Education, 39 594-604. Firth-Cozens, J. (2001). Medical student stress.Med Education, 35, 6-7. Dalir, Z. and Mazlouim, S. B. (2012). Relationship between mental health and Kurhayashi, L. F. S., Prada, J. M. and interest in field of study in nursing and Silva, M.J.P. (2012). Correlations between midwifery students. Life Science Journal, stress and anxiety levels in nursing 9(3), 1916-1921. students. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, 2(3), 128-134. Demakis, G. T. and McAdams, D. P. (1994). Personality, social support and
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Lovibond, H. S. and Lovibond, P.F. uses.http://www2.psy.unsw.ed.au/das (1995). Manual for depression, anxiety, s/over.htm. stress scale. Sydney: Psychology Foundation. Radaef, A. S. Faisal, G. G. Ali, S. M. and Ismaial, M.K.H.M. (2014). Sources of Manpreet, K. and Maheshwari, S. K. stressors and emotional disturbances (2015). Depression, anxiety and stress among undergraduates Sciences among postgraduate nursing students. students. Malaysian Int. Journal of Medical Int. Journal of Therapeutic Application, 21, Research and Health Science, 3, 401-410. 12-18. Ramson, H. E. Bloomer, K. and Kendall, Misra, R. and McKein, M. (2000). College A. (1999). Stress, anxiety, depression and students academic stress and its relation physical illness on college students. The to their anxiety, time management and Journal of Genetic Psychology, 155(3), 321- leisure satisfaction. American Journal of 330. Health Studies, 16(1), 41-52. Rathaayake, R. N. and Ekanyake, B. N. Murphy, M. C. and Archer, J. (1996). (2016). DAS among undergraduate Stressors on the college campus: A nursing students in public university in comparison of 1985-1993. Journal of Sri Lanka. International Journal of Caring College Student Development, 37, 20-28. Sciences. 9(3), 1020-1032.
Papazisis, G., Tsiga, E., Papanikolous, N., Sarson, J. G. and Sarson, B. R. (2000). Vlasiadis, I and Sapountzi-Krepia, D. Abnormal Psychology: The problem of (2008). Pyshcological distress, anxiety maladaptive behavior. Upper saddle River, and depression among nursing students N.J: Prentice Hall. in Greece. International Journal of Caring Sciences, 1(1), 42-46. Schmitter, M., Liedi, M. Beck, J and Rammelsbeing, P. (2008). Chronic stress Pignone, M.P, Gaynes, B.N. Ruston, J. L., in medical and dental education. Med Burchell, C. M., Orleans, C.T. Mulrow, C. Tech, 20, 97-99. D. and Lohr, K. N. (2002). Screening for depression in adults: a summary of the Sefree, M. D., Yasin, M. D., and Dzulkifli, evidence for the U. S. Preventive Services M. A. (2011). Differences in Depression, Task Force. Ann. Intern Med., 136, 765- anxiety and stress between low and high 776. achieving students. Journal of Sustainability Science and Management, Psychological Foundation of Australia. 6(1), 169-178. (2014). Overview of the DASS and its
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Chapter Seven
Effects of Intercropping Celosia, Amaranthus and Corchorus on the Growth and Yield of Cucumber (Cucumis Sativus L.).
Akinkuoroye, Omowumi Hannah Federal College of Forestry, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
Intercropping is the growing of two or more crops in close proximity to promote interaction between them. Intercropping has the advantage of increasing crop productivity. It could, however, lower the yield of one or more of the component crops. Two field experiments were conducted in IDO Local Government Area of Oyo State to evaluate effects of intercropping celosia, Amaranthus and Corchorus on the growth and yield of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). Cucumber seeds were sown at the rate of one seed per hole and spaced at 0.8 m x 1.0 m resulting in 12,500 plants per hectare while the seeds of celosia, Amaranthus and Corchorus were broadcast on the bed at the rate of 6 kg per hectare. Data were collected on vine length (cm), number of leaves between 2 and 6 weeks after sowing, number of fruits and fruit weight (kg) of cucumber at two major harvests, weed biomass, celosia, Amaranthus and Corchorus biomass yield at 7 Week After Sowing (WAS). The data were subjected to analysis of variance system while significant means were compared using the Least Significant Difference (LSD). The results showed that intercropping Celosia, Amaranthus and Corchorus with Cucumber did not have significant effects on the growth parameters such as the vine length and number of leaves but significantly affected the yield of cucumber in terms of the number of fruits and weight of fruits. The cumulative number and weight of fruits of cucumber intercropped with celosia were significantly lower than that of sole cucumber in the two croppings. The differences in yield among cucumber intercrops with the three vegetables were however not significant. Amaranthus, Corchorus, and Celosia caused 12, 18 and 30% reduction in the number of the fruit of cucumber respectively while the corresponding reduction in fruit yield were 18, 21 and 31%. Celosia appeared to have higher yield reduction effects on the cucumber than other leafy vegetables, thus care must be taken in choosing the associated crops.
Keywords: Cucumber; Amaranthus; Corchorus; Intercropping; Yield
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Introduction
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) belongs to be used for beauty purposes such as the Cucurbitaceae (gourd family). The body scrub and cleansing cream. Its cucumber is a thermophilic horticultural benefits concerning other health and crop with a creeping vine that bears medical conditions include the cucumiform fruits that are used as manufacture of soaps, lotions, shampoos vegetables. It is a good source of vitamins fragrant and usage in the cosmetic and minerals (Ofosu, 2007). industry.
There are three main genotypes of Fruit and leafy vegetables are of great cucumber: slicing, pickling and seedless. importance worldwide most especially Within these varieties, several cultivars in the human diet as they contain all the have been created. The cucumber is necessary minerals and vitamins needed originally from South Asia but now for the proper functioning of the human grows on most continents. Many system. Sadly, due to the problem of land different types of cucumber are traded scarcity and crop ranking, it has become on the global market. It is cultivated in difficult to cultivate them extensively almost all the agro-ecological zones of (Harwood 1975). Vegetables are Nigeria ranging from coastal to abundantly grown in Nigeria for their savannah zones. The savannah zone of edible fruits and leaves (Ofosu, 2007). Nigeria has the greatest potential for its The term leafy vegetable is frequently production due to moderate rainfall. used to refer to plants whose succulent However, research has proved that it can stem portions, petioles, and leaves are also grow in some southern parts of mainly cooked and eaten in soups Nigeria (Ofosu, 2007). (Ofosu, 2007). Besides their aesthetic value in food presentation, vegetables Cucumber is commonly used for food, enhance the nutritional quality of diets in medicinal and industrial purposes. It is terms of vitamins and minerals such as either eaten raw or prepared in various carotene, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, iron, forms especially as components of the iodine and calcium (Harwood 1975). vegetable salad. Cucumber is commonly processed into fresh products like Intercropping was a common routine in pickles, kimchi, and salad or as the past but it has progressively been beverages like juice. In medicine, it is substituted by extensive cultivation used to mitigate various cancers (Andrew and Kassam 1976). including (breast-ovarian, uterine and Intercropping is the growing of two or prostate); and for the treatment of more crops in close proximity to promote diabetics, skin irritations as well as interaction between them. It is practiced rehydrate the body. Cucumber can also with the aim of maximizing plant
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 58 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches cooperation rather than plant insects and disease organisms, serve as competition for maximum crop yields alternate hosts to pests, compete with per unit area (Theunissen 1997). It also crops for nutrients, moisture, light, and provided a more competitive effect space, they may increase insect and against weeds either in time or space disease damage to crops, decrease the than those of mono-cropping (Sullivan quality of crops, or cause harm to animal 2001). Arnon (1972) reported that for health that feeds on them (Weaver 1984). food crop production, intercropping is Weeds reduce crop yield and quality by frequently used and the system varies competing with the crops (Anil 2000). with locality and resources available to Despite yield stability, the most the farmers (Arnon 1972). Intercropping important advantage of intercropping is of vegetables is experiencing a the possibility of better control of weeds, renaissance with the uptake of organic pests or diseases. Other advantages of farming. Cultivation of several plant intercropping include; greater system species simultaneously eliminates resilience by the interplay of different negative traits of homogenous crops, greater production at crop edges, cultivation, supports bio-diversity and deliver environmental benefits such as remains compliant with the rule of greater soil and water conservation balanced agriculture. Any system of potential (Akobundu 1987). Despite the cropping that can increase the rate of advantages of mono- or soles cropping crop yield and or lower the cost of such as reducing input use, weed control production will provide economic with selective herbicide, ease of opportunity for farmers. Intercropping mechanization, etc., almost all has been identified as a promising smallholder farmers in the developing system that results in ineffective use of world still practice intercropping (Ijoyah land and other resources, efficient 2011). Therefore, this experiment is utilization of water and soil nutrients aimed to investigate the effect of and reduction in the cost of production. intercropping leafy vegetables on It also gained wide acceptability among growth and yield of cucumber with a farmers in tropical countries (Norman, view of maximizing plant cooperation 1970; Willey, 1979) because of its rather than plant competition for economic advantages (Baker, 1979). maximum crop yields per unit area.
Intercropping has an additional Materials and Methods advantage of weed control. Weeds are naturally occurring plants that are Description of experimental site: The injurious in agricultural systems. Most experiment was carried out at IDO in weeds are opportunistic, filling in voids IDO Local Government area, Ibadan, on the farm and can only grow or exist if Oyo State, located within the latitude of there is space for them. Weeds harbor 7o 45’ 9.25’’ N and longitude of 3o 87’
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52.50’’ E. The site has sandy-loam soils. occupying two sub plot. The size of each The field was about 40 m × 28 m located plot was 5 m × 3 m with a border of 1m in a FADAMA, near a stream which between plots. The trials were laid out in served as the main source of residual soil randomized complete block design moisture for the trial established in (RCBD) consisting of four treatments February 2018. The second rain-fed including the control and replicated four experiment was established on the times. The experiment was done twice upland field on the same farm. with planting in a valley bottom which used residual soil moisture substituted Land preparation, Cultural Practices, with occasional watering as commonly and Experimental Procedure practised by farmers and the second The land preparation was done manually planting done on dryer upland field at with the use of hoes and cutlasses one the on-set of rains. week prior to planting. The farm site was ploughed and tilling was done with the Cultural Management and use of native hoe to prepare smooth Experimental Procedure weed-free ridges. Plots were arranged in The treatments combinations are pairs with each treatment occupying two presented in Table 1, Planting was done subplot. The size of each plot was 5 m × on the 24th February and 13th April 2018 3 m with a border of 1m between plots. for the first and second trial respectively. Subsequent hand wedding was done as Cucumber seeds were direct seeded at the need arose and as expected the leafy the rate of one seed per hole and spaced greens served as life mulch for the at 0.8 m x 1.0 m resulting in 12,500 cucumber plant and major wedding was plants/ha while the leaf vegetable seeds only carried out once at 4 Weeks After were broadcast on the bed between each Sowing (WAS). Visual observation was cucumber plant at the rate of 6 g per 10 carried out for determination of weed cm2 equivalent to 6 kg/ha. The emergence and growth as relate to the vegetables were planted simultaneously density of vegetable in population. to the cucumber on the same day to evaluate their ability in controlling Treatments and Experimental, Design weeds with particular emphasis on their and Plot Size effect on growth and yield of cucumber. The treatments were cucumber (Variety The cucumber plants were staked with Greengo 918 F1) grown sole or in bamboo poles and twine in a trellis intercropping with three commonly pattern. grown leaf vegetables in south western Nigeria, Corchorus olitorius (Corchorus), Data collection Amaranthus viridis (Amaranthus) and Data were collected from three cucumber Celosia argentea (Celosia). Plots were plants on growth and yield parameters arranged in pairs with each treatment including plant height by measuring
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 60 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches with meter rule, numbers of leaves/plant, number of branches/plant Effects of Celosia, Amaranthus and and cumulative fruit weight/plant Corchorus intercropping on vine length harvested at 4-day interval. The and number of leaves in Cucumber cumulative fruit weights were also recorded from which the fruit yield Table 3 and 4 contains the result on the (t/ha) was estimated. The fruit yield was effects of intercropped celosia, then calculated for the cumulative fruit Amaranthus and Corchorus on the vine weight/plant. length of cucumber in the first and second cropping respectively. In both Data analysis cases, the effects of intercropping were The data were subjected to analysis of not significant (P ≤ 0.05) on the vine variance system while significant means length of the cucumber. However, the were compared using the Least cucumber that was intercropped with Significant Difference (LSD). celosia appeared to have longer vines compared to other intercropping. This Table 1: Treatments combination of the could be due to the fact that celosia seeds experiment germinated later than other leafy S/N Treatment vegetables hence delay in onset of 1 Sole cucumber competition for light and another 2 Cucumber + amaranthus resource with cucumber plants. This 3 Cucumber + celosia might cause etiolation which might make 4 Cucumber + corchorus the cucumber to grow longer. The non- significant effect of intercropping on Results and Discussion growth characteristics of cucumber was reported by Yildirim and Guvenc (2004) Soils of the experimental site: The and Ojeifo (2007). results of the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil of the two fields The number of leaves in cucumber as before cropping cucumber are presented influenced by intercropping with celosia, in Table 2. The soils of the experimental amaranthus and corchorus in first and site were characterized as loam loamy- second cropping of the crops are sand with 781, 134 and 85, and 801, 114 presented in Tables 5 and 6. There were and 80 g/kg sand, silt and clay no significant differences in the number respectively for the valley bottom and of leaves at the various stages of growth the upland fields. The soils were slightly as influenced by the intercropping with acidic with very high organic carbon the different leaf vegetables (Ojeifo 2007). content.
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Table 2: Chemical and physical properties of the soil at experimental site First site Second site
pH (H2O) 6.2 6.3 Organic C (g Kg-1) 19.4 18.4 Total N (g Kg-1) 4.5 4.1 Available P (g Kg-1) 14.9 13.7 Exchangeable bases (cmol Kg-1) Ca 12.6 11.8 Mg 1.7 1.7 Na 0.9 0.8 K 1.7 1.5 Exchangeable Acidity (cmol Kg-1) 0.4 0.3 CEC (cmol Kg-1) 17.3 16.1 Base saturation (cmol Kg-1) 82.4 91.6 Particle size (g Kg-1) Sand 781 806 Silt 134 114 Clay 85 80 Textural class Sandy loam Loamy sand
Table 3: Vine length (cm) of Cucumber as affected by intercropping with three leafy vegetables (First Cropping) Weeks after sowing Treatment 2 3 4 5 6 Sole Cucumber 11.2 18.8 53.2 92.3 169.3 Cucumber + Amaranthus 11.4 20.3 51.7 90.8 166.8 Cucumber + Celosia 11.8 20.6 51.9 99.8 174.5 Cucumber + Corchorus 14.4 22.4 57.6 96.0 162.3 LSD ns ns ns ns ns
Table 4: Vine length (cm) of Cucumber as affected by intercropping with three leafy vegetables (Second Cropping) Weeks after sowing Treatment 2 3 4 5 6 Sole Cucumber 14.5 21.4 56.9 95.9ab 171.0 Cucumber + Amaranthus 15.9 22.4 55.6 104.9a 165.3 Cucumber + Celosia 15.0 22.0 57.2 100.2ab 169.3 Cucumber + Corchorus 15.5 22.1 55.5 82.1b 160.0 LSD ns ns ns 22.31 ns
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Table 5: Number of leaves of Cucumber as affected by intercropping with three leafy vegetables (First Cropping)
Treatment Weeks after sowing 2 3 4 5 6 Sole Cucumber 4.4 5.7 11.4 22.2 29.2 Cucumber + Amaranthus 4.9 6.9 12.9 25.8 33.7 Cucumber + Celosia 5.0 6.8 12.6 23.3 30.9 Cucumber + Corchorus 5.0 6.3 11.9 23.7 31.2 LSD ns ns ns ns ns
Table 6: Number of leaves of Cucumber as affected by intercropping with three leafy vegetables (Second Cropping)
Treatment Weeks after sowing 2 3 4 5 6 Sole Cucumber 4.9 6.2 19.1 24.5 37.1 Cucumber + Amaranthus 5.2 7.2 17.7 26.9 36.3 Cucumber + Celosia 5.3 7.3 20.3 24.9 37.2 Cucumber + Corchorus 5.2 6.7 20.4 25.2 36.3 LSD ns ns ns ns ns
Fruit yield of Cucumber as influenced Although the numbers of fruits at both by intercropping with Celosia, harvests as well as the weight of fruits in Amaranthus and Corchorus the first harvest were not significantly The fruit yield of cucumber both in terms influenced in the second cropping, the of number and weight per hectare after cumulative yields in both parameters two major harvests in the first and were significantly different as influenced second cropping as well as cumulative by the intercropping with the selected yields in both croppings as influenced by crops (Table 8). intercropping with celosia, amaranthus and corchorus are presented in Tables 7 The cucumber intercropped with Celosia and 8. Intercropping Cucumber with had the lowest number of fruits at the Celosia, Amaranthus, and Corchorus first harvest and the cumulative harvests vegetable had significant effects (P ≤ in the first cropping. This was 0.05) on the number of fruits as well as significantly lower than those obtained the fruit weight of the crop at both from the plots that were intercropped harvesting points as well as the with Amaranthus and those of the sole cumulative yields in the first cropping cropping but comparable to that of (Table 7). intercropping with Corchorus in both This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 63 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches harvests. In the second harvest of the first compared to the sole crop of cucumber, cropping, a number of fruits of cucumber though these were not significant. Ojeifo in the plots intercropped with celosia (2007) reported that on per unit area and that of Corchorus were significantly basis, the sole crops out-yielded the lower than that obtained in sole intercrops with regards to Cucumber. Cucumber cropping but comparable to that of amaranthus cucumber intercrop The cumulative numbers of fruits and (Table 7). fruit weight of second and cumulative harvests in the second cropping were The fruit weight of Cucumber significantly influenced by intercropping intercropped with celosia in the first with the selected vegetables. cropping was significantly lower than Intercropping with Celosia caused a that obtained from sole cropping of lower cumulative number of fruits as Cucumber but comparable to those well as the weight of fruits in the second obtained from intercropping with the harvest of the second cropping than the two other crops. The fruit weight of fruits sole crop of cucumber. These yield from the intercrops with Amaranthus parameters recorded in plots and Corchorus were not significantly intercropped with Celosia was not lower than that obtained from the sole however significantly lower than those cucumber plot in this first harvest of the from the other intercrops which were in first cropping (Table 7). turn comparable to that obtained in sole Cucumber plot. For the cumulative fruit In the second and cumulative harvests of weight, both Celosia and Amaranthus fruits in the first cropping, all intercrop intercrops caused significant reduction resulted in significantly lower fruit in fruit weight compared to the sole weight than that produced by the sole cropping of cucumber. Intercropping crop of cucumber (Table 7). with corchorus resulted in fruit weight that was not significantly lower or higher In the second cropping, numbers of fruits than that of the sole crop of Cucumber in the first and second harvests as well as and intercrop with the other selected fruit weights of Cucumber were not vegetables respectively (Table 8). significantly influenced by intercropping with the selected leafy vegetables. The weed biomass production as However, a cursory look at the values influenced by intercropping of indicates that these parameters followed Cucumber with the selected leaf a similar trend with that of the first vegetables is presented in Figure 1. The cropping (Table 8). The Celosia intercrop weed biomass was significantly caused about 12% reduction in a number influenced by the intercropping system. of fruits in both first and second harvest Sole cropping of cucumber resulted in and about 14% reduction in fruit weight highest weed biomass production of 3.2
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 64 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches tonnes/ha (fresh weight) which was different under the different crop/plant significantly higher than those produced combinations. Biomass productions in in the other plots. Cucumber the plots that had Amaranthus or Celosia intercropped with Amaranthus caused are comparable to one another but weed biomass production of 0.91 t/ha significantly higher than that obtained in which was comparable to 8.3 t/ha plots that had Corchorus. Sole cropping obtained from Cucumber-Celosia had the least biomass production since intercrop. These values were not only weeds which were removed at the significantly lower than 1.2 t/ha weed early part of the lifecycle of the biomass production obtained from plots Cucumber crop were the companion intercropped with Corchorus. The high plants. weed biomass obtained from the sole crop of Cucumber was due to the Although it was observed that the total absence of crop cover on the plots as the yield of cucumber and the vegetables Cucumber plants were staked and thus could be advantageous (Yildirim and the weed seeds were able to germinate Guvenc, 2004), the effects of the and dominate the plots. It was observed intercropping with the selected in the field that the seeds of Corchorus vegetables caused reductions in germinated much later and also grew cumulative number of fruits and weight much slower than those of other of the fruits with a range of 12 to 30 and vegetables thus allowing the weed to 18 to 31% respectively by the thrive earlier than the crops got intercropped vegetables. Yildirim and established. Ofosu-Anim and Limbani Guvenc (2004) concluded that (2007) reported that intercropping okra intercropping cucumber with lettuce, with Cucumber resulted in reduced leaf lettuce, and French beans had some weed infestation, especially of broadleaf yield advantages and higher area-based weeds. productivity than when grown alone. The yield advantage in intercropping The total biomass production of may also be due to the effects of vegetable crops and/or weeds in the intercropping on pest and diseases cucumber and the selected leaf control or dynamics in the system (Pitan vegetables is presented in Figure 2. The and Esan, 2014). biomass productions are significantly
Table 7: Number and weight of Cucumber fruits at harvest as affected by intercropping with the selected leafy vegetables (First Cropping) This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 65 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches
Number of fruits/ha Weight of fruits (kg/ha) Treatment 1st 2nd 1st 2nd harvest harvest Cumulative harvest harvest Cumulative Sole Cucumber 12750a 18318a 31068a 4788a 6880a 11668a Cucumber + 11574a 15887ab 27460ab 4017ab 5522b 9539b Amaranthus Cucumber + 7870b 13797b 21667c 2938b 5207b 8145b Celosia Cucumber + 11392ab 14233b 25625bc 4067ab 5182b 9248b Corchorus LSD 3523.8 2816.6 4680.3 1174.4 1330.3 1865.7
Table 8: Number and weight of Cucumber fruits at harvest as affected by intercropping with the selected leafy vegetables (Second Cropping) Treatment Number of fruits/ha Weight of fruits (kg/ha) 1st 2nd 1st 2nd harvest harvest Cumulative harvest harvest Cumulative Sole Cucumber 16304 17123 33427a 6119 6446a 12564a Cucumber + 15957 15944 31901ab 5548 5534ab 11082b Amaranthus Cucumber + Celosia 14355 15006 29361b 5238 5448b 10686b Cucumber + 15645 15945 31590ab 5867 5962ab 11829ab Corchorus LSD ns ns 3556.3 ns 986.2 1462.0
3.5 a 3
2.5
2
1.5 Weed Biomass 1
0.5 c bc bc 0 Sole Cucumber Cucumber + Cucumber + Cucumber + Amaranthus Celosia Corchorus Figure 1: Weed biomass in Cucumber intercropped with selected leafy vegetables
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8 7 b c 6 5 4 a 3 Biomas production 2 1 0 Sole Cucumber Cucumber + Cucumber + Cucumber + Amaranthus Celosia Corchorus Figure 2: Total plant biomass in Cucumber intercropped with selected leafy vegetables
Summary and Conclusions
Two field experiments were conducted he vine length and a number of leaves in IDO in February and April 2018 to but significantly affected the yield of evaluate the effects of intercropping Cucumber in terms of the number of Celosia, Amaranthus, and Corchorus on fruits and the weight of fruits. the growth and yield of cucumber Amaranthus, Corchorus, and Celosia (Cucumis sativus L.). Cucumber seeds caused 12, 18 and 30% and 18, 21 and were sown at the rate of one seed per 31% reduction in the number of fruits hole and spaced at 0.8 m x 1.0 m resulting and in fruit weight respectively of in 12,500 plants/ha while the leaf cucumber. As could be seen, vegetable seeds were broadcast on the intercropping with celosia appeared to bed at the rate of 6 g per 10 cm2 have higher yield reduction effects on the equivalent to 6 kg/ha. The cucumber cucumber than other leaf vegetables, plants were staked with bamboo poles thus care must be taken in choosing the and twine in a trellis pattern. Data were associated crops in Cucumber leaf collected on growth and yield vegetable intercrop. Although the parameters of cucumber, weed biomass selected vegetables had significant and Celosia, Amaranthus and Corchorus effects on the yield of cucumber, the biomass yield at 7 WAS. economic analysis involving the total yields of the crops in the mixture may be The results showed that intercropping required to determine the profitability of Celosia, Amaranthus or Corchorus with the intercropping system. Cucumber did not have significant effects on the growth parameters such as Celosia intercrop consistently reduced fruit number and yield of Cucumber at 2nd harvest and cumulatively in the two This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 67 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches croppings while Amaranthus and Arnon, I. 1972. Mixed cropping in Crop Corchorus similarly reduced the values production in dry regions. London, in the first cropping only. England; Leonard Hill, vol. 1 pp 475-476 1991. Jackson Tennessee, soil and water Acknowledgments conservation society, Ankeny, Iowa, USA, pp 141-145. I give all the glory to Jehovah for His divine protection, favor, provision, and Baker, E. F. I., 1979. Research on mixed guidance throughout the period of my cropping with cereals in Nigerian research. I wish to express my profound farming systems – a system for gratitude to Dr. O. W. Olaniyi and Dr. improvement, In: International E.V. Aghimien for their great workshop on Farming Systems contributions. I also want to express my (Proceedings) ICRISAT, Hyderabad, sincere appreciation to my entire family, November 18-21. 287-301 especially my parents, Mrs. R. Akinkuoroye (mother) and Mr. Akinola Harwood, R. R. 1975. Farmer oriented Akinbobola Akinkuoroye, my father of research aimed at crop intensification. blessed memory, for their unrelenting Proceedings of the cropping system efforts, encouragement, prayers and workshop, March 18-20. IRRI, Los Bonos, support all through the period of the Philippines. research. Ijoyah M. O. and J. Jimba 2011. Effects of References planting methods, planting dates and intercropping systems on sweet potato- Akobundu, I.O. 1987. Weed Science in okra yields in Makurdi, Nigeria. the Tropics: principles and practice, John Agricultural Science Research Journal 1(8), Wiley and Sons, Chichester. 184-190.
Anil, S. 2000. Time of weed emergence Norman J. C. 1970. Tropical vegetable and critical periods in crops, IPM weed crops, Arthur H. Stockwell Ltd. Elms ecologist, Kearney Agricultural Centre Court, Illfracomb Devon. Bulletin. Ofosu-Anim, J. and N. V. Limbani 2007. Andrew, D.J. and A. H. Kassam 1976. Effect of Intercropping on the Growth The importance of multiple cropping in and Yield of Cucumber (Cucumis sativus increasing world food supplies in L.) and Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) multiple cropping, Papendick, R.I, Moench, International Journal of Sanchez, A. and Trippett, G.B. (Eds) Agriculture and Biology 9(4): 594–597. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, USA, pp 1-10.
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Ojeifo, I. M. 2007. Effects of growing sustainable horticulture”. Outlook Agric cucumber with some leafy vegetables 26:95-99. and vegetable cowpea on growth and productivity, Journal of Agriculture, Willey, R. W., 1979a. Intercropping - Its Forestry and Social Sciences 5(2): 114- Importance and Research Needs. Part 1. 116. Competition and Yield Advantages. Commonwealth bureau of pastures and Pitan, O.O.R. and E.O. Esan (2014) field crops. Field crop abstracts, 1979, Intercropping cucumber with amaranth Vol. 32, No 1. (Amaranthus cruentus L.) to suppress populations of major insect pests of Weaver, S. E. 1984. Critical period of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), Archives of weed competition in three vegetable Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 47:9, crops in relation to management 1112-1119 practices. Weed Research, 24: (5) 317-325
Sullivan, P.2001. Intercropping Yildirim, E. and I. Guvenc 2004. principles and production practices, Intercropping in cucumber (Cucumis Appropriate Technology transfer for sativus) under greenhouse condition, rural areas (ATTRA), USDA Rural Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences Business 74(12): 663-664.
Theunissen, J. 1997. “Intercropping in field vegetables as an approach to
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Chapter Eight
Factors Affecting Development of Education in Nigeria
Ahmad Said Abubakar1, Shehu Sayyid Ayo 2 and Mahmoud Zubair Imam3 1 Geography Department, Kwara State College of Education, Ilorin 2 Geography Department, Aminu Kano College of Islamic and Legal Studies, Kano 3 Geography Department, Sa’adatu Rimi College of Education, Kano
Abstract
The main focal point of this research work is to look at factors that affect the development of education in Nigeria with particular reference to socio-political, economic, environmental and cultural factors. The research work also provided the reader how education has been seen by the Federal Government of Nigeria and how it can use to mould an individual and nation in general positively. Though, some of the problems or challenges education face in Nigeria is stated in this research work. However, the study solely depended upon the secondary source of data where data from books, projects, journals, and other related documents were consulted. Nevertheless, the location and some geographical features of the study area are included in this research work. The study ended with some recommendations for boasting or improving and development of the educational system in Nigeria such as funding, the motivation of the teachers, provision of a guideline, organizing seminar, workshop, conference, etc.
Introduction
Education provides individuals with the Data from the school census 2006 has knowledge and skills necessary to shown that the country is said to have advance themselves and their nation 87,941 primary schools across all the socially, economically and politically. states and the enrolled students in those Socioeconomic factors –such as family primaries were about 24,604,538. The income level, parents' level of education, document stated that there were race, and gender all – do influence the 13,302,269 or 54.1% of male pupils, while quality and availability of education as there were 11,302,269 or 45.9% of female well as the ability of education to pupils in the primary school (Road map, improve life circumstances. 2006). National Bureau of Statistics conducted research under the national literacy survey (2010); the survey revealed that the adult literacy in Nigeria was estimated to be 56.9% with great variation between states (Lagos 92.0 and This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 70 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches
Borno only 14.5%) and sex (male 65.1% that is necessary which consist six years and female 48.6%). More importantly, of primary and three years of junior the Federal ministry of education also secondary education in either an added that only 500,000 of the 40 million academic or technical schools. In order adults’ illiterates are enrolled in adult for someone to continue more choice are learning classes. There are also 3.5 available to go either vocation or million nomadic schools- aged children technical schools. with only 450,000 of them accessing any form of schooling. Nigeria also has a Investment in education means great number of out-of-school children investment in manpower development, estimated at over seven million persons. political sanity, and survival, health, and healthy living, economic progress, socio- In order to ensure sound education, cultural development, environmental provision of guidelines has to be adapted protection, and industrialization. which helps in defining right and obligations, powers and functions in all There is no gain-saying the above education control and the existing legal definitions, that education is the live wire organization which will lead to the all and center of all development and participants to have efficiency, and nation-building; and as such any type of effectiveness of the teaching-learning government, be it military, civilian or processes (Ajayi, 1980). The mixed that ignores the rate of responsibilities of education are taken by educational development of its country, Federal, State, and Local government. calls for national crisis and/or calamity The Federal Ministry of Education plays (Ogueri, 2004: 18). an important role in controlling the education sector, trying to ensure quality Additionally, some of the developed control and policy formation. However, nations ‘re-adjusted’ their educational tertiary education is more direct control policy as well as increased resources for by the federal government while education expansion immediately after secondary by state government and the Second World War as to meet the primary by local government (Jennifer, present demands of development. Such 2011). yielded positive economic growth. (Ogueri, 2004: 15). According to Nigeria’s National policy on education (2004), basic education The eradication of illiteracy has not only comprises education given to younger been one of the most important concerns ones within the range of 3-15 years, of the government, but also one of the which include pre-primary programs to key challenges being faced by the younger ones of three to five years (ages educational system. Other “issues” 3 to 5) and nine years of formal education Nigeria education is faced include
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 72 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches quality, supply, distribution, and development of education in Nigeria motivation of teachers; declining such as economic, social, environmental, financial resources; unstable education political, cultural factors. systems; inadequate remuneration; and lack of commitment among others. Methodology Universities have often been snowed under by strikes resulting in the closure In this research work is aimed to study of campuses and suspension of classes. It the factors that affect the development of has also been argued that in many education in Nigeria with particular secondary schools, quality has been reference to socio-political, economic, sacrificed for quantity. environmental and cultural influence (www.britishcouncil.org/ecs/events/20 where the secondary source of data is 03/1016/details/market.htm p.1) used. The secondary source of data are materials contain an account of an event The federal government of Nigeria sees or phenomenon by someone who did not education as the greatest force that can be actually witness the scene phenomenon. used to bring about change; and the Examples, of secondary source of data greatest investment that a nation can used in this research work, are books, make for quick development of its journals, projects, and other related economic, political, sociological and documents. human resources. It was in realization of that the national policy on education The study area is Nigeria which lies seeks the inculcating of the right type between longitude 30E and 150E of the of values and attitudes for the survival of Greenwich Meridian and latitude 40N the individual and the Nigerian society; and 140N of the equator. Nigeria is inculcation of national consciousness situated in West Africa borders by the and national unity; the training of the Niger Republic in the north, North-east mind in understanding of the world by the Chad Republic, in the East by around; and the acquisition of Cameroon Republic, in the South by the appropriate skills, abilities and Atlantic Ocean and Benin Republic in the competence both mental and physical as West. On the other hand, Nigeria has equipment for the individual to live in total land area of 923,300km2. This makes and contribute to the development of it to become fourth in West Africa in his terms of landmass after Niger, Mali and society(www.nigeriahighcommottawa.c Mauritania. But in terms of population it om/educationinnigeria.htm p.1). is champion with about 174,505,539 people as of July, 2013 estimation. Thus, Though, the realization of this dream left the population is distributed in unevenly much to be desired. There are many manner over the space. However, factors that contribute to the climate of the study area is mainly
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 73 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches divided into two major groups; wet and and retention of the right caliber of dry seasons. Though, each season varies teachers. The system also requires from the northern to southern Nigeria workshops, technical and vocational due to the influence of continentality. centers, as well as functional laboratories, libraries and counselling Economic Factor services all of which involve huge Education is a weapon that is used to budgetary provisions. change the world (Early, 2007: 1). Any country needs to invest in education not However, the development of education only for imparting knowledge but for the relies upon the equipment available for development of an economy. Countries easy teaching and learning process. that are developed economically, These equipment need money or fund to develop their educational sector and go for them. All things that simplify the otherwise to the countries with less method of teaching and learning such as economic power. In Nigeria for example, board, chalk, video, computer, projector, the educational sector has been in internet, textbooks, etc. are called bottleneck since especially during educational equipment. Availability of civilian rule (1999 to – date). UNESCO these materials help both the teacher and recommends its members to at least students to teachers and learn allocate 26% of its budget to the respectively which boost the education sector. But in Nigeria the development of education. Absence or situation is not like this; 11.2%, 8.3%, little of these materials leads to difficulty 7.0%, and 5.9% were allocated to in the method of teaching (Incekara and education in 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002 Abubakar, 2014: 48). Any instructional respectively. The worst period of time materials need fund. But in Nigeria, most which education fell was in 2003 where of these instructional media are lacking only 1.8% was allocated to the education in public schools as stated by Agnes and sector. We can say that military leaders Nor (2011: 325) that only 12% of the did better than their counterpart secondary schools have necessary democratic leaders. Annoyingly, in the facilities in Nigeria compared to 1980s a poor country like Mali spent Malaysia which has 100 percent. about 30% of its annual budget on education (Bichi, 2015: 17). Political Influence on Education Nigeria has been governed by the Consequently, the poor or inadequate military and democratic leaders. For the funding on education has led to the second time since independence in 1960, failure of the 6-3-3-4 system of education, a democratic constitution that was since the program is capital intensive. It inefficient was overthrown in a military requires high and adequate manpower; coup. Each coup was due to the decay which entails the training, recruitment, that had three components: staggering
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 74 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches corruption, crippling economic waste had four different Federal Ministers and and mismanagement, and the vitiating of four different nineteen State the electoral process through violence Commissioners of Education with highly and fraud (Diamond, 1984). Since divergent educational policies and independence, the state has been the priorities. chief arena for the accumulation of wealth and the acquisition of resources. In addition, many states those are less Much of the wealth is grossly accessible prepare for university or tertiary through government contracts, jobs, institution can set off a university or import licenses, development projects, to tertiary institution in order to be in the mention a few; and little was same canoe with their counterparts. This accumulated through any substantially- causes the depressing of standards and independent business. As a result, there in different educational projects falling is always a desperate struggle for state down halfway (Isiaku, 2014: 129). power. Politics becomes warfare and a matter of life and death (Ake, 1981). Such Cultural Influence on Education corruptive politics transcends virtually Culture plays a great part in framing the all socio-economic, educational, and lifestyle of any group of people. The political decisions in Nigeria. Urwick heterogeneous culture in Nigeria (1983) revealed that the former military portrays the divergent beliefs prevalent government instituted the UPE program in the general society. Traditionally, not necessarily to meet the needs of the education emphasizes the use of the citizens of the country, but to boost its mind, body and soul. Fafunwa (1975) political credibility. It is apparent that the outlined the seven prime goals of transitional political system in Nigeria traditional education. They are: affected her socio-economic and 1. To develop the latent physical educational progress. It is also uncertain skills. who will be in power, and which 2. To inculcate respect for elders decision will change tomorrow. Since the and those in a position of institution of the UPE program in authority. September 1976, and the provision of 3. To develop intellectual skills. Section 8 of the National Policy on 4. To develop character. Education in 1976, four different 5. To acquire specific vocational governments (three of them military and training and to develop a healthy one a constitutionally-elected attitude toward honest labour. government) have ruled Nigeria. During 6. To develop a sense of belonging the military rules, a system of diarchy to and to participate actively in provide structural supports and integrity family and community affairs. for crucial regulatory institutions, have flourished. The four governments have
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7. To understand, appreciate and education rest on the shoulders of promote the cultural heritage of managers, teachers, executive and the community at large (p. 20). learners (Lawan, 2013: 21). The good manager tries to bring colorful things to The above goals appear to mould a the educational sector so as to develop person to suit the society, and not really the sector and otherwise too bad or moulding the society to suit the person. corrupted manager. Colonization reduced the impact of traditional education and introduced Good teaching techniques: educational western culture, education, and experiences occur as a result of good Christianity. The focus became to teaching and learning processes eradicate illiteracy, ignorance, and (Ajimoko, 1981:45 and Denga, 2001:47). It superstition by introducing the 3 Rs is the teaching and not the teacher which (reading, arithmetic, and writing) at a is the key to the learning of the students; mushroom level, and to produce i.e. it is what teachers do in their messengers and half-educated people interactions with the students that make who are intimidated by authority them learn (Wada, 2006:9). This is the figures. Tribalism, nepotism, most important factor for the success of ethnocentrism, stateism and religious education, the teacher himself knows fanatism submerged the results of this what the curriculum contains, confusion created by western education. sophisticated equipment or instructional There also became a dramatic shift from media (Wada, 2006:10). No matter how what benefits Nigerians as a people who the educated teacher is if he has no good are willing to pragmatically foster the method of teaching he will wind up his national educational objectives. Bude career without good understanding his (1983) stated that education from the course by the students. This also cripples British colonial masters still haunts the the education system. Nigerians. Qualification of a teacher: there is a Social Factor positive relationship between teachers’ Management: a manager is an organizer, qualifications and students’ implementer, and coordinator of the achievement. The more professionally plan, policies, and programs, geared qualified teacher in a given school is, the towards the development of education. better the performance of the students The manager is seen as smooth – running and the less difficulty the teacher has of the school to make the child’s with curriculum materials (Wada, experiences realistic and practical. These 2006:11). A teacher must have a managers include minister of education, qualification in education before starts commissioners, directors, supervisors, teaching; such as a Professional Diploma principals, etc and development of in Education, NCE, B.Ed., PGDE, etc. A
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 76 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches wise man says “you must have something Environmental Factor before you give it out”. Language barriers, The environment is restricted not only to a poor methodology of teaching, failure climate, but the geographical setting, of disseminating information to the parents, home, health facilities, schools, students, lack of good understanding the social amenities just mention few –are subject matter, etc occur as a result of another factor plays a vital role in unqualified teachers (Doka, 2006:15). education. Conclusively good environment favors good teaching and The curriculum: this is the program learning which affects the performance designed by the federal or state of the student and education in general government to guide the teacher to directly or indirectly, knowingly or achieve federal or state educational aim unknowingly. Students in rural areas and objectives. The curriculum can be perform better than their counterpart in designed based on the needs and the urban area. This is as a result of pure aspiration of the community. The good and less noise ecology they find curriculum has the impression of having themselves in (Aliyu, 2004:13). good and responsible future generation while the bad curriculum is just like Recommendations breaking back-borne of the future students and economy in general. To ensure sound education, provision of Curricula must be provided in line with guidelines has to be adapted which helps the necessary knowledge related to the in defining right and obligations, powers issues or matters in order to have a better and functions in all education control education (Culen, 2005:38). and the existing legal organization which will lead to the all participants to have Experience: this affects both teacher and efficiency, and effectiveness of the student. The versatility of the teacher teaching-learning processes through life experience, age density, reading, listen to the media, etc can be Equally, well-did assignment, articles, added value to the qualification teacher books, journals, pamphlet, related holds and make him wiser. So also degree project, master’s thesis, doctoral student, if he/she is curious through dissertation, and postdoctoral research, investigation, asking a question, reading just mention a few should be published journals, books, articles, listen to the so as every record would be stored for media and so on would make him public utilities. become shaper. The skill and art of the teacher (experience) is the most crucial Much funds should be put in the tool for success or failure of education educational sector at least 26% of the development (Abdullahi, 2005:86). Nigerian budget as one the UNESCO’s recommendation.
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Teachers also have to be motivated factors in question. In conclusion, the through workshop, seminar, symposia, study brings some ways to improve and adequate remuneration, etc in order to be develop the education of Nigeria such as vibrant and energetic in their duties or funding, the motivation of the teachers, works. provision of guideline, organizing seminar, workshop, conference, etc. Consequently, the key factor that improves and develops the education is References the teacher’s knowledge, experience and qualification of education as a course Abdullahi, M. (2005), Barriers to effective (e.g. NCE, B.Ed., M.Ed., PDE and PGDE) teaching and learning science subject in teaching course. For that, attention has to secondary schools in Kano: Journal of pay on teachers’ in-service, workshop, education studies volume 3 Number 1. seminar, symposia, etc so as to acquire more knowledge to impart to the Incekara, S. and Abubakar, A. S. (2014). students for the betterment and A comparative study on the viewpoint of development of education in the Turkish and Nigerian students' country. perception of “environment” concept: a case study from Istanbul and Kano. A In addition, extra-curricular activities published thesis submitted to the should be emphasized on such as sports, Geography Department, Fatih debate, quiz, etc for the students to be University, Istanbul. Deutschland: motivated to develop physically as well Lambert Academic Publishing. as psychologically and gusto to work. As wise man says “education is nothing but Ajayi, K. (1980). An appraisal of the legal action”. structure of education in Nigeria, published by Macmillan and co. Ltd. Conclusion Ajimoko, I.O. (1981), Geography social In a nutshell, development of education studies. In Faniran, A. and Okurotifa, affects the economic, social, political, P.O. (Eds.), A handbook of Geography environmental and cultural aspect of a teaching for schools and colleges country and be affected by these factors Nigeria: Heinne – man Education book (socio-political, economic, Nigeria limited. environmental and cultural dimension). For that, education must be developed so Ake, C. (1981). Presidential address to as to get development in all aspects of the 1981 Conference of the Nigerian life. The research work looked at some Political Science Association. West problems affecting education Africa, May 26, 162-63. development in Nigeria as well as the
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Agnes, A. M. and Nor, A. Md (2011). Diamond, L. (1984). Nigeria in search of Implementation of Environmental democracy. Foreign Affairs, 62(4), Education: A Case Study of Malaysian Spring, Council on Foreign Relations, and Nigerian Secondary Schools. Inc. International Conference on Biology, Environment and Chemistry:IPCBEE Doka, A. S. (2006). Teaching qualification vol.1 (2011) IACSIT Press, Singapore. as its affect the teaching and learning of Geography in some selected schools in Aliyu, A.Y. (2004). A comparative study Bichi Zonal Education Area. on the impact of geography evaluation Unpublished project of Post graduate techniques on students’ performance in diploma, Kano: Federal college of Teacher-made Test and SSCE: Case education. study senior secondary school within Kazaure L.G.A. Jigawa State. Early, V. (2007). One, a face behind the Unpublished project of Postgraduate numbers. Surrey BC: ponder publishing. Diploma, Kano: Federal college of education. Fafunwa, A. (1975). History of education in Nigeria. London: McMillan Education, Bichi, S. M (2015). History of education in Ltd. Nigeria. Lecture note PDE program, national policy on education and Lawan, M. (2013). Current foundation historical foundations of Nigeria. and development of education in Department of educational foundation Nigeria. and management. Isiaku, W.B. (2014). An introduction to Bude, U. (1983). The adaptation concept sociology of education. A handbook for in British colonial education. teachers and students. Kano: Comparative Education, 19(30), 341-35. SMGraphics.
Culen, G. R. (2005). The status of Jenifer, O. (2011). The educational system environmental education with respect to of Nigeria, volume 24, issues 6, Abuja the goal of responsible citizenship educational advisor, PAS; department of behavior. In Essential Readings in state. 8320, Abuja place, Washington DC Environmental Education, 3rd edition: 20521-8320 January 2012 Economic Champaign: Stipes Published L.L.C. Section, United States Embassy in Nigeria Plot 1075, Diplomatic Drive Denga, B.V. (2001). Introduction to Central Area Abuja, FCT, Nigeria. teacher education: Kano Jefe Associated Limited. Ogueri, A. C. (2004). The need for envıronmental educatıon ın secondary
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 79 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches educatıon level ın Nigeria: Problems and Wada, M.H. (2006). The problems of the Challenges. International Master’s teaching and learning geography in Degree Thesis on Environmental Policy science secondary schools, Kano state. submitted to the Department of Unpublished postgraduate diploma, Environment, Technology and Social Kano: Federal College of education. Studies Roskilde University, Denmark www.britishcouncil.org/ecs/events/20 03/1016/details/market.htm p.1 Urwick, J. (1983). Politics and professionalism in Nigerian educational www.nigeriahighcommottawa.com/ed planning. Comparative Educational ucationinnigeria.htm p.1. Review, 27(3), 324-340.
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Chapter Nine
The Role of Language in Addressing Nigeria’s Multifarious Challenges
Bamidele, Gbenga Samuel and Adama, Grace Aye Arts Education Department, Faculty of Education, University of Abuja, Abuja
Introduction
The multifarious challenges confronting In summary, this paper is an attempt to Nigeria are as old as the existence of the review some of the challenges country. Since Nigeria got her confronting the nation and to bring to independence in 1960, she has been fore the role of language in addressing bedeviled by one challenge or the other them. which have become both multi- dimensional and multi-faceted in scope Challenges Bedeviling the Nation and magnitude because they are not Uzochukwu (2019) highlighted the properly managed and curtailed. It can challenges confronting Nigeria as be argued that the various interventions follows: Corruption, crime and terrorism and attempts to solve these challenges (specifically Boko Haram insurgency, have yielded little or no positive effect. militancy, banditry and Herdsmen- As a result, the challenges are looking Farmers crisis), unemployment, poor increasingly terrifying, unrelenting, not education and university systems, abating, and with the potency of tearing environment degradation, lack of the core fabrics (essential structures) that infrastructure, gender discrimination, hold the country together. These road accident and poor economy. Some challenges should not be allowed to other challenges not mentioned above continue because of the grave include social security issue, kidnapping, implications on a country as great and human trafficking, poor system of endowed (with both human and material governance, poverty, wasteful culture resources) as Nigeria. There is, therefore, and religious fanatics (Idoko and a need to find a lasting and holistic Dasuma, 2014). These challenges can be approach to nipping these monsters in sub-grouped into three major areas the bud. To this end, the functions cum which include insecurity, poor economy, role of language will be x-rayed as and socio-cultural issues. possible solution to the myriad of challenges facing the country. Insecurity Adebakin (2012) viewed “security as freedom from danger or threats, and the ability of a nation to protect and develop
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 81 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches itself, promote and cherish values and Poor Economy legitimate interests and enhance the Based on available financial indexes, the well-being of its people.” It is the act of performance of Nigeria’s economy is being safe from harm or danger, the abysmal and it has not justified the huge defense, protection and preservation of capital investments put into it since the values, and the absence of threats to the country’s independence. This is not acquired values (Idoko and Dasuma, unconnected to the poor handling of the 2014). Insecurity, in the simplest term, is economy by the key players appointed the absence of internal security in a by successive governments with the country. It is the inability of a particular responsibility of managing it. It is country to ensure absence of violence, uncontestable and shameful to admit lawlessness, civil disorder and that Nigeria is still a consuming nation. insurgency to mention but a few; also it According to Idoko and Dasuma, (2014), is the inability of a country to keep peace Nigeria economy is faced with many within her governing territories challenges which include political crises, (Adejumo, 2011). The preceding effect of economic degradation, unemployment, internal insecurity that could ravage a poverty, insecurity, corruption, wasteful country includes but not limited to the culture and indiscipline. Olumide (2010) challenges of lawlessness, civil opined the challenges facing Nigeria’s disobedience and illegal arms economy are occasioned by bad proliferation leading to high rate of crime governance and lack of political will. like armed robbery, kidnapping, human trafficking, terrorism and insurgency Socio-Cultural Challenges among others. This is the case in Nigeria According to Olumide (2010), the major as at today, her internal security problems confronting development in challenges have become endemic and Nigeria are rooted in its socio-cultural notorious in dimension. The tenets composition. Nigeria is a multilingual (principles) of internal security, which and multi-ethnic nation with about 500 ensure freedom of people from any languages, tribes, and diverse cultural criminal disturbances and ensure the backgrounds and ways of life. absence of criminal tendencies that can Unfortunately, there have not been fair undermine internal cohesion and co- and equitable distributions of the operate existence of the nation and its nation’s resources (including ability to maintain its core values and governmental presences) across the meet the legitimate aspiration of the nooks and crannies of the country people, are missing in the country (Idoko necessitating many agitations and outcry and Dasuma, 2014). Observably, it looks from the affected areas of the country. As like Nigeria’s security apparatus seems a result of the lopsidedness of the over-whelmed by these challenges. distribution of the country’s resources, under-development of the rural areas,
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 82 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches years of neglect of the citizenry, non- noise (graphic representation of this provision of basic social amenities, and noise in writing). Sapir (1921) in over-concentration of power to the Afolayan and Bamisaye (2006) presents center, the Nigerian populace has learnt language “…as a purely human and non- to fend for themselves either legitimately instinctive method of communicating or not. They have learnt not to wait or ideas, emotion and desires by means of depend on the government and the voluntarily produced symbols” while judicial process before they defend Osinsanwo (2003) defines language as themselves or fight for their rights. They “the human vocal noise or the arbitrary have learnt to be desperate, lawless and representation of the noise used violent so as to make ends meet. All of systematically and conventionally by these negative orientations have members of a speech community for the necessitated and enhanced the rise of purpose of communication.” According crime rate and the proliferation of arms to these linguists, language is a universal in the country, which have resulted in phenomenon peculiar to mankind. social disorder, environmental Human beings are the only animals to degradation, kidnapping, human acquire a highly developed and complex trafficking, terrorism, insurgency, system of communication. Language as a militancy, Herdsmen-Farmers crisis, and linguistic endowment is one of the major religious fanatics among others. distinguishing features between man and animals. Both man and animals Concept of Language communicate; the former employs Language is a phenomenon that language in communication while the distinguishes human beings from lower latter lacks the ability to use language to animals. Human beings express communicate (Bamisaye, 2006). themselves using a system of vocal conventional signs characteristic of the Kluckorn (1972) defined language as interaction of one or more communities “the body of words and combination of of human beings. Language, depending words used by a nation, people or race on the goal and purpose of the enquirer for the purpose of communicating their can be viewed from many perspectives. thoughts”. Going by this definition, The major part of being human is the language is seen as purely a means of variety of ways in which we communication thus laying emphasis on communicate through language by using the communicative value of language sounds and words in speaking, singing (Dada, 2004) or writing to others and reading what others have written. Language is important because skilled communication underlines the most Crystal (1994) sees language as species successful human interaction while specific. He defines it as human vocal failed communication can lead to
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 83 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches unpleasant misunderstandings, rifts, and linguistics had demonstrated that even war. The reason for this is not language influences peoples’ thought, farfetched; it is because human beings feeling, reasoning and ways of are social animals. Our ability to communication in everyday life. Froman communicate through language is one of (1992) stressed that those who control the things that clearly separate us from language control what knowledge, other beasts. The language provides us meaning and reality are taken to be. with a means for storing our knowledge Osimen, Aniga, and Bateye (2015) stated and wisdom and it allows us to that “the power of language in conflict is transform and transfer that knowledge. so influencing that it even controls the Language makes possible the sharing of actions of the user. A listener or reader is human experiences. Language is the held to complete attentiveness when main vehicle by which we know about appropriate words-diction is used other people’s thoughts, and the two inappropriate ties”. They also observed must be intimately related. It is a vital that “language has the power to tool for all human beings because it is entertain, to instruct, to reach, to satirize, through it that people share feelings, to reconstruct and even to destroy”. ideas, and emotions. The social Aniga (2011) explained further that development theory by Vigostky states language is “…a vehicle of interaction, that social interaction plays a intercommunication, and a practical tool fundamental role in the process of for state administration in both modern cognitive development. Since language and ancient times”. is a cognitive aspect, it can, therefore, develop effectively as people interact The Role of Language in Addressing with society. Speech and language are Nigeria’s Multifarious Challenges essential tools for every human being The overwhelming role and function of because it is through them that one language to any society cannot be over- shares or communicates feelings, emphasized because it is key to human emotions, ideas, and thoughts. Language lives and society. Language performs is, therefore, the set of rules shared by the different functions and a multiplicity of individuals who are communicating, purposes ranging from communication that allows them to exchange thoughts, to conflict resolution and management. ideas or emotions while speech is talking We, therefore, believe that the challenges which is one way that language can be bedeviling Nigeria can be better expressed. addressed when the various language options available in the country are It is with language that people effectively mobilized and utilized. communicate their ideas, thoughts, opinions, and feelings. According to As a social tool, language has the Opara (2018), the field of cognitive following multi-dimensional roles to the
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 84 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches society: it helps the society to keep the urge to take up arms by the perceived evolving, it is a tool for personal and marginalized people and communities. communal communication, it eliminates Any information emanating from the misunderstanding of ideas, opinions, government should also be and feelings, and it promotes communicated to the people through cooperation in the society. It is used for their different languages. This will aid sharing and exchange of ideas, it is a tool proper dissemination and assimilation of for enlightenment, education, social any information released by the interaction, preservation of culture, authorities to the citizenry, and it will storing of information, and transmission further enhance purposive of history. It is also responsible for enlightenment and education of the establishing and maintaining a citizens on the decisions of the relationship with other people, societies government. Relating with the people in and nations. their native languages will help to foster a sense of belonging in the country and it Considering the above-mentioned roles will also afford the citizens (both literates and functions of language, there is a need and illiterates) the opportunity to for the government to explore the express their opinions, feelings and or impactful role/functions of language in dissatisfactions on any matter that may addressing the country’s challenges. be affecting them and their localities. By so doing, there will be peace and On insecurity, there is a need for the orderliness in the country while security agencies, especially the police Lawlessness, civil disobedience and and the civil defense organizations to illegal arms proliferation leading to high dispatch officers and men of their rate of crime like armed robbery, organizations to their individual states of kidnapping, human trafficking, origin. This will enable these security terrorism, banditry, and insurgency will personnel to engage and interact with be drastically reduced and curtailed, people in their indigenous languages. It because the citizens would be well will also enhance proper investigation informed, educated and updated. that would stop or reduce crime rate incessant killings. On the poor economy, the indigenous language of the people should be In addition, government agencies and constantly used in doing business with private organizations like the National the people. The English language should Orientation Agency, media houses, and not be the only dominant language in the conflict management institutions should business sector of the country. There is a regularly dialogue with the people in need to use the language of the people to their native languages. This will also relate with them on the economic policies reduce the feeling of marginalization and of the government. It should be used to
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 85 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches enlighten and educate them on how they References can contribute to the economy. It should also be used to promote products and Adebakin, M. A. (2012). National services to them by the service providers. security challenges and sustainable If the people are carried along on the economic development. Evidence from economic programs and policies of the Nigeria. 1(1) 10-20. government and they are given the opportunities to share their native ideas Adejumo, A. A. (2011). Problems and and suggestions on improving the challenges of insecurity o Nigeria ‟news economy through their indigenous diary online, 4-9. languages, the outcome, and rapport of such a step can ginger capital intensive Aniga, U.S (2004). The role of language in investments that can boost the economic conflict management: President growth of the Nigerian nation. Obasanjo's Language and Style. An MA Thesis submitted to Peace and Conflict On the socio-cultural challenges, use of Studies, Institute of African Studies, indigenous languages through effective University of Ibadan, Ibadan. communication can be a major solution in resolving conflict management. Right Bamisaye, T. O. (2006). The English values and orientation can be effectively Language in Nigeria. Lagos: King Julius communicated through the use of Educational Publishers indigenous languages. Bamisaye, T. O., and Afolayan, S. O. Conclusion (2006). Basic English Structure and Literary Studies. King Julius Educational There are obvious challenges publishers. confronting Nigeria. Some of which are insecurity, poor economy and socio- Crystal, D. (1994). What is Language? cultural challenges. The role of language London: Edward Arnold. Ltd in addressing these challenges has been discussed. We affirm that the Dada, S. A. (2004). The Principles of multiplicity of languages in Nigeria can Effective Public Speaking. Ibadan: Emman be more of a blessing than a curse if there Publications. is sincerity of purpose and desired political will to address the country’s Idoko, C.U and Dasuma, A.M (2014). multifarious challenges by our political Security Challenges in Nigeria and leaders especially from the highest level National Transformation. International of governance to the lowest level using Journal of Managerial Studies and Research the instrumentality of the language (IJMSR) 2(8),8-16. www.arcjournals.org functions.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 86 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches
Mkwinda-Nyasulu, B. (2014). The role of Conflict Management and Peace language in socio-economic Building. International Association of development: Semiotics are Right. J. Scientific Innovation and Research Humanities, Zomba 23, 2013/2014 (IASIR), USA. http://www.iasir.net
Olofin, A.O. (2012). Effects of English Opara, C.G (2018). Language and language on national development. Culture as Conflict Resolution Tools: Greener Journal of Social Sciences. 2(4), 134- Rethinking English as Lingua Franca. 139. European Centre for Research Training and Development, UK. Osimen, G.U, Aniga, U.S, &Bateye, O.R. www.eajournals.org (2015). The Impact of Language in
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Chapter Ten
Parent’s Behavior and Children Deviancy: Counselling Implications
Agbajor Tsaninomi Helena Department of Educational Psychology, School of Education, College of Education, Warri
Abstract The study examined the influence of parent’s actions and parenting style on their children and the counselling implications with a view of assisting parents to develop the right behavior that could help curb their children’s deviancy. The various concepts in the study were defined; types and causes of deviancy were also explored. It further discussed parents’ behavior and their parenting styles that could result in deviant behavior in children. The study was concluded with counselling measures and parental skills that could be adopted to correct children deviant behavior.
Key Words: Parents’ Behavior, Children Deviancy
Introduction Studies have shown that parental belief It is a serious problem as well as a setback system, religion, economic status, for the child and his parents when a child vocation, etc. influences children’s becomes a deviant. This is more crucial behavior either negatively or positively. when the deviancy affects the child’s academics and social life. The parent’s Parental Behavior reputation is also adversely affected Parent depending on the type of deviant The word parent as defined by the behavior that is emitted. Such behavior oxford mini reference dictionary (1995) has its toll on the prestige of the entire means “father and mother who are the family of the individual in the long run. source from which other things are derived”. They pass on ideas and The parents and the counsellors have a information about behaviors that are vital role to play in this situation. This is acceptable and unacceptable in society as because most behaviors exhibited well as how children should relate to one directly or indirectly by parents before another (Ugoji, 2004). Parents are the first their children go a long way in teachers their children encounter before determining how their children behave any contact with their school teachers. As at home, in the school, and in society. Mallum (1983) stated, “The child makes the man”. But one can say here that “Parents makes the child”. They are This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 88 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches indeed the makers or architect of our birth and bears its impression on the young ones. They have the first contact individual throughout life. with them. The mothers most especially are supposed to be the closest to their Deviance children. Musgrave (1979) gave a vivid definition of the word deviant as acting in ways Behavior that are seen by others involved in a Behavior whether negative or positive is particular social situation to be breaking those actions or activities displayed by the rules in operation at the time. A individuals. Commenting on this Egbule deviant child is one whose behavior falls (2005) conceived it as being synonymous outside the tolerated range along to the manner, conduct or action. It could whatever dimension is being considered. be further explained as the sum total of A child could either be deviant at home an individual’s action, feelings and ways or in school and even in the society by of life which may be either consistent or falling outside the generally accepted inconsistent overt or covert and can be rules of a given family structure or perceived by others. It is a type of school. Such children deliberately flout character and personality manifested by school rules without guilt. Examples of both sex, parent and every other person. such deviant behavior include fighting, bullying, stealing, lying, truancy, refusal Parental Behavior to study, disobedience, stubbornness, Parental behaviors are those actions, riots, vandalism, theft, fraud, abortion, feelings, and ways of life which may be suicide and so on. covert or overt, consistent or inconsistent, negative or positive which Theoretical Framework are emitted by either father or mother or The behaviorist theory seems to be in both towards their children or other favor of this study as it holds strongly to persons. It further implies those activities the fact that children learn by imitation carried out by parents that affect their or observation. They believe that children in one way or the other. Some of whatever deviant behavior exhibited by these behaviors range from activities children are as a result of what they such as type of parenting, method of watch and copy from their parents. It childrearing, religious background, implies that children whose parents economic status, type of education, smoke may also want to smoke. They method of talking, laughing, nagging, find it easy to break rules when they see quarreling and others. Parent’s behavior their parents do the same. affects their children right from the period of conception. Supporting this Giving credence to this assertion, Albert claim, Durojaiye (1976) assert that their Bandura (1977) opined that (children) influence on their child begins before learn by observing the consequences of
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 89 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches others behavior. For example, a child 3. Moral Deviant may want to play truant at school if he These are behavior that negates the discovered that his father never moral norms of the group or society completed his secondary education, yet to which a child belongs e.g. he was very wealthy. Also, a child whose alcoholism, drug abuse, rape, father oppresses people and get away smoking, etc. with it might think that bullying is the 4. Personality Deviant best way to life. This type is specifically from the individual. It is a situation where the Types of Deviant Behavior child’s behavior or reactions create There are so many forms of deviant disorder and discomfort to himself behavior practiced among children. They and to others around him. For vary and cut across different social- example, aggression, hostility, cultural settings. Some of them shall be inferiority, temper tantrums, etc. discussed under four headings listed by Dittimiya (1995) as moral, personality, In addition, Durojaiye (1979) and Nwana psycho-social and criminal forms of (1979) listed stealing, dishonesty, deviant behavior. truancy, disobedience, sex offenses, drug offenses, cult, abortion, alcoholism, and 1. Psycho-Social Deviant others as examples of deviant behavior They take the form of anti-social among children. behaviors that attempt to negate established norms meant to promote They are discussed as follows: peace within the home, school, and Stealing society. Some of them are lying, This is common among children, e.g. jealousy, envy, disobedience, gossip, stealing textbooks, biros, and pencils, rudeness, pride, arrogance, money, etc. A child withholds his school pomposity, truancy, unhealthy fees and lied to his parents that it was competition, fighting, quarreling, stolen when struggling to board a bus on withdrawal, comparison, and others their way to school 2. Criminal Deviance These are behaviors that are contrary Dishonesty to established law in the constitution It is one of the main problems in the of a country. It is deviating from what society e.g. cheating in exams, falsifying is acceptable in the society. Examples figures and records, etc. of them include Stealing, suicide, cheating, fighting, bullying, abortion, Disobedience abduction, etc. Flouting specific orders and instructions from parents and school authorities, such
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 90 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches as wearing unprescribe uniform to the Cult school. This is very common in schools. Children found in cults are usually in Assault and Insult possession of dangerous weapons. Acts such as ganging up to waylay and attack students, teachers and other Wicked Act members of the society, bullying This is an act that is tended towards students, using abusive words on hurting another. It could be in form of the people, etc. destruction of school property, punishing junior students or sibling and Truancy so on. A live example of this was when a A truant is a child who often absents self child poured grounded pepper on from class or school. another’s face because he wants to revenge him. Sex offense This is the act of having sex with same or Causes of Deviant Behavior opposite sex not legally married to. It Deviant behavior stems from a number could lead to aids, unwanted pregnancy, of reasons such as: abortion, dumping of babies, venereal i. The child may have learnt wrongly diseases, etc. from parents or was never taught how to behave in a given Drug Abuse circumstance. As a result, acts in It is smoking and taking in of un- ignorance and manifest what to prescribed drugs or substance. Also others may seem as deviant behavior. included is alcoholism. ii. The child may have intended to be a deviant. That is, he or she has set out Suicide to be naughty either because he or she It is a deliberate termination of one’s life. was influenced by parents or he was socialized by significant others or Strike or Mass Demonstration peers. This could be a protest or iii. When a child perceives self to be a demonstrations over the lack of basic deviant because he or she has been amenities such as food, water light, etc. It labelled to be so. A practical example could also be due to exorbitant levies, of this is when a child sees himself as stiff rules, etc which children consider lazy or a failure because his parents are not in their favor. are always saying that he is lazy or that he is a failure. iv. A child could be termed deviant when he begins to display actions that are outside the stipulated rules
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and regulation of his family or (especially mothers) bring up the child parents. right from the moment of conception to the time when the child leaves the How Parent’s Behavior Results in primary school at say age 0 - 12 years. Deviant behavior in Children Every parent has their method of rearing their children depending on their values, Divorce or Broken Marriage social class, and economic status. This is the separation of couples that were previously together as one family. Parents who are very strict or rigid with Such separation usually has an adverse their children may produce children who effect on children from such marriage, want to always fight back at anybody especially the female child. Female who hurts them. This according to children from broken marriages in some MaIlum (1983) is a bad disciplinary cases find it difficult to make a good attitude on the child. Condemning excess marriage. Some even end up having an permissiveness, he further asserts that unwanted pregnancy. Crime is on the such a child may grow up to be selfish, increase in the society because of broken conceited and bossy. Parents who apply marriages. Narrating the state of crime in to beat as a disciplinary measure to get a Obudu, Cross River State for five years, child to conform to mothers’ wishes are Reamen and Undiyaundeye (2001) stated teaching him to strike back whenever he that the crime diary produced by the is offended. Examples of such fight back Divisional Police Officer (DPO) of that are exhibited in the form of crime, state revealed that most inmates on bullying, fighting, etc. detention have the history of broken homes or parents living at different Punishment is another method used by geographical locations. most Nigerian parents. They believed according to Durojaiye (1978) that Child Rearing Pattern: In the good old flogging is the only language children days a child is everybody’s child and the understand. Psychologists further affirm training is an issue that concerns that this kind of punishment kindle in everybody. Summarizing it in the words the child the desire to punish back. of Mallum (1983) the discipline of Children punish back at parents and children is everybody’s business. This other siblings in various ways such as age-long tradition is fast eroding from refusal to do certain assignment given to our Nigerian culture. Parents are now them by their parents and taking left to formulate training pattern that is vengeance on their brothers and sisters. peculiar to their immediate family. Such children might also become excessively anxious and could also run Durojaiye (1978) attempted a definition away from home. on child-rearing as “The ways parents
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Moral and Character Training: The and so we're looking for this love and parent particularly lays the moral and attention in their male counterpart who spiritual foundation for the child to takes advantage of them. develop on later in life. She teaches him what is right or wrong, good or bad, the Parents as Models: The issue of parental proper way of behaving and cherished influence cannot be ruled out of this beliefs and values of that family. This study; as it plays a major role in the was why Awanbor (1984) declared that socialization and development of the the role of parents is more of teaching child. They are role models to their their own children. Children grow up to children and children observe and copy develop negative behavior when these whatever they do. Children become drug fundamental teachings that can help addicts, alcoholic and rebellious by mould their character are absent from the simply watching them do the same. A home. In addition, Dittimiya (1995) father who womanizes or a mother who stated that parents, who fail to train their flirts around with men will expect child to be polite, have respect for elders nothing less than his son impregnating and authorities are preparing them to be girls while the girls equally flirt around rude and disobedient to authorities. too and coming back home with an unwanted pregnancy. Overprotection and Parental Rejection: Overprotection and parental rejection of Parents’ inconsistent lifestyle is a children is another major contributory negative influence on children’s factor to children’s deviant behavior. behavior. Every child wants to find their Overprotection is over pampering of a own identity in their parents (Ugoji, child to an extent that he is not allowed 2004). Parents with low self-discipline, to be independent for fear of losing him order, and achievement in their daily or an evil occurrence happening to him. tasks pose a bad example not only to the Their parent does almost everything for child but also creating room for the them. They are dependent on their development of delinquent behavior. parent’s housemaids and even relations. Economic Status of Parents: Most Parental rejection has adverse psycho- deviant behavior stems from parental social and emotional effect on children. It economic status. Parents from low causes rebellion against established economic background experiences norms and constituted authorities. Apart poverty that in the long run breeds from being rebellion Dittimiya (1995) deficient satisfaction of basic need commented that they also play truancy. among growing children. Sigmund Some female children who fall prey of Freud in his psycho-sexual theory and teenage pregnancy are examples of Eric Erikson (1965) in his psycho-social children who were rejected by parents stage theory opined that children who
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 93 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches experience malnutrition and are such parental background usually play deficient in their basic needs are prone to truancy to school and class. maladaptive and delinquent behavior. Psychologists like [cooper 1966, Okorodudu (1993) believes that the McDonald and Shepherd 1976, Waldron average family in Nigeria is relatively et al, 1975] who have carried out studies poor. According to him, feeding of in school refusal traced its root cause to children under this condition is deficient family-related problem of which and could create incidence of illiteracy of parents is a part of it. In malnutrition that might eventually support of the above claim, Okorodudu impact on the building of deviant (1993) noted that an average family in behaviors among children. Such deviant Nigeria is made up of illiterate parents. behaviors are truancy, inattentiveness in Literate parents influence their children’s class, stealing, etc. behavior by setting high expectations for them (Durojaiye, 1976). And when the Nevertheless, parents from high children cannot meet with these high economic status have been found to expectations, especially when they are breed children with deviant behavior. It not naturally endowed in the areas of is true that they have enough money or expectation, they resort to deviant wealth to path with for the upkeep of behavior. Expectations of parents should their children but most of such parents be in congruence with the children’s area deny their children of the necessary love of interest. and affection that they need in pursuance of wealth to the detriment of their Lack of Vocational Preparation: Parents children’s emotional and social who fail in their responsibility to prepare development. Blair et al. (1975) noticed or give their children the necessary this creeping situation among wealthy vocational training may be exposing parents when he stressed that anti-social them to illicit activities such as truancy, behavior is the end result of such stealing, fighting, disobedience, children when their needs for stubbornness, unwanted pregnancies, recognition, security, independence, and etc. affection are frequently thwarted. Parents’ Interpersonal Relationship Educational status of Parents: Parents with their Children educational level affects children’s This is a crucial aspect that stands to behavior tremendously. Some illiterate either result in deviant or acceptable parents do not set goals for their behavior in children. Working-class children, as they are not educated too. parents have little or no time for their This has prevented them from providing children. The children are left in the care for the educational needs of their of house-help or relations. Consequently, children. Consequently, children from they grew up imbibing the lifestyle of
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 94 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches this house-help. In most cases it is from grew up to be involved in gangster, them children copy some of the deviant crime, violent acts, etc. behavior. A very good example was a child who confesses that he learnt how to Therapeutic Measures in The steal and tell lies from their house-help Management of children Deviant who was always at home with the child Behaviors while the parents are out of the home from 7 am to 6 pm, Monday to Friday. Deviant behaviors in children can be managed by parents, teachers, and Ugoji (2004) commented that the lack of different agencies in the society. This sufficient attention from parents has led under mentioned discusses would be on to children becoming too loose, immoral how these behaviors can be prevented and engaging in all kinds of criminal and managed through counsellors and practices. Inability to spend quality time parents. with one’s children may make them vulnerable to all kinds of the program Parents from the mass media that are not Parents have a role to play in adopting relevant to their age as well as the the necessary intervention strategies to required lifestyle; the television, internet, correct the deviant behavior in their etc. become their companion. And here children. The formative years of the child they watched pornographic, horror, and are impressive years in the formation of violent films which eventually initiate basic personality, social and personal deviant behaviors in them. identities. They are their children teachers and are saddled with the In addition, they find answers to their responsibility of teaching them what is problems from their peer group as their acceptable and unacceptable behavior parents are not always there for them. and how they can relate with others. Dittimiya (1995) saw the peer groups as They start by showing them love, a significant source of delinquent acceptance, and attention. This might behavior among children. The children enable them to feel secure, have self- are persuaded to belong by joining cults acceptance and a sense of self-worth. It or to practice boy-girl relationship. In equally creates a positive effect on their some of these homes where parents behavior and discourages them from neglect their children, the children suffer engaging in anti-social behavior. a lack of love and warmth from their Parental style of training and control parents. This is replaced with chaos and over children are a necessary tool in rancour. Mallum (1983) observed that correcting their deviant behavior. children who experience lack of love in Morgars (1973) saw the significance of their formative years turns out to be an these different training styles and its ‘outsider’ in the society; that is, they
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 95 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches impact on children and as a result, manifest a high level of aggressiveness highlighted the following training styles: and deviant behaviors. They may lack self-confidence and find it difficult to The Permissive Style make decisions on their own. This type of parent offers the necessary emotional support and exercise little Democratic Style control over their children. They listen Parents under this group exercise full and talk with them but set no restrictions control over their children but still for them. Children with such parental expressed their emotional support as training are independent and self-reliant well as dialogue with them in order to and emotionally sound. Elder (1977) explore possible alternatives. The confirm that children from permissive children experienced friendship with parents have self-confidence and exhibit their parents. They may confide in them autonomy. rather than seeking for advice from a peer group. This is the most useful and Negligent Style or Laissez Faire positive style of parenting. It is highly There is so much laxity in the discipline recommended for parents who want to in this type of parenting. Such parents be a friend to their children. hardly have time for their children. The children are like a burden to their Other psychologists have also been able parents. They lack time to listen and to identify other types of rearing styles as encourage them. In short, they lack an an effective tool in correcting children’s interpersonal relationship with their deviant behavior. Omonu (2004) in a children who at the end have the study on anti-social behavior among problem of poor self-esteem, unclaimed youths listed some of them as autocratic, self-contempt and display delinquent ignoring, authoritarian, laissez-faire, tendencies. Parents could correct this by permissive, equalitarian, democratic and establishing a good interpersonal predictive. According to him, predictive relationship with their ward, spending parenting is the most recommended more time, listening and discussing with among them. In this type of parenting them. (predictive type), parents look for an opportunity to develop self-image, Authoritarian Style execute actions that might enhance their Children who grew from such attitudes and habits. Here, parents show environment of authoritarianism lack support, warmth, and acceptance that emotional support from their parents. could influence positive behavior in They exercise absolute control of power children. Children from such parents and impose strict rules over them. have been discovered to be very friendly, Children under this leadership may happy and co-operative. develop the poor self- concept and
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Other Parenting Skills to Impair Counsellor’s Intervention for Parents Children Deviant Behavior who have Children with Deviant Counsellors are to provide the following Behavior skills to parents during counselling 1. Counsellor should carry out an sessions to enable their children to accurate assessment of the type of become disciplined members of the parenting style and the strength and society. Some of them are: weakness of the family structure. i. Understanding children’s motive and 2. Assist parents in redirecting their interest. focus from the deviant behavior of ii. Showing them love, so that they too the child to examining critically their could learn to love through that. methods of parenting and how they iii. Providing for their needs at the right can manage the deviant behavior. time in order to build trust in them. 3. Counsellor should redirect parents’ iv. Exercising autocratic and democratic attention to the method or system of style of parenting with caution. communication between parents and v. Praising them whenever they behave children. well in order to inculcate, enforce and 4. Encourage them in the area of sustain good habits in them expression of love and acceptance vi. Avoid reinforcing negative behavior. toward their children. vii. Avoid underserved praises. 5. Encourage parents to reinforce and viii. Avoid leaving their children to support positive behaviors in their uncontrollable independence that wards. could result in anti-social behavior. 6. Provide parents with basic ix. Giving them guidance and discipline information about child-rearing. where necessary. 7. The counsellor can have family x. Avoid unequal treatment of children counselling sessions with the child or and getting angry at will. parents alone or every member of the xi. Giving them an opportunity to family in order to facilitate the dialogue and recognizing the parent’s ability to influence their uniqueness of each child. children’s behavior positively. xii. Reassuring their children 8. Parents could refer children with occasionally and helping them deviant behavior to the counsellor overcome their storm and stress. xiii. Avoid saying what they cannot do. References xiv. Avoid over protection. xv. Reinforce positive behavior. Awanbor, D. (1984): Parents and Their xvi. Learn to say no when necessary. Handicapped Children in Nigeria (eds.). xvii. Avoid leaving their children for too Psychology for Every Day Living. (3) 1 PP. long in the hands or house-help. 39-45.
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Nwana, O.C. (1979): Education Bandura A. (1977): Social Learning Theory. Measurement for Teachers, London: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Nelsomn. Hall. Okorodudu, R.I. (1993): “A Counselling Cooper (1966), McDonald& Shepherd Psychological Perspective of Deviant (1976), and Waldron et al. (1975) In Behaviour among Adolescents in Adjustcope, Magazine of the Student Educational Institutions”. Paper sent out Counsellors of Nigeria, University of for Publications. Journal of Psychology: Ibadan Chapter. pp.8. 1989/1990 Edition. O.A.U. Ile-Ife.
Durojaiye, M.O.A. (1978): A New Omoni, G.E. (2004): “Management of Introduction to Educational Psychology. Anti-Social Behaviour Among Youths. A Ibadan: Evans Brothers Ltd. Joint Role of the School and the Home”. In Issues, Concepts, Theories and Techniques Dittimiya, L.I. (1995): Introduction to of Guidance and Counselling. (Eds) Okobia, Sociology of Education. Nigeria: COEWA O.C. and Okorodudu, R.I. Publishers. Nigeria: Ethiope Publishing Corporation. Egbule, J.F. (2005): Methodology of Guidance and Counselling. Nigeria: Undiyaundeye, F. and Reamen, D.D. Cannon Publishers. (2001): Conflict in Interpersonal Relationship the Case of Separated Musgrove, P.W. (1979): The Sociology of Couples, (eds.) Conference Proceedings Education. Great Britain: The Chaucer Official publication of the Press. Counselling Association of Nigeria (CASSON). Mallam, M.P. (1983): Pattern of Rearing Children from One Generation to the Ugoji, F.N. (2004): The Role of Parents, Next. Nigerian Journal of Applied Church, Media and the Community in Psychology. (2) 2. Guidance and Counselling Program. In Okobia, O. O. & Okorodudu, R. I.,(eds.) Issues, Concepts, Theories and Techniques of Guidance and Counselling, Nigeria: Ethiope Publishing Corporation.
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Chapter Eleven
Languages in Contact and its Influence on Igbo Speakers of English Language
Ahmed Mahil Hassab Elrasoul1 and Daniels Ifunanya Cecilia2 1University of Bakht Alruda, Ed-Dueim, Khartoum. Sudan. 2University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria.
Abstract
The paper examines the influence of languages in contact on Igbo speakers of the English language. The paper describes the concept of language in contact in Nigeria context with particular reference to the level of use and level of prestige of the two languages, English and Igbo, the social status of Igbo language in Nigeria and Problems of languages in contact especially the Igbo speakers of English. It was discovered that speakers of all ages use English almost exclusively for official matters. The use of English appears to be more prominent regardless of age: the older people use English even where Igbo should be appropriated while the younger ones use both languages but English more. The paper also shows that the younger generation may not be proficient enough in the Igbo language to pass it onto the next generation. The paper concludes that parents should teach their children their mother-tongue. It is important to know that the knowledge of the mother- tongue aids the acquisition of the English language. The paper recommends the teaching of the sounds of the languages since some sounds are not available in both languages. The speakers of the Igbo language should be made to understand that the Igbo language is their identity. The paper recommends that Igbo speakers should be admonished to speak and teach the language to their children.
Keywords: language, the language in contact, code-mixing, code-switching, bilingualism, and interference.
Introduction
The history of languages dates back to Anigbogu, Mba and Eme (2001) defined many thousands of years. Language is an language as "a means which human extraordinary gift of God as a medium of beings have devised for communicating expressing one’s thoughts and feelings. ideas, feelings, emotions, and desires, Indeed, language is the key to human through complex vocal cords or written existence. It is an agent of survival. It is symbols". Language is a binding force in line with this that among people. It unites society, preserves culture, and is used for identification. Besides its use for This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 99 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches communication, language is used for a languages in competition and there is transaction, education, worship, and no language contact without virtually every realm of human language conflict (Igboanusi and endeavor. It is a means of forming and Oha, 2001; Egbokhare, 2004). storing ideas as reflections of reality and Moreover, the resolution of the crisis exchanging them in the process of thus generated by the contact may human intercourse. Language is social have more far-reaching effects than by nature and thus inseparably one might have wished. This paper connected with people who are its will examine the concept of language creators and users; it grows and develops in contact, the influence of languages together with the development of in contact (Igbo/English), the social society. It also dies when the society dies. status of Igbo language in Nigeria No society is void of language. What is and problems of languages in contact so remarkable about language is that “it especially the Igbo speakers of doesn’t change all that fast, rather it English and recommendations. retains a signal of its ancestry over tens of thousands of years,” Pagel (2011, p25) The Concept of Language in Contact sees language as central to human Language contact occurs when two or expansion across the globe. It is a fact more languages or varieties interact. The that language is the medium of study of language in contact is called communication in any given society. contact linguistics. When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is It is important to note that Nigeria, no normal for such languages to influence doubt, is a multilingual nation with each other. Language contact can occur over (400) hundred languages and as language acting as either a the English language serves as the superstratum i.e. language being looked lingua franca. The prestige attached at as better as or more important than to English rob the indigenous others of the same kind or a substratum languages their place of honor, i.e. language more superior than others. especially Igbo language. The Igbo Language contact can be seen as a language is one of the three major situation where two or more languages languages in Nigeria with a coexist in a linguistic environment. As a population of over (20) million result, some effect like bilingualism, people. Igbo speakers prefer multilingualism, code-mixing, code- speaking English than the language switching, interference, and borrowing Igbo. In other words, the Igbo occurs. Bilingualism is the ability to language is relegated to the speak two languages or frequent use of background by the speakers and two languages. Multilingualism is the instead promote English. Indeed, ability to speak and understand several languages in contact are often languages, especially with equal fluency.
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Code mixing is the combination of spoken by 22 million second-language symbols of the sound system of speakers in other countries of the world languages in contact in a process of (Igboanusi and Peter, 2005, Gimes 2000,). communication while code-switching is The Igbo language has been classified as a sudden change from the sound system one of the major languages in Nigeria of one language to another. Interference, simply because of the population that in other words, is the disturbing effect of speaks it. new language learning on the performance of the previously learned Adetuyi and Jegede (2016) traced the language. Borrowing is a common act in origin of bi- lingualism to colonization, all languages, where words or phrases trade, annexation, conquest, and are borrowed from one language to borderlines. All these accounted for the another. The common products of introduction and dominance of the language in contact are pidgins, for English language on the culture and example in Benin City where many administration of Nigeria. Studies have minority languages are spoken, the only shown that when bilingual speakers way people can relate to each other is by code switch, they switch from language speaking pidgin. Creoles, in other to language with ease and fluidity, words, is a language that has evolved following the syntactic and semantic from pidgin but serves as the native rules of both languages (Tamunobel- language of a speech community. ema, 2015).
Yusuf as cited in Ozigi 2007 is of the view The Influence of language in Contact that 'language contact should be seen in on Igbo/English language Speakers the broad sense of contact between two It is assumed that when language is in cultures that can be as a result of contact, the learner consciously or conquests, wars, migration, unconsciously, brings influences of the colonization, etc.' Whenever two first language to bear on the second languages come in contact within an language, positively or negatively. When individual or a community such an the influence is positive, learning is individual or host community inevitably promoted and enhanced, but when the becomes bilingual (Crystal, 1997). We influence is negative, it hinders the should note that bilingualism and effective learning of the second bilingually are relative terms that accept language, by what is called linguistic very loose definitions. This is the ability interference. Linguistic interference is for one to speak two languages or one of the fundamental difficulties faced frequent use of two languages. Among by the learners of the second language, these people is the Igbo who occupy the here English is referred to as a second eastern part of the country and number language. Dulay et al in (en.wikipedia between 20 and 25 million. Igbo is .org) defines linguistic interference as
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‘the automatic transfer, due to habit, of Pronunciation of words like ‘bed’, the surface structure of the first language ‘bet’, ‘take’ etc. are not difficult for (mother-tongue) to the surface of the Igbo speakers to articulate as in second language which is the English ‘duo’ (sow), ‘daa’ (fall) and ‘taya’ language which impacts negatively on (tyre). the acquisition of the language’. b. Negative interference occurs Generally speaking, Linguistic when the structure and the interference can be viewed as the transfer concepts of the mother tongue of elements of one language to another at (MT) are inappropriately various grammatical levels which transferred into the target negatively interferes in the language language (TL), leading to the situations of the second language. In this production of incorrect forms in case, the user of English as a second the target language (TL) language consciously or unconsciously (Oloruntoba-Oju, 1999). It is the transfers the linguistic features of his negative interference that leads to indigenous or first language to the a variety of English or Nigerian usage/speaking of English. English. This is because English is not our language, therefore, Interference may be due to the absence of learners/speakers are bound to a word in a language to describe a new make mistakes as they are not concept. For example, “table” is called perfect. This interference includes “tebulu” in the Igbo language. In phonological, morphological, essence, the appropriate word is syntactic, semantic, grammatical “borrowed” from the English language. and lexical interference. This interference could be positive or negative: Phonological Interference a. Positive interference occurs when In phonological interference, the speaker certain structures and concepts in introduces the sound of one language in the learners’ mother tongue (MT) the position of another, which is labeled are similar to those of the target first (L1) and second (L2) languages. This TL). The learners transfer those interference usually happens when structures and concepts to the learners substitute second language (L2) corresponding elements in the sounds, which do not exist in the first target language (TL) and thus language (L1) or the misplacement of facilitates learning. For example, sounds. For example, the misplacement some sounds like /b/, /d/, /t/ of the letter (l) for (r), instead of the word etc. which occur in Igbo and most “road”, “lorry” etc., you hear the learner Nigerian languages help in the pronouncing “load”, “rolly”. In other acquisition of similar sounds in words, phonological interference occurs English phonology. when the speech sounds /patterns of the
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 102 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches first language hinder the effective /ᴧ/ are also difficult for Igbo speakers pronunciation of the second language. because there are no Igbo vowels at all Example, Some Igbo speakers have similar in quality. Similarly, there are problems with the pronunciation of the some established orthographic English sounds like /l / / r/ /0 / and inconsistencies between the spoken form final vowel sounds. Hence instead of and the written form of the English saying /lu:k/, they say /ru:k/, instead of language. These inconsistencies stem ‘ball’ they say ‘barru’. Some Igbo from the fact of the long history, where speakers of Nsukka dialects have greater certain written forms have evolved difficulty in pronouncing some English without correspondence to the spoken words like ‘love’ /ṟᴧⱱ/ and ‘law’ /ṟᴂw/ form of English. There are also linguistic which they pronounce as nove and naw reasons for these inconsistencies. respectively. However, the most glaring form of inconsistency is between the phoneme Lado concerning this, states: ‘we know and the grapheme of English. The from the observation of many cases that example in (1) below illustrates how the the grammatical structure of the native phoneme /i/ in English is inconsistent language tends to be transferred to the with the graphemes
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 103 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches number of phonemes. It should be central vowel, which is pronounced the illustrated in (2) below, where the way it is spelt. grapheme is redundant and serves no function in the The phoneme /i/ is pronounced the way spelling of that word. Likewise, the mute it is spelt in examples (3i-vi). This graphemes This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 104 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Igbo orthography, on the other hand, these structures difficult to use because has done well to avoid these redundant the structures are different from the ones letters because all the words in Igbo are they are used to in their (L1). For spelt as they are spoken. Example (6) instance, an absence of (L1) structure illustrates. such as the apostrophe, the active and passive voice, caused difficulty for the 6. ‘ ada’ ‘ada’ ‘first daughter’ learners as they were unfamiliar with its ‘ isi’ ‘isi’ ‘head’ use in (L2), resulting in errors which ‘ isi’ ‘isi’ ‘smell’ reflect a gap in the learner’s knowledge /ɔkɷ ‘oku ’ ‘fire’ (Ellis, 1997). /azɷ ‘ azu’ ‘fish’ Therefore, where the structure of (L1) A careful look at examples (6a-e) and (L2) are not similar, the learner’s lack indicates that the spoken form of the of understanding its use in (L1) is words in phonemic symbols correspond reflected as an error in (L2). When the to the written form. There are no mute learners experience gaps in their (L2) letters in the orthography. In other syntactic structures, they adjust the form words, in terms of the principle of of their (L2) written responses by using consistency, Igbo orthography is well syntactical items which are part of their structured for learners to avoid spelling (L1). The learner’s writing revealed the errors. extent to which their (L2) responses are affected by their (L1) (Bialystok, 1990). Syntactic Interference This occurs when a speaker negatively Morphological Interference: uses (L1) sentence structures in (L2). For Morphological interference results from instance, “he does not hear English” problems in the formation of words and instead of “he does not understand the use of tenses because of the English”. Learners use (L2) structures differences in the pattern of word partly in terms of the structures already formation of the first and second learned in their first language (L1). language. Most Nigerian languages are Hence, their first language (L1) tonal languages unlike the English responses are grafted on the second language which is an intonation language (L2) and the kinds of (L2) language. At this level therefore, there expressions used bear-tell-take traces of are some errors like I didn’t hears it (L1) structures (Larson-Freeman & Long, instead of I didn’t hear it. 1991 and Ellis, 1997). This was clearly shown in the way that the learners use Semantic Interference (L1) structures such as punctuation, This type of interference is associated capital letters, prepositions and the with difficulty experienced by the tenses in their (L2) texts. They found Nigerian learners in interpreting the This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 105 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches meaning of words, for example, the Igbo English translation idiomatic expressions like he kicked the Ha na ese okwu kemgbe They have been bucket, (he died), which are not found in quarreling for a long time their indigenous languages. Lexical Interference Grammatical Interference This type of interference takes two This depends on the level of competence different forms: the first form can be of the bilingual involved because the traced to linguistic factors, while the system of the mother-tongue intrudes second form can be traced to cultural into that of the target language because factors. From the linguistic perceptive, the two languages are of different certain words or notions are translated models. For example, the level of from the mother-tongue of the Nigerian- competence of primary school pupils English bilingual into English. Some of may be different from that of secondary these items may have their equivalence school students. Similarly, the level of in English and, some may not. For competence of students of the tertiary instance, the word ‘masquerade’ has its institutions will be different from the English equivalence. However, the level of competence of secondary school meaning attributed to the word students. For example, you will hear ‘masquerade’, is not the same in both statements such as, keep quiet; my settings. In an English setting, the word stomach is paining me, from the primary ‘masquerade’ suggests deceitfulness or, pupil. And, statements like; “I would like the art of hiding one’s identity. On the to register, I would like to see you or, other hand, within the Nigerian context, shall I see you? All these show how it suggests something scary. competent the speaker is when speaking. This type of interference results from the The social status of Igbo language in grammatical structure of the first Nigeria language which hinders the set of Language is a matter of identity. It has language rules (grammar) of the target the propensity to transmit culture and so language. This language transfer at this the moment an individual loses his level is given priority in this paper language, it is obvious that his culture because interference distorts the will be jeopardized. People, the world acceptable norms or rules of the target over, use their language for home and language which grammar is basically official interactions and specifically in concerned with. The second language Nigeria, most other tribes show a high learner fails to understand that what is degree of respect for their vernacular but acceptable in one language may not the same cannot be said of the Igbo apply to another. people. The Igbo families of today try to be more English than the Queen of At this level there is an expression like: England herself and so we find out that This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 106 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches children of such homes, though born and have respect for those, On the other bred in Igbo land, cannot speak the Igbo hand, the schooled or the educated Igbo Language at home or even in schools, on speakers because of the prestige attached the contrary, some Igbo parents living to the English language do not speak any abroad with their children make it a even allow their children to speak the point of duty that the means of language. The mother tongue of communication in their homes is Igbo. individual Igbo/English speakers has a While those living in Nigeria place a law strong effect on their accent that against the speaking of the language in produces different phonological and their home. Okoye and other linguistic characteristics in English Onwuegbuchunam (2011) have shown pronunciation (Melchers and Shaw, that ‘hardly can an Igbo man make a 2003; 155). English grammar is different statement without code-switching’. This from the grammar of the Igbo language, ugly trend is growing because the and this makes most speakers have no language habits of a person predispose understanding of how the English certain choices of interpretations. language really works. In addition, the first language fluency creates more Problems of Languages in Contact problems in the usage of the English Language contact leads to contact language who use them, (Ozigi, 2007). between the language users as well as their cultures. In the words of Alamu and On a similar trend, Urua (2006), putting Ugwuoke (2000) the youths, like the the blames on parents on the neglect of elites, are mostly affected as they have indigenous languages observes that: developed a negative attitude towards In a bid to provide children with their native languages. It has also been what parents regard as a head observed that the individual in society start in the fluency and mastery of the may attach more importance to one English language, parents who language over another due to the social share a common indigenous language now roles such a language plays within that use the English language society. This is clearly the reflection of at home and indirectly coerce visitors Ogunyemi (2000) who says ‘the major to their homes to speak English on roles which could have hastened the the pretext that the children do not developmental process of the indigenous understand the local languages languages have been assigned to the (p.35). English language.’ The effect of this is the negligence on the part of native speakers, This is in consonance with Oyetade’s especially the youths, which is as a result (2001) observation that this situation has of inferiority complex. In fact, they have made parents go to the extent of banning become so contemptuous of their mother their children from using their mother tongues that they neither speak them nor tongue at home even though both parents are of the same language. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 107 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Language, being the most valuable the language which was used from the heritage passed from generation to state of infancy to that of members of the generation in any society, is preserved if language community, as adults. the older generation passes it on to the younger generation undistorted (Ozigi, Generally speaking, the attitude of the 2007), if parents who are supposed to speakers of any language will either know the value of their language to the make or mar the language. It is important survival of a community now to note according to this paper that the deliberately refuse to teach their development of Igbo language is children, then the chances of continual basically attached to the love the usage of the language in the future speakers of Igbo language has to the generation are quite slim. The fortunes of language. Speakers of Igbo language a language are bound up with those of its preferred the English language because users and if the language dies, or of the prestige it carries and neglecting declines, it is due to changing the language as being inferior to other circumstances of its users. So, it is languages especially English. The impossible to stamp out a language growth or the development of the which its people are determined to keep language is dependent on the usage of alive. This implies that language contact the language by the speakers. may not have a negative influence on the Igbo speakers of English if the speakers Recommendations make deliberate effort to keep the language alive. Jibril (2005) observes that The researcher, in this paper, has the there is a shift from Nigerian languages, following recommendations: including the three major languages, 1. Igbo speakers should be admonished towards English. Unfortunately, this to speak and teach the language to paper has exposed that the negative their children. attitude of native speakers of Igbo 2. The federal and state governments language is the major reason for the should give job opportunities to those negligence of the language to English. who study Nigerian language, and workshop and seminars should be Conclusion organized for the improvement of our indigenous languages Language is the key to human particularly. understanding. It is a means through 3. Language in all its ramifications which we express our feelings, ideas cannot exist in isolation, just as thoughts, etc.; through which we propel human beings cannot be without our identity, customs, values, cultural interacting with one another. In the heritage, that is unique to any individual light of the foregoing, there should be ethnic group. They think and dream in a special area of English and other This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 108 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Nigerian languages’ comparative Anigbogu, P. N., Mbah, M. B. and study. The area should be saddled Eme, C. A. (2001). Introduction to with the responsibility of taking care linguistics. Awka: J.E.C. Limited. of the problems of the linguistic phenomenon of language Crystal, David (1987). The Cambridge interference and any other related Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd linguistic vices. Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge 4. More language development canters, University Press. equipped with modern communication gadgets on Dada, S. A. (2005). “Language Contact phonetics, phonology and other and Language Conflict: The Case of related studies, as a matter of Yoruba-English Bilinguals”. Language requirement, should be made and Economic Reforms in Nigeria. Port- available for some selected users of Harcourt: M and J Grand English, who will, in turn, help those Communications Ltd. and Emhai who are not able and could not have Press. the opportunity of accessing these gadgets. Dulay H., Burt, M. and Ktashen, S. (1982). Language two. New York: References Oxford University Press. Adetuyi C.A. and Adeniran, A.A. Ebokhare, F. (2004). “Language and (2017). Aspects of semantics of Contemporary Issues in Nigeria’s standard British English and Nigerian Development”. A Lead Presented at the English: a comparative study. English 11th Biennial Conference of the Modern Ling. Res. 6(3), 5-14 Languages Association of Nigeria (MLAN). Adetuyi, C.A. (2017). Language Contact in Nigerian Multilingual Society in Ellis, R. (2008) The Study of Second Bulgarian Journal of Science & Education Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford Policy (BJSEP). Vol 11 No 2. University of Press. 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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 110 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Wikipedia. Igbo Language. http://www.en.m.wikipedia- Williamson, Kay (1984). Practical _org./wiki/Igbo_language. 31 May, Orthography in Nigeria. Ibadan. 2015 at 19:19. Heinemann. Educational Books. Williamson, Kay. (1983). “Use Your Yusuf, O. (2006). Dissappearing Language or Lose Your Language”. Languages of the Middle Belt: Steps to Language Endangerment and Safeguard. In: L. Ihezue & O. E. Osuji. ed. Language Empowerment in Nigeria: pp. 38-47. Theory and Reality. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 111 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Chapter Twelve Influence of Non- Monetary Rewards System on Library Staff Performance in Polytechnics in Nigeria Osaheni Oni1, John Odion Oshiotse2, and Afam Eziam3 1Auchi Polytechnic Library, Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria 2Senior Oracle HRMS-Payroll Consultant 3Department of library and information science, Elechi Amadi Polytechnic, Rumuola, River State Abstract This study investigated the influence of non- monetary Rewards System on Library Staff Performance in polytechnics in Nigeria. A survey research design was adopted and a questionnaire was used for data collection. Purposive sampling technique was used in selecting the sample for the study. The total population is fifty- eight (58) library staff in polytechnics library in Edo state. The copies of the questionnaire retrieved and analyzed using mean score, standard deviation, frequency counts and percentage. From the analysis of data collected, the findings revealed that verbal recognition/praise, awards, office get- together/end of year celebration and special treats are the major forms of recognition used by Auchi polytechnic library management to influence staff performance. Flexible work schedule, increase freedom, participation in decision making and decentralizing authority are the major forms of non- monetary rewards employed by the library management to influence library staff performance. However, improve performance /services, confidence, job satisfaction, increase productivity, commitment/dedication, feelings of accomplishment and loyalty are the major influence of independence and recognition rewards on library staff. The study recommended that Polytechnics library management should improve and sustain the culture of celebrating staff achievement and performance. Rewards must be provided equitably based on performance. Keywords: Auchi Polytechnic, library staff, rewards system, independence, recognition Introduction Every organization such as academic Non- monetary reward such as libraries in today’s environment seeks to independence and recognition serve as determine the reasonable balance the most contingent factors that can between employee productivity and ensure a number of organizations realize performance of the organization. the productivity of their staff. Staff This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 112 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches recognition is the timely, informal or In order for the academic library to meet formal acknowledgment of a person’s or its obligations the users, its top team’s productivity, performance, effort management must develop a or result that supports the library’s goals relationship between the library and and objectives. employees that will fulfill the continually changing needs of both parties. The Consequently, employee motivation has library management expects staff to become a key determinant of the quality perform reliably their routine tasks and and quantity of services offered to the at the standards set for them, and as well public, and as such poor staff follow the rules and guidelines that have productivity has been found to be an been established to govern the library. obstacle to service delivery in many Management of the library often expects libraries (Songstad, Lindkvist, Moland, that staff take initiative, supervise Chimhutu and Blstad, 2012). One of the themselves, continue to learn new skills, laws of psychology positively articulates and be responsive to user’s needs. In that if you want someone to repeat return, staff expects the library behavior, you should positively management to provide some rewards recognize the behavior immediately. which may not necessarily be monetary. Today’s workforce is more articulate about their needs and wants as well as Statement of the problem desiring the best of everything; differing In any organization such as the library, from competitive salaries, comfortable people (staff) are the most important lifestyles, job security, job enhancement factors. They select, process, organize options, work-life balance, recognition resources and market library services to and independence (Abdullah, Shonubi, the users. Employees in the library truly Hashim and Hamid, 2016). As a human, represent the library. Library staff is the our aspirations and need are endless and sole strategic assets and other physical can never be satisfied, acknowledging assets are supportive. Therefore, the this reality, this is why libraries need to success of the library depends on the have clear philosophies and strategies maintenance, management, and which support staff advancement, as development of library staff. The well as intrinsic ways of encouraging and development of human resource in engaging with the employees. While developed countries has been impressive many organizations are attempting to over the past few decades but the overall make a big difference, some scenario in developing countries is not organizations have institutionalized that impressive. From various reports, robust practices and effective processes surveys, professional journals, financial that go a long way in influencing reports, etc. it is found that organization employee perception (Abdullah, such as the library want the best from Shonubi, Hashim, R and Hamid 2016). their workers but ascribe little or no This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 113 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches significance to staff rewards (recognition 3. What is the influence of non- and independence). Staff performance is monetary on employees’ largely influenced by the reward system performance in the library? put in place by the organization (Osibanjo, Abiodun and Fadugba, 2012). Literature review It is against this backdrop that this study attempt to investigate the influence of Barton (2002) opined that recognition Recognition and Independence Rewards and independence are the most System on Library Staff Performance in significant factor among non-financial polytechnics in Nigeria rewards in order to increase the job satisfaction level of employees. Mark Objectives of the study (2011) emphasizes that productivity can The purpose of this study is to only be enhanced if the employees are investigate the influence of Recognition well motivated through adequate and Independence Rewards System on reward packages that are proportional to Library Staff Performance in their performance The success and the polytechnics in Nigeria. Specifically, the survival of any organization are study sets out to: determined by the way the workers are 1. determine forms of recognition rewarded. Dixit and Bhati (2012) posited reward employ by the library that poor incentives packages have been management to influence staff a major factor affecting employees’ performance commitment and productivity. 2. identify the forms of However, for any library to achieve its independence reward employ by objective in this ever-changing world, the library management to library management must have a influence staff performance thorough understanding of what drives 3. examine the influence of the employees to perform efficiently and independence and recognition reward them accordingly (Mueller, rewards on library staff 2011). Besides, employees must be motivated through adequate reward Research Questions systems and this will invariably 1. What are the forms of non- encourage them to be proactive and have monetary rewards employ by the right attitude to work, thereby library management to influence promote and enhance productivity employees’ performance? (Armstrong, 2007). 2. What are the forms of non- monetary rewards employ by Library as a dynamic organization, library management to influence reward strategies are deployed by employees’ performance? management to ensure that the best brains are retained in the best interest of This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 114 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches the library (Nelson, 2003). Consequently, insignificant. Employees appreciate the productivity can only be enhanced if the value of being recognized as they feel employees are well motivated through that they are part and parcel of the adequate reward packages that are organizational growth at large (Sarvadi, proportional to their performance (Mark, 2005). When you recognize employees 2011). Meanwhile, to avoid wrong they feel valued and wanted and thus perception and controversy by the contributes towards the overall employees, reward system must be organizational performance and clearly communicated to employees with satisfaction which is normally attributed job measurement which will drive the to the employees themselves. It is much-needed performance in the through the recognition that libraries are employees (Hartman, 2011). Rewards able to strengthen the relationship propel and influence staff attitudes in the between the management leadership and workplace and as well stimulate the employees. understanding between the library management and library staff which will Recognition brings about motivation and consequently cumulate into hence the staff remains competitive and unprecedented performance for both the gives their all towards the realization of employees and the organization library success. Recognition shows (Barbara, Bucklin and Alyce, 2003). confidence in workforces and confident workforces are more gainful (Paul, 2016). Recognition and employees’ Some authors demonstrate positive performance effects of incorporating non-financial A situation library staff is rewarded measures into the compensation system based on different status is called empirically (Widmier, 2002). Due to the recognition. Library staff high economic problem, many organizations performance and job satisfaction would such as libraries have reduced workforce be attributed to intrinsic factors such as occasioned by retirement, death, and recognition, opportunities, feedback, lack of employment and this led to and growth. In order to increase library increased staff workloads. Library staff, staff performance, recognition is one of in turn, is feeling overworked and the significant factors that should be overstressed. This environment makes considered and which fall under the non- recognition programs particularly financial rewards. According to Yaseen attractive (Robins and Pattison, 2005). (2013), an employee is deemed as being Robins and Pattison stated that along loyal to their organization whenever with money, non-monetary their efforts are rewarded. Many compensations have been used to attract, organizations are believed to be missing retain, and motivate staff to achieve this component perceived as valuable yet organizational goals around the world. the cost of its implementation is There are two aspects to staff This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 115 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches recognition. The first aspect is to actually and Jenkins further stated that many see, identify or realize an opportunity to practices have been used in recent years praise someone. If not in a receptive in both the private and public sectors to frame of mind it is easy to pass over transform the workplace and improve many such opportunities. This happens performance. These include increasing all too frequently. The other aspect of worker autonomy through flattening employee recognition is, of course, the hierarchies, decentralizing authority, physical act of doing something to instituting quality programs, upgrading acknowledge and praise people for their workers' skills through training, good work. Staff recognition programs increasing flexibility in the deployment over a wide spectrum of activities. They of labor and establishing self-managing range from a spontaneous and private work teams (Geary, 2002). “thank you” to broad and formal programs in which specific types of Libraries can adapt and adopt many of behavior are encouraged and in which these same strategies to help improve the procedures for attaining recognition service delivery and overall functioning are clearly identified. through programs that will help bring about positive change in the library and Independence and Employees influences workers performance. performance Schemes seeking to empower staff and The importance of independence on reduce management hierarchies can library staff performance cannot be improve the productivity and job overemphasized. Professional workers’ satisfaction of employed professionals. If independence and autonomy are key these schemes are implemented properly characteristics in providing job with a balance between reduced line satisfaction. Improving autonomy and management involvements and independence in the workplace can increased autonomy supported by the cause a transformation of the work training they might prove frustrating to experience leading to better performance the very people, the organization is (Allington and Morgan, 2002). Creating seeking to empower. Freeman and autonomy and independence involves Rogers (1999) reported that staff felt that not just removing layers of management, they had too little say over a range of but also involves fundamentally workplace issues and that the gap changing how essential layers of between the expected amount of say and management operate. Not only should the reality was too great and caused lower-level employees be given decision- dissatisfaction. The introduction of an making power, but they also need the employee involvement program, aimed training that will provide them with the at increasing autonomy through greater ability to make good decisions (Boyne, participation in decision-making. Such Poole and Jenkins, 1999). Boyne, Poole, considerations are important in This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 116 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches examining the efforts being made to study was the questionnaire. The increase the autonomy of library staff. questionnaire was designed in line with the research objectives and other Methodology relevant information related to the research. The questionnaire was The survey research design was adopted structured into two sections: Section one for contained the bio-data of the the study. The choice of the survey as the respondents and section two dealt with research design for this work was items raised from the research questions necessitated by the nature of the study. of the study. The data collected was This is because the survey design gives analyzed in line with the research room for studying very small and large questions. Mean Score, Standard population (Foddy, 2004 cited in Oni, Deviation, Percentage, and frequency Abu and Ekeniyere, 2018). It enables the were used in the data analysis. Any item researchers to gather data from members with a mean score of 2.5 and above was of the selected population with the aid of considered as an acceptable standard for the questionnaire in order to determine judgment/ decision making in this the current status on the influence of study. Recognition and Independence Rewards System on Library Staff Performance in Results polytechnics in Nigeria. The population of this study consisted of the entire The researchers distributed a total of library staff in the two government- fifty- eight (58) copies of the owned polytechnics in Edo state. The questionnaire to the respondents which total population is fifty- eight (58). The are librarians, Para-professional and researchers consider the population to be library support staff but fifty-two were small and such they decided to use the retuned correctly filled which indicates entire population as sample using 96% and was considered appropriate for purposive sampling technique. The study by the researchers. research instrument adopted for this Table1: Categories of library staff Categories of staff No of Percentage Respondents Professional(librarians) 10 19 Para-professional 11 21 Library support staff 21 40 Total 52 100 Source: field survey, 2019 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 117 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Table 1 reveals that majority of the respondents were Paraprofessional and respondents were library support staff 10 (19%) were professionals. with 21 (40%), while 11 (21%) of the Table 2: Gender Distribution of the Respondents Gender No. Of Respondents Percentage Male 21 40 Female 31 60 Total 52 100 Table 2 shows the gender distribution of while 21 (40%) were males. This implies respondents. The result reveals that 31 that there was more female among the (60%) of the respondents were females respondents. Table 3: Forms of recognition rewards employed by the library management to influence staff performance Forms of N A D U Mean S.D Decisi recognition NO % NO % NO % on rewards Verbal 52 47 90 5 10 -- -- 2.9 0.03 A Recognition/prais e Office get- 52 42 80 5 10 5 10 2.7 0.03 A together/end of year celebration Use of library 52 10 19 16 31 26 50 2.2 0.03 R facilities Awards 52 40 77 12 23 -- -- 2.8 0.03 A Special treats 52 36 69 12 23 4 8 2.6 0.03 A Key: N= No of respondents, A = Accepted, R = Rejected, SD= Standard Deviation Table 3 revealed that the following was Recognition/praise; Awards, Office get- agreed by a majority of respondents as together/end of year celebration and forms of recognition rewards employed special treats. This had a mean weight of by the library management to influence 2.9, 2.8, 2.7and standard deviation of staff performance. They include: Verbal 0.03, 0.03, 0.03 and 0.03 respectively. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 118 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Table 4: Forms of independence rewards employed by the library management to influence staff Performance Forms of N A D U Mean S.D Decision independence rewards No % No % No % Increase freedom 52 31 60 15 29 6 12 2.8 0.03 A Decentralizing authority 52 37 71 8 15 8 15 2.6 0.03 A Training and 52 22 42 17 33 13 25 2.1 0.03 R development Flexible work schedule 52 46 88 6 12 -- -- 3.0 0.03 A Establishing self- 52 14 27 17 33 20 38 1.8 0.02 R managing work teams Participation in decision 52 41 79 9 17 2 4 2.8 0.03 A making Key: N= No of respondents A = Accepted, R = Rejected, SD= Standard Deviation Table 4 shows the result of the mean and influence staff performance with a mean standard deviation. The result of the score of 3.0 and a standard deviation of table above indicated that some of the 0.03. Others are: Increase freedom, respondents unanimously agreed that participation in decision making and Flexible work schedule is one of the decentralizing authority. They had mean major forms of independence rewards scores of 2.8, 2.8 and 2.6 and a standard employed by the library management to deviation of 0.03, 0.03 and 0.03 respectively. Table 5: Influence of independence and recognition rewards on library staff Influence of N A D U Mean S.D Decision independence and No % No % No % recognition rewards on library staff Loyalty 52 31 60 15 29 6 12 2.5 0.03 A Commitment/dedicat 52 38 73 11 21 4 8 2.7 0.03 A ion Improve performance 52 50 96 -- -- 1 2 2.9 0.03 A /services Increase confidence 52 48 92 4 8 -- -- 2.9 0.03 A Job satisfaction 52 46 88 6 12 -- -- 2.9 0.03 A Feelings of 52 36 69 12 23 4 8 2.6 0.03 A accomplishment Increase productivity 52 42 81 8 15 2 4 2.8 0.03 A Key: N= No of respondents A = Accepted, R = Rejected, SD= Standard Deviation This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 119 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Table 5 revealed that the following was authority are the major forms of agreed by a majority of respondents as independence rewards employed by the the major Influence of independence and polytechnics library management to recognition rewards on library staff. influence staff performance. This finding They include: Improve corroborates Geary (2002) who revealed performance/services, increase that increasing worker autonomy confidence, job satisfaction, increase through flattening hierarchies; productivity, commitment/dedication, decentralizing authority; instituting feelings of accomplishment and loyalty. quality programs; upgrading workers' They had mean scores of 2.9, 2.9, 2.9, 2.8, skills through training; increasing 2.7, 2.6 and 2.5 and standard deviation of flexibility in the deployment of labor and 0.03, 0.03, 0.03, 0.03, 0.03, 0.03, and 0.03 establishing self-managing work teams respectively. can enhance workers’ productivity in the workplace. The finding is also in Discussion of Findings conformity with Allington and Morgan (2002) that opined that organization such The result of this study revealed that as libraries can adapt and adopt many verbal recognition/praise, awards, office rewards strategies to help improve get-together/end of year celebration and service delivery and overall functioning special treats are the major forms of through programs that will help bring recognition used by polytechnics library about positive change in the workplace management to influence staff and influences workers performance. performance. The finding agrees with Robbins (2005) who posited that The study reported the influence of employee recognition is, of course, the recognition and independence rewards physical act of doing something to on library staff to include improve acknowledge and praise people for their performance /services, confidence, job good work. Employee recognition satisfaction, Increase productivity, programs cover a wide spectrum of commitment/dedication, feelings of activities. They range from a accomplishment and loyalty. The finding spontaneous and private “thank you” to is in conformity with Mark (2011) who broad and formal programs in which emphasized that productivity can only specific types of behavior are encouraged be enhanced if the employees are well and in which the procedures for motivated through adequate reward attaining recognition are clearly packages that are proportional to their identified. performance. The study reported that flexible work schedule, increase freedom, participation in decision making and decentralizing This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 120 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches The summary of the findings Verbal recognition/praise, awards, office get-together/end 1. The study revealed that verbal of year celebration and special recognition/praise, awards, office treats are the major forms of get-together/end of year recognition rewards that can be celebration and special treats are used by polytechnic library the major forms of recognition management to influence staff used by polytechnics library performance. It was also management to influence staff discovered in the study that performance. flexible work schedule, increase 2. The study reported that flexible freedom, participation in decision work schedule, increase freedom, making and decentralizing participation in decision making authority are the major forms of and decentralizing authority are independence rewards can be the major forms of independence employed by the library rewards employed by the library management to influence staff management to influence library performance. The place of staff performance independence and recognition 3. The study pointed out that rewards as motivating improve performance /services, ingredients for facilitating library confidence, job satisfaction, staff performance in polytechnic Increase productivity, libraries cannot be undermined. commitment/dedication, feelings This is because recognition and of accomplishment and loyalty independence rewards influenced are the major influence of library staff to improve independence and recognition performance /services, increase rewards on library staff. staff confidence, job satisfaction, Increase productivity, library staff Conclusion commitment/dedication, feelings of accomplishment and loyalty. Non-monetary rewards package can be deployed by library Recommendations management to motivate and influences staff performance. Based on the findings of this study, the There are different forms of non- following recommendations are made: monetary rewards but this study 1. Polytechnics Library focused on recognition and management should introduce independence non-monetary more forms of non-monetary rewards. rewards packages to motivate This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 121 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches encourage and stimulate library feedback. Journal of Organizational staff performance. Behavior Management. 64-94. 2. The polytechnic librarian and library management should Barton, G. M. (2002). Recognition at Work. ensure rewards must be provided Scottsdale, AZ: World at Work. equitably based on library staff performance. Boyne, G. Poole, M. and Jenkins, G. 3. Rewards system employed (1999) Human Resource Management in should possess genuine criteria of the Public and Private Sectors, Public performance which all the staff Administration (uk), 77 (2), 407-421 can view as fair judgment. 4. Polytechnic Library management Dixit, V. and Bhati, (2012). A study should improve and sustain the About Employee Commitment and its culture of celebrating staff Impact on Sustained Productivity in achievement and performance. India Auto-Component Industry. European Journal of Business and Social References Sciences. 1(6), 44-5. Abdullah, N. Shonubi, O.A Hashim, R Geary, J. F. (2002) New Forms of Work and Hamid, N (2016). Recognition and Organization, in P. Edwards, ed., Appreciation and its Psychological Effect Industrial Relations, 2nd edn. Oxford: on Job Satisfaction and Performance in a Blackwell. Malaysia IT Company: Systematic Review. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Freeman, R. and Rogers, J. (1999) What Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) 21, (I 9), 47-55 Workers Want? Cornell: ILR Press. Allington, N. and Morgan, P. (2002). Has Hartman, D. (2011). Types of finance, the public sector retained its model rewards and incentives ehow money employer status? Public Money and retrieved from http//www. e How Management, 22(1), 35-48. money.com Amrstrong, (2007), Employee reward Mark, H. (2006). Not Just a Living: A management and practice. London: Kogan Complete Guide to Creating a Business Page and quality orientation. Journal of that gives you Life, Family and European Industrial Training, 30(1), 4-18. Consumers Science. Research Journal. Barbara, R., Bucklin, H.M and Alyce, M. Mueller, D. R (2011) Financial Incentives D, (2003). The Effect of Individual to Increase Employees Motivation. Monetary Incentives with and without Retrieved from http// www.ehow.com This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 122 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Nelson, B. (2003). Money is not the Root dependence structures. Models and of all Motivation; Health Care Registration methods in social network analysis: 192- 12(10), 7-9 214. Oni, O., Abu, L and Ekeeniyere, A (2018). Sarvadi, P (2005). The best way to reward Prospects and challenges of employees: solutions for growing digitalization of academic libraries business. Retrieved from resources for effective service delivery in http:www.entrepreneur.com. Universities in Edo state. International Research Journal of library & information Songstad, N, Lindkvist, I, Moland, K.M, science, 2(3), 278-292 Chimhutu V and Blstad, A (2012). Assessing performance enhancing tools: Osibanjo, A.O., Abiodun, A.J., and experiences with the open performance Fadugba, A.O. (2012). Executive review and appraisal system (OPRAS) Perception of the Impact of Flexitime on and expectations towards payment for Organisational Performamce: Evidence performance (P4P) in the public health from the Nigerian Private Sector: sector in Tanzania. Globalization and International Journal of Applied Behavioural Health J., 8 (1), 33. Economics (IJABE),1(3) Widmier, S (2002). The effects of Paul, W. (2016). Appreciation at Work incentives and personality on training and the Motivating by salesperson's customer orientation. Appreciation Inventory: development Industrial Marketing Management, 31(7), and validity. Strategic HR Review, 15 (1), 609-615. 20 – 24. Yaseen, A. (2013). Effect of Rehmanm M. S. (2009) Impact of Job Compensation Factors on Employee Analysis on Job Performance, Springer Satisfaction: A Study of Doctor’s Dissatisfaction in Punjab. International Robins, G, and Pattison, P (2005). Journal of Human Resource Studies, 3(1), Interdependencies and social processes: 142-157 Dependence graphs and generalized This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 123 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Chapter Thirteen Ambient Air Quality Assessment in Nigeria: Challenges and Remedies Francis Olawale Abulude1, 2 Samuel Dare Fagbayide3, Akinyinka Akinnusotu4, Adebola Elemide5 1Science and Education Development Institute, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria 2Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria 3Department of Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering Technology, Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro, Ogun State. 4Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State. 5Department of Agricultural and Bio-Environmental Engineering Technology, Federal College of Agriculture, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria Abstract Worldwide air quality is a problem continuously attended to due to the health risk. Africa is not out of this, most especially Nigeria. According to a report, Nigeria is tagged as having most polluted cities in the world. Although efforts are being put into place to reduce the pollution problems, much could not be attained due to some challenges in the assessment. Thus, the aim of the paper was to identify some bottlenecks which hinder air quality assessments in Nigeria and to suggest the way forward. To this end, the problems were highlighted in the paper and the solutions were provided. Keywords: Air Quality, health risk, Nigeria, indoor and outdoor pollution, standards, NESREA Introduction Air pollution (indoor and outdoor) is a exposure has caused over 5 million problem throughout the world. Many deaths due to stroke, lung diseases and lives have been lost, and many have cancer, and diabetes. According to the serious defects in one way or the other. SOGA2018 (2017) annual report, it was State of Global Air2019 (2018), noted that affirmed that people are exposed to life expectancy on average a day old burning of solid fuels in homes and in child is shortened by 20 months due to 2016 over 2.5 billion people (ratio 1:3) exposure to air pollution. It was noted were exposed to fuels like charcoal, that it ranked 5th out of the causes of dungs, biomass, and wood, especially in health risks in the world. Longtime low and middle countries. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 124 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches According to WHO (2018), air pollution their stakeholders in air quality is one of the environmental risks to management have put everything in health. The health risk is associated with place to forge ahead in the battle. For heart and respiratory diseases, lung example, the US, UK, Germany, and cancer, and others. If air pollution levels others have invested several billion are reduced, the effects of the diseases dollars in tackling this menace. Whereas, will be reduced. In another key fact by many developing countries are trailing WHO, in 2016 over 90% of the world behind – Nigeria inclusive. Thus, this population lived in countries where paper has delved into the problems that WHO air quality standard levels were affect the air quality assessment in not attained. Air pollution, especially Nigeria. To this end, the aim of the paper outdoor in rural and urban areas caused was to point out some challenges that over 4 million untimely deaths in 2016, hinder the air pollution assessment and while indoor pollution has been found to the availability of data. Solutions were pose a serious health risk to over 3 billion proffered which must be applied by the people. stakeholders in air quality management in Nigeria. According to Cunningham (2018), Nigeria was tagged ‘as the most polluted Lack of necessary equipment cities in the world’ and further showed One area of concern is the lack of that this may not change soonest. equipment in our institutions and Ogundipe (2018) also pointed it out that research institutes in Nigeria. For Nigeria is ranked 4th deadliest in the meaningful research to take place there world with about 150 deaths/ 100,000 must be working instruments in these people due to pollution. Ladan (2013) citadels of knowledge. I was reliably indicated the sources of pollution informed (authentic source) that in a causing diseases and deaths be from university in the US there are over vehicle exhaust, fuel from wood, twenty working instruments available industrial emissions, gasoline generator, for research, whereas there may be none burning of biomasses and domestic and in some universities and where there are industrial wastes. In a 2003 to 2008 they may be obsolete. release by River State Ministry of Health, it was noted that over 60 died due to I remember when I visited a university diseases related to air pollution down south of Nigeria, there was a little (Nwachukwu et al., 2012). problem encountered while working with an instrument, the fixing of the The advanced world has reduced the problem could have been done using the problem of air pollution drastically and instrument manual, unfortunately, there this has translated to the reduction in was none available. The whole day was their health risks due to pollution. All wasted and the manual was difficult to This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 125 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches download on the net. It took us several trained on the machine should endeavor months before a colleague could send it to retrain the users. Always, retraining from the UK. Can you imagine the workshops should be available. ‘trauma’ experienced before solving a minute problem? For equipment to be Fourth and last, I want to delve on ordered, the procurement officer should obsolete equipment present in our endeavor to request for the complete research and teaching laboratories. For booklet on the machine or equipment. any meaningful teaching and research, Again, not just anybody should be put in the present trends must be followed. In charge of procurement, an expert on the the advanced world, researching and use of the equipment should be saddled teaching are at high speed. If at all, we with the responsibility. cannot close these, we should not be far behind. Efforts should be geared towards Secondly, the equipment should be the use of modern equipment. ordered with important parts as spares. For example, if an Atomic Absorption Cost of purchase of equipment and Spectrophotometer (AAS) is needed in a chemicals laboratory, the AAS needs lamps for The cost of purchase of equipment and different elements. These elements lamps chemicals is quite ridiculous especially in may not last before the damage, an Nigeria and other developing countries. alternative must already be on standby Imagining the equivalence (exchange instead of waiting several months before rate of Naira) to Dollar (N360), for the procurement of the replacement of example for a purchase of an XRF lamps. instrument (Delta Pro) sold at a cost of $39,000 (thirty-nine thousand dollars) Thirdly, most of the equipment in our only (911 Metallurgist, Accessed, 2019), it laboratories lack maintenance, although will cost a Nigerian buyer, N14,040,000 this may not come as a surprise because (Fourteen million, forty thousand Naira) generally, we lack maintenance culture only. How many institutions can afford in Nigeria, even in our different homes. it? For the availability of this type and For a procurement to be made on other types of instrument to be available specialized machines, I suggest a person, in most of our institutions, I want to here a technologist to be trained on the make case for the followings: use, maintenance, and even repairs. This i. The government should person will be saddled with the handling reduce the exchange rate for of such a machine. In Nigeria, we make the purchase of educational the mistake of allowing a lecturer or materials researcher to handle most of our ii. The purchase should be equipment, whereas technologists and custom free. I am a victim of technicians will be left out. Anybody this. I have collaborative work This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 126 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches elsewhere outside the country. and the methodologies to apply. Much I was made to pay ridiculous has to be done in monitoring air custom fees on sensors and air pollution which ranges from planning sampler sent to me free. and other logistics to publication of iii. The government and private results for the necessary actions to be institutions should try as taken. All these needs funds which could much as possible to make the be sourced from the government cost of analysis at a reduced (TETFUNDS etc), wealthy individuals, cost to students and NGOs, financial institutions, researchers. They will assist in professional societies, international contributing to the knowledge bodies (World Bank, UNICEF, UNESCO, of air pollution in Nigeria. The etc), private sectors and companies results will also be used by involved in Research and Development, stakeholders in plans to international donors just to mention a reduce air pollution. few. iv. It will be important to make a case for joint procurement of The US National Science Foundation useful expense materials by (NSF) budgeted$31.3 billion for research two or more institutions in 2016 (LeMieux, 2017), again in (research centers inclusive). England Research Councils disbursed The availability will make for approximately £724,919 (South East researches worthwhile in of England), £662,589 (London), and Nigeria. £67,691 (North East) for postgraduate v. Individual persons can be funding in 2015/16 (Mason, 2018). These useful in the funding of are lots compared to our research necessary laboratory materials funding in Nigeria. needed for air pollution monitoring. The government In Nigeria, the sad thing is that most and institutions should contact researchers and academicians opportune these people to fund the cost to obtain the funds end up diverting which I am sure some will do. them to areas not relevant to the cause of research in air pollution. Something Little or no research funds available must be done to curb this act. Research fund available to monitor air pollution is either not available or little Lack of collaboration compared to other countries. For this This is an area which can hinder the reason, a major breakthrough in this area monitoring of air pollution in Nigeria. is slim. For Nigeria to reduce air From my experience, it may not be pollution, there must be results to work possible to embark on the study alone. It with, this will assist in areas to focus on will not be possible to be all in all. To This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 127 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches finance the research alone may not be outcome of the research. There was a feasible. To be vast and contribute to time we needed effluents from the textile knowledge, one needs collaborative industry, we applied officially, but work. For example, I needed to carry out before the permission was finally given, a research a few years back when I saw I the time for the research work was do not have the funds, I invited a almost gone due to sabotage from the researcher from abroad who provided industry. It is always advisable to work the sampler for the work, I sampled, sent on this logistics several months or year them to another researcher’s laboratory prior to the commencement of the also abroad at the end, there were results research. and published. National Standards and information For new and junior researchers or even Worldwide there are standard limits that colleagues, it is always good to look for are recommended which are compared mentors in your area of study. It could be with eg USEPA, WHO, UNICEF, and within Nigeria and outside. This is how others. There are those of nationals too I started collaborating. It has helped me which governs the pollution limits of as an individual and the nation as a each country. Nigeria has to be given by whole. the Environmental Quality Control Department, National Environmental Collaboration can be in any form – Standards and Regulations Enforcement writings, asking for references not easily Agency, Abuja, Nigeria. The standard is found, statistical analyses and should be updated and be more feasible calculations, working in another like those of other countries. If one person’s laboratory that is well equipped checks the website of this agency, hardly and other areas deemed fit. Nigeria will one see the standard limits if it is should seek international assistance in even there. If one checks the publications solving air pollution problems at by Nigeria both in international and local regional or international (bilateral) levels journals hardly will you find the results in order to achieve considerable results. obtained compared with our national limits, international recommendations Lack of cooperation from industries were usually used especially WHO and Most times industries and companies do USEPA. not cooperation with researchers by not granting access to their vicinities. There Part of the challenges in air pollution are industries which are not assessment in Nigeria are poor exchange environmental compliance which is information and lack or inadequate reluctant to allow easy access to their public awareness programs of agencies vicinities for research purposes because saddled with the responsibility of air they do not want to be exposed by the quality monitoring in Nigeria. Agencies This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 128 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches like Nigerian Meteorological Agency percentage of their annual budget for air (NiMET), National Environmental quality assessment. Standards Regulations and Enforcement Agency (NESREA), Ministry of Lack of data Environment at the State level, In air pollution assessment in Nigeria, Universities, Centre for Atmospheric there are not enough data available to Research (CAR), ARIAL Laboratory, assist in proper planning. Definitely, this National Space Research and will affect policies on air quality Development Agency (NASRDA), and management. Like it was pointed out on others. They are performing, but efforts the case of collaboration, no doubt data should be geared to pass their outcome are always generated, but how much of to ordinary citizens of Nigeria rather these are shared within the stakeholders, than confining it within the academics students, and others. When there is no and research. If the average citizen public awareness, whom do we go to for should be carried along, air pollution partnership. In air pollution assessment will be reduced because they are part of efforts should be geared towards the cause of pollution. networking and data sharing. Free article sharing should be adopted too within the Lack of private sectors’ and companies’ Nation, Nigeria. involvement In Nigeria, few private sectors and Trends in air quality assessment companies involved in research and Air quality assessment trend is kept with development are few. Even, where they rapid development especially in the are, they are the profit-oriented outfit. To developed countries of the world. Major assist in research activities this may be breakthroughs have been recorded in air difficult. Unlike the advanced world quality management. In the time past, where a certain percentage of the budget the bulk of the elemental measurements will go for research (R & D) that will were based on AAS later, versatile benefit the nation and its sectors. In the instruments were introduced – like ICP- same vein, they allow their facilities to be MS, XRF, PIXE, INAA, just to mention a shared or used by outsiders for research few. Also, developments in purposes, even accept students for their methodologies (techniques) of sampling industrial training and award and analyses were introduced. All these fellowships for post-doctorate programs made assessments easy, fast, and in their companies, universities, and reliable. It is now possible to detect a research institutions. Nigerian large number of air pollutants in ever- government should promulgate laws decreasing concentrations (Nu´ñez- mandating private sectors and Alonso et al., 2019). For Nigeria to make institutions to earmark a certain a breakthrough in air quality assessment too new instrumentations and This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 129 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches methodologies should be a thing of NESREA and other agencies saddled concern. with the pollution monitoring in Nigeria should endeavor to review and revise, Monitoring networks in China and India constantly, the air pollution standards are expanding rapidly, many African based on the trends in air quality countries (Nigeria inclusive), and South management and science. The agency Asian countries except India do not have should be vast with the recent revisions monitoring networks (McNeil, 2019). that are made to the ambient air According, to Zimmerman (2018), standards for ozone, airborne particles, networks of low-cost air-quality sensors sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and to replace or complement the costly lead, resulting in greater health research-grade monitors are in the protection. vogue. The sensors generally are not all that accurate, data science techniques for Conclusion merging low-cost sensor data with remote sensing data, models, and data In Nigeria, it is not overemphasized if it from ground-based monitors have is concluded that air pollution problem is indicated a high trend in air quality above the control of individuals, and this measurement. The use of low-cost demands the action and efforts of sensors should be imbibed by Nigerian stakeholders at the national, regional, researchers because, it is useful where and local levels. No doubt, air pollutions power is limited, and also it may provide are generated in agricultural, waste observations with high spatial management, transport, urban planning, resolution. Another area where Nigerian individual homes, energy and the like. researchers should improve upon is the All the stakeholders should make sure area of Remote measurements from that the policies put in place are satellites. This can assist in the provision successfully implemented to the letter. of data where there no ground-based For example, clean technologies that can ones. reduce industrial smoke/emission (the use of biogas) should be in place and Buckley and Mitchell (2010) noted the implemented. Lighting, cooking, and evaluation of past trends of pollution in heating should be overseen through the industrialized nations is useful in use of affordable clean household indicating the recent air quality energy. In the area of urban planning, improvements and also in gaining concerted efforts should be geared knowledge of what could be the result in towards making the cities green and air pollutant controls in those developing compact. Vehicular emission should be nations currently experiencing high clean by the use of clean and low- levels of pollution. emission vehicles and fuels. Agricultural This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 130 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches and municipal wastes should be Study 2017. The Lancet, Vol. 392, No. recycled, reused, and reprocessed. 10159, p1923-1994, Published November 10, 2018. Available Generally, if the remedies outlined in this at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140- paper and others are strictly followed, 6736(18)32225-6. the challenges will be a thing of the past on air quality, Nigeria will compare well Ladan S.I (2013). Examining Air with the developed world. Pollution and Control Measures in Urban Centers of Nigeria. International References Journal of Environmental Engineering and Management. Volume 4, Number 6 (2013), 911 Metallurgist (2019). Portable XRF pp. 621-628. Analyzer and Pricelist. https://www.911metallurgist.com/blo LeMieux, J. (2017). How is science g/portable-xrf-analyzer-price. Accessed funded in the United States? American 2nd April, 2019. Council on Science and Health. https://www.acsh.org/news/2017/02/ Cunningham (2018). Nigeria has some of 07/how-science-funded-united-states- the world’s most polluted cities—and 10816. Accessed 2nd April 2019. that isn’t about to change. Quartz Africa. Mason D. (2018). 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Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 132 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Chapter Fourteen Educational Policy in Nigeria Namse Peter Udosen Department of Educational Foundations, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna Introduction Since pre-colonial times, educational From the above, it is clear that policy is policies have been promulgated to give meant to drive the practice of guidance to Educational service delivery Educational service delivery in any in Nigeria. Education is the bedrock of country. The question then is; How well any functional society or nation. It is one has educational policy contributed to of the social institutions that contribute educational development in Nigeria. significantly towards the construction Why has education not transformed the and maintenance of social order. In Nigerian economy and society? recent times it has further earned an important posture in the society. The Educational policies and problems of Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) Implementation in Nigeria have been a identified Education in Nigeria “as an recurrent phenomenon in Nigeria. The instrument ‘par excellence’ for effecting poor performance of the education sector national development”. Education in its in Nigeria has become very worrisome. broadest sense is any act or experience Many scholars have suggested a plethora that has a formative effect on the mind, of reasons why our educational policies character, or physical ability of an are not bearing fruits. individual. It is the entire range of experiences in lie through which an What is Educational Policy? individual develops the abilities, To begin, it is essential to clarify the attitudes and other forms of behavior concepts of “education” and “policy”. which are of positive value to the society This will give a better understanding of in which he/she lives (Fafunwa, 1974). the term educational policy. Government has stated that for the Socrates described education as “the benefit of all citizens, the country's bringing out of the ideas of universal educational goals shall be clearly set out validity which are latent in the mind of in terms of their relevance to the needs of every man”. Plato posits that” education the individual and those of the society, in is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain consonance with the realities of our at the right moment. It develops in the environment and the modern world. body and in the soul of the pupil al the This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 133 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches beauty and perfection which he is It should portray some elements capable of.” John Dewey in his famous of guidance for properly directed book, ‘School and Society” defines and coordinated action towards education as the reconstruction or the attainment of desired goals reorganization of experience which adds It should contain information on to the meaning of experience and which broad objectives that should be increases the ability to direct the course reached of subsequent experiences. From these, It should be a binding guide on we can deduce that education is about the actions on those implementing bringing forth ideas and experiences. it Education can be said to be a social It should be enforceable and process for growth and preparation for enforced by the society which living in a society. For this to happen formulates it. there has to be the transmission of knowledge. Education is an attempt to An educational policy can, therefore, be direct people towards the development said to be a systematic process of guiding of some desirable knowledge, decision making for the means and ways understanding, skills, values, attitudes of transferring knowledge within a and thinking processes. society. Rand (2019) adds that educational policy includes laws as well Pointing the light down the tunnel of as processes that educational policy; Haddad (1995), describes policy organizations, districts, states, and is an explicit or implicit single decision or nations put in place and follow to group of decisions which may set out achieve educational goals. Oshokoya in directives for guiding future decisions, Okoroma (2009) summarizes; “education initiate or retard action, or guide is a distinctive way in which the society implementation of previous decisions. inducts its young ones into full Okoroma (2006) in his view states that “a membership, so every modern society policy serves the purpose of ensuring needs some educational policies to guide that every official action of an it in the process of such initiation. organization must have a basis or backing. Policy as a tool for decision History of Educational Policy in making has some guiding principles as Nigeria posited by Kerr in Adeshina (2014): Educational policy in Nigeria has passed It should be formulated and through three significant phases: adopted through a political colonial, pre-independence and post- process which acknowledges the independence eras. Before the reality and legitimacy of colonization of the territories by Britain, conflicting interests and desires the pluralistic territory (now called among its participants Nigeria) had various forms of traditional This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 134 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches systems. The different parts of the equipment for the individual to country had their unique structures live in and contribute to the which they operated. development of his society. The colonial government brought It looks very beautiful on paper. All other educational policies to support their national policies of education have been colonial interests. This was the beginning a modification of the first on in 1977. The of the failure of our educational policies. main idea of these policies is to ensure The colonial educational policies did not the proper management and build on existing local structures, but implementation of our education system rather made them look inferior. The in all areas of society. However, there are problem still exists today, especially in so many problems currently faced in our language and culture development both managings and implementing within education. necessary policies in the system. These educational policies formulated by After independence, there was an various governments have been stalled increasing demand for a well- defined by political instability or lack of political national policy on education. This debate will to implement them. Every political led to many Federal and State player is in a hurry to help him before commissions, all of which made they are displaced by another group; recommendations that would help to hence most educational policies are a eliminate the strong bias toward the play to the gallery, aimed at scoring traditional literary and academic cheap political points. subjects. In January 1977, 17 years after independence, the Nigerian government One of the greatest problems is the finally issued a policy on education. The manner of formulating policies. Just like specific national aims and objectives to the colonial administrators, our present which the philosophy was linked policymakers, sit in big offices in town included: and make policies for people in villages 1. the inculcation of national far away. There is a disconnect between consciousness and national unity; educational policies and reality. Also, the 2. the inculcation of the right type planning is over-centralized and does of values and attitudes for the not reflect the pluralistic nature of the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society. Rivers State should not Nigerian society; be operating on the educational scheme 3. the training of the mind in the as Sokoto. Many aspects of educational understanding of the world; and policy are elitist and many members of 4. The acquisition of appropriate the society are left out. skills, abilities, and competencies, both mental and physical, as This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 135 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Secondly, there is no holistic, scientific identifiable clienteles and learning and empirical basis for Educational objectives” (Egbezor and Okanezi, 2008). planning and policy. We cannot plan The distinction made is largely education in a vacuum. Educational administrative. In Nigeria, it has been policy should be tied to national noted that formal education is capital development. Many public schools intensive – in terms of infrastructural, become overcrowded because when the manpower and financial demands and it UBE policy was introduced, the is not readily available to rural dwellers. government did not know the By the current design and population of children in various areas. implementation, many people in rural Data is important for any policy areas with poor socio-economic development. Whenever you read backgrounds are often handicapped in figures of out of school children in the formal school system; and for those Nigeria, the source is always World who attend, the curriculum does not Bank, UNESCO or one International seem relevant to their needs. Ololube organization. We need to invest more in (2011) also notes that because of its data collection for planning. formalized nature, formal schooling creates a sharp break from local realities Education is an essential part of National of the farm, field or market. In view of development; however, our educational the problems associated with formal policies are skewed in favor of the formal learning and because of the increasing education sector. Education can be popular yearning for education, there is classified into three types namely – the need to look for alternatives to formal formal, informal and non-formal learning to enhance National education. Development. Formal education cannot ensure the technological revolution we “Formal education is a consciously seek. The Chinese and Indians have built planned instructional process based on a robust nonformal Educational structures prescribed syllabus and carried out in the that put less pressure on universities and school. Informal education is a learning formal schools. process not based on fixed or prescribed rules or pedagogy, it is determined by Do our educational policies carry the prevailing nature or content of what everyone along? What happens to those is learnt. It is also referred to as day to who can't make 3-5 O’ level credits or day learning. Non-formal education is can't pass JAMB do we have alternatives any organized educational activity for them? Why is our educational policy outside the established formal system- so focused on formal education and the whether operating separately or as an total is ignored vocational, technical and important feature of some broader other forms of Non-formal education? activity- that is intended to serve Elitism! That's why everyone in Nigeria This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 136 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches wants to go to university. The Nigerian society scorns technicians and people In the present state and circumstances of with Vocational skills. educational policy formulation and implementation in Nigeria, it would be a So, from the very process of policy pipe dream for Nigeria to be at par with formulation, there are gaps. The solution her counterparts in the developed world. is to see education as a social good, not as Our continued reliance on a centralized, a status symbol. Quality education is a foreign-influenced policy on education right for all not an elitist tool for with their inherent implementation oppression. Educational policy planning problems will continue to be an needs a more holistic approach involving impediment for educational and national members from the fringes of society, development. local teachers, the village head, etc, not just professors. Conclusion There should also be more funding for In a way of summary, educational policy research and process evaluation. in Nigeria has since colonial times been a On the other hand, there should be an tool for the elites and not for national inbuilt mechanism of ensuring quality development. We need to move policy assurance in all parts of the educational from fancy words on paper to strategic system. How do quack teachers get into plans for holistic development. The the teaching system in the first place? following is the take away from the There must be minimum entry standards educational policy in Nigeria: as in other professions. There should also 1. Reliable data is not used in be minimum remuneration for teachers planning education in Nigeria. in all sectors and levels of education. This situation has taken away efficiency from the policy Educational development failures in formulation process Nigeria have sprung from a lack of 2. educational policy creating an effective model of implementation is often hindered governance for educational policy by political interplay fueled by formulation. At the head of this problem ethnoreligious sentiments (case is the instability generated by the rivalry study Almajiri system) for the country based on mundane 3. educational policies have good primordial sentiments (ethnicity and intentions but planning is often religion). Education cannot be separated defective and not empirical from the rot in the political system where 4. Educational policy in Nigeria is political power is used to milk the state elitist and does not favor those in for personal gain rather than promote rural areas or the poor. economic and social development. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 137 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Recommendations 2. Homegrown and decentralized There is an urgent need for a more system of education that practical and functional educational promotes regional strengths policy scheme by Nigerians for should be advanced to make Nigerians. The following are education more relevant. recommended. 3. Educational policies should be 1. Government and private more inclusive of the diverse organizations should invest more forms of education. in research and empirical study to 4. Increased funding for education guide educational policy formulation. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 138 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Chapter Fifteen Beyond Ballot Box: How Can We Save Nigeria? Saidu Tunenso Umar Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Adamawa State University, Mubi- Nigeria Introduction the democratic arrangement, especially Ballot Box is a means to an end but not an election through the Ballot box. Over the end in itself. This is more so in the young years’ political participation particularly democracies, especially in the securing votes from ballot box continue developing world. Issues surrounding to a stumbling block in Nigeria’s body the formation, funding of political polity. These problems range from parties has been preoccupied with the excessive state control, interference, microscopic-molecular process of human application of the unpopular, often crude material. Like most countries in Africa method of securing votes and many particularly Nigeria, the corridor of unfavorable conditions. power has been saturated by various autocratic leadership in spite of the Virtually, a large proportion of there is unquantifiable quest for democracy and administrative inefficiencies including democratic processes. The most crucial voter registration exercises have been and critical challenges have been how plagued by confusion delays and abuses campaigns rallies are designed and of various dimension. The user of the pursued. Post ballot benefits are mostly ballot box is widely known and accepted shattered right at the processes of the as a model for stability. However, keen campaign. As a follow-up to results from observers attest that the stability of a the ballot box, elected officials become nation does not in any way starts and mischief markers and blackmailers. ends with the ballot box. Academics and Hence, the course of governance is related stakeholders in body polity turned out to be something else. Sequel should not be adamant by allowing the to these trends, Academics, Professional members of western societies and bodies, Captains of industries and civil elsewhere to analyses our political society groups have a lot to offer to the terrain. Instead germane efforts should project of Nigeria as a nation-state. continue to take a center stage providing Democracy as art and process of a desirable road map for the country. governance is still preoccupied with Thus, this effort requires a variety of chain and series of irregularities. Political political ideas processes and institutions parties are essential features of This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 139 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches to be subjected to serious intellectual attempts to examine the fact Democratic moral scrutiny. consolidation is beyond Ballot Box. Apologists of Ballot box inclined Ballot Box and Incumbency in Nigeria’s reasoning that Ballot Box is the most Democracy credible source for democratic The doctrine of incumbency takes a consolidation. Some patriots and the like center stage after the manipulation of the went ahead to propagate political Ballot box. The elected officials become stagnation and retrogression lies heavily tyrants’ that terrifies the electorates. Spy on the ability and otherwise of the use of from the political palace hunt for those balloting and the ballot box. To these on the opposition. The behavior of the group of political practitioners posited incumbent including their spies’ remedy to the political hopelessness and approaches electorates as prey and helplessness, poverty and irrational predatory relationship. The national life political views and ideas. and the psychic of the people become horrible without formal outlets on On the contrary, others opined that violence and intimidation. The elected political atrocities committed under the official formulate rules that will destroy disguise of the ballot box and endless the fortunes of the opposition parties. and have incalculable consequences. For The elected officials champion what instance, millions of people were Machiavelli describes as Terror tactics. innocently or other slaughter in the quest The members of the ruling party who are for securing the ballot box. Similarly, at all cost bend to seek for the favor of the moral conscience and good values have incumbency cultivate patronage values eroded. This is more so in the developing and tendencies. The elected officials erect countries, Nigeria inclusive. So many political structures and institutions that militia groups truncated Nigeria’s body they believed can guarantee tenure polity. Statistics of military and elongation. The institution becomes paramilitary operations with hereditary where political wills are unquantifiable figures across Nigeria carefully documented. New principles revealed that Ballot Box saga accounts are out rightly rejected and scandalized. for the motive behind these losses. Natural and social difficulties continue Security challenges emanating from to be propagated against the opposition ethnic and religious and religious party. Once in power, the opposition banditry of the Boko terrorist are critical party including the members are in relation to Ballot Box. Vote buying and systematically devastated. series of rigging during elections cannot in any disentangle from over-emphasis of the prominent role of the Ballot box. Sequel to these instances, this chapter This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 140 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Post Ballot Box and Dictatorship in Post Ballot Box and Hegemony in Nigeria’s Democracy Nigeria’s Democracy The Nigerian state after ballot box After political miscarriage from the manipulation increasing put on despotic ballot box, leaders of the ruling party outfits. The employment of illogical logic employ the authoritarian style to instill to justify dominance and exploitation by fear by erecting political structures and using unpatriotic professionals who secured personalities with inter-locking invoked unpopular decisions at the values and networks of all kinds. There corridor of power. The collective anger of are chain and series of regime violence the people is usually suppressed via by holding people to ransom through oppressive institutions of the military impoverished mechanisms of and paramilitary units, after vote- governance. Policies are designed to for buying, the despots live of inner logic crude and barbaric suppression all the and vision. Amassing of public treasury mass protests. Political and socio- becomes the order of the day. The cultural issues are fabricated for easy despots organize mock elections in order access to imprisonment. By the time to retain power. The vision of the despot their party holds power, the party caucus is to make pervasive history in their own assumed the status of personnel way. Intimidation and public assault directors and secretaries. The hire and become so glaring. Power seeking has the firing of compromising party become an affair of individuals and members are systematically eliminated personalities with neck-cut ambition. The Directors and the agents of party in Many who for whatever reason could not power carry out job analysis and job align with them are always under specification. Any attempt for failing or perpetual harassment and intimidation. derail from the party is usually Those who can’t bear the pain decides to accompanied sanctions depending on be migrants in other places in Africa or the degree of noncompliance. The elsewhere. Dictators make citizens be recruitment panels are trained during a despair and seek for exit route including party caucus meeting and symposia. The the Mediterranean Sea. Human point of duties of the support is at the trafficking becomes a lucrative business state and EXCOS. The performance of the for those who take advantage of a violent support staff is usually monitored and situation. Mass protests are multiplying apprise on a timely basis. Some in their numbers. Nigerian citizens are individuals may not be on the payroll littered everywhere, particularly in the such individuals are only given stipends Sahara Desert become a death zone. in case of and failure. The reservoir of the staff is temporarily on the list of delegates. The main mandate of the few rich are the financial wizards who run the business as a real business venture This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 141 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches where profits and turnover are counted Starts and ends immediately after the based on expertise in vote manipulation siege for Ballot Box. including nefarious political activities The foot soldiers who are delegate keep Similarly, the entire government on renewing and tightening of the belt as business becomes a secret between the the case may be. President and his men. As a matter of tactics, the President meticulously Post Ballot and the Rule of Law distant himself away from all rumor and After the election, officials particularly waits cautiously to swift away any the President clamor for propagation for daring attempt to strife his image. the Rule of Law. Few weeks after the Government Business is always under election everyone in the country was tea coffee and oversea trips. Political made to know that President is above the impunity becomes seemingly the tactical Law. The point of derail always starts approach of the President and his men. with Executive and Legislative Elected officials assigned tasks to recklessness. The application of the rule themselves instead of the parliamentary received a lot of skepticism. President provisions. The President becomes the unduly interferes with court rulings boss of the bosses. The president made through the back door. The attorney necessary attempts to cling to power. general of the federation including that Collective conscience becomes of the state become a final, thereby pervasively eroded. Individual anarchy interpreting the Law according to the becomes prominent. The citizen is whims and caprices of the President and always exempted from knowing the local the governors. The major test on the rule and oversea interests. The government is of for example under President Umar always in a web of negotiating peace and Yaradua was on June 14, 2007, was when at the same flushing out those the Supreme Court restored Mr. Peter personalities that threatens their ballot Obi as governor of Anambra state- box. ordered Dr. Uba Andy who had been sworn in as governor just barely two Post Ballot and National Policy weeks to vacate Government House. In a After the election in Nigeria, elected unanimous decision by seven Judges, the officials instead of deeply involved in the apex concluded that INEC should go on systematic effort to shape and sharpen to conduct elections into the office of the the future of the country and the people Governor. Citing the provisions of the through the institutions, parochial issues 1999 Constitution, the Supreme Court of the past campaign are usually declared that governor’ term of office pursued. Second-year after ballot box, begins to run from the day he takes the mischievous agenda for next pursuit of oath of office. In other words, the votes preoccupied the minds and the rhetoric’s of rule of law by President institutions are championed, the This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 142 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches government in power could not embark militarized. Any form of opposition is on critical issues and choices that usher followed by a military operation. The in dividends of democratic processes. state as a coherent administrative The regimes have no instrument of apparatus or body which rules and governance where public programs and regulations are embedded turn to be a policies could not be pursued. The threat to peace. This is because political elected officials have no clear vision to peace is prerequisite to other forms of provide a desirable outcome in meeting peace. The state is negatively seen in the the yarning and aspirations of the daily affairs of our national life. citizens. Governance is carried out through hash and extensive force and threat. The national life and the polity become overheated. National tension and feeling The Military has been unjustifiably of hysteria dominate the minds of the deployed to contravene the collective people. No sense of optimism with will of the people. Having known well means of achieving a collective goal is that the 1999 constitution which provides usually shattered. Social policy is not for the Military to be used in defending standardized. Citizens live on hand out Nigeria from external aggression and at under the disguise of welfare and the same time maintain territorial empowerment programs. Community integrity and securing its borders from and the family lives are in despair. The violation on the land, sea, and Air. In youths and destitute are deceived with a addition, suppressing civil disorder as filling of forms with little or no may be prescribed by the National improvement in the quality of life. Assembly. Pensioners and pension scam are the The utility and perpetual abuse of the common problems of citizens served the military roles result in two situations. country in different capacities. Firstly, the entire life of the people witnesses over Militarization in all nooks Post Ballot and National Security. and crannies. Secondly, military The power seekers abused all the right institutions become dangerously channels of acquiring power thereby politicized. Hence, the Military as a making some citizens to feel being professional institution lack nationalistic isolated and excluded. Many forms and profile becomes very weak. The dimensions of divides continue to credibility of earned by Military is increase. Aggrieved are not treated with subjected to series of questions thereby a sense of mutual understanding. Any to making the people suspect their express grievances are followed with the operations. There is suspicion by the deployment of the military operations. citizens between national interests and The entire country becomes over personal interests of the elected officials This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 143 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches especially the Presidency. For example, Conclusion the Dasuki gate which is still lingering on the political corridor. The military One important way of understanding profession is viewed as oppressive politics is to be seen as a network of apparatus in the hands of the political activities of people who are related by class. the authority with respect to all allocations of resources, power, rights, Post Ballot Box and the Mass Media duties, obligations, liberties benefits and Mass Media that is widely known as sanctions. Therefore, politics become means of communicating aimed at socially manipulated distribution reaching and involving virtually mechanism. These virtues and many everyone has become a manipulative more shapes peoples vision arm of government. Instead of the Mass understanding and practicing politics. media to oil, and glue the people as After ballot box exercise the language citizens become reversible. The media and intonations of elected officials becomes incisive thereby breeding automatically changed. Both the verbal violence in national life. Examples can be and nonverbal languages witness yet a drawn from June 12th, 1993, Independent new brand of species. All the critical Movement of Biafra (IPOP), Farmers terms and concept in practicing Herder's crises. The authoritarian model democracy become value-laden. There is of the press is adopted or over the little or no clarity the adoption and utility publicized press. The backdrop of the of power resources. Force is always Press made it either a means or invoked to threaten the opposition. The instrument of the division of repressive knowledge of the country is acquired machinery that elected or the mischief- from historical monuments the favors makers to employ it for glutamic those in power. New ideologies emerged motives. The role to establish and in an attempt to cope with politically maintain stable social order becomes threatened circumstance. Differences in compromised. The press become views and opinions are viewed with a oppressive and apprehensive to high sense of skepticism. vulnerable groups. Little or less is reported about life chances and life Therefore, understanding of trends in quality. The watchdog role of the press politics is influenced by the ideology of has been downplayed or contravene. those in power. All complex situations Instead of propagating national unity, are justified and rationalized. social divides are encouraged. Oppositions are targeted including their willingness to accept or reject the outcome of all decisions arrived at. The ordinary people are made or instigated to fight wars. Citizens loosed the sense of This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 144 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches honor that it is the outcome of their votes should guarantee to the average that brings elected officials in power and populace. There must be a forgets the terrifying efforts. Decisions of transformation from subsistence elected officials are targeted towards agriculture to a mechanized one. Priority those who fought over the ballot box. All is to be given to industries that promote articles of faith are brought to bear in capital flow and consolidation. order to circumvent any possible threat. Differences in terms of the distribution of Most ordinary people believed that after commonwealth between the geopolitical the ballot box, the game is over. zones must be fundamentally tackled Ironically, the post ballot box marks a through robust economic policies. new beginning of all forms of political meandering. Their manpower is to be provided with skills of entrepreneurship for an increase In addition, ballot box alone cannot in cash flow. Control should be made in establish and sustain democracy. Unless such a way the Laws and constitutional attitudes via humanitarian ideologies are provisions are upheld for collective enforced for collective security for the interest and will of the populace. New ballot box to create ample opportunity schemes are to be fronted in order to for citizen’s participation and benefits raise the level of income and standard of accrued from the political processes. living. The spirit to serve should Unless when unemployed youths who permeate national life. Political processes are employable are employed. should be mixed with profit Dividends of democracy can continue to maximization syndrome. The be a mirage when political concepts are educational system to be critically practically implemented. Prices of goods revisited to improve the technological must not exceed wages, house rentals base of the country. Relevant must be within the means of all groups. departments and corporate programs are to be put in place to boost scientific Hence, social welfare services must be discoveries and innovations. provided to all vulnerable groups in the body polity. Education and educational References facilities are provided to all groups and classes. Income and standard of average Adeniyi O. (2011). Power politics and people must be met. The government death. Kachifo Limited. should be an empire in regulating productivity of goods and services. The Bassey C.O Agbor U.I (2015). Public trust of the electorates should not be policy and politics in Nigeria. A Critical betrayed. Roads and rail lines are to be Discourse Concept Publication limited. constructed for both the rich and the poor. Relative economic independence This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 145 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Iroegbu P. (2002). Beyond materialism and Spiritualism. Hope Publication GAAF Building. Hassan N.A (2017). Colonialism and Offiong D.A (1979). Imperialism and land reform crisis in Zimbabwe Pylamak dependency. Fourth Dimension Service Limited Hollings Worth Publishers African Book by Africa. Nkurma, K. (1974). Africa Unite, Panaf OKe M. (2001). The nature of political Books Limited M. (1991) MPS for hire, concepts and ideologies. Hope Bloom Bury Publishing Limited, 2soho Publishers GAAF Building. square London Ojukwu U.G, Ukatu C.N Obvoha M.I Noccoli Machiavelli, Prince Penguin Whakwue N.B (2016). Fundamental of Online w.w.w.com. political sociology. Phycekerex Publishers, Enugu, Nigeria. Kura, B. U. (2005). Political Parties, Electoral Rules and Democratic Thomson A. (2003). An introduction to Governance African politics, Penguins Group, Madison New York. Nwanko A. (1979). African Dictators and lessons from history. Fourth Dimension Publishers, Enugu, Nigeria This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 145 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Chapter Sixteen Digitization of Nigerian Polytechnics Library Resources for Sustainable National Development in the 21st Century Osaheni Oni1, Aminu U. Momoh1, and Kelly Odaro-Ekhaguebo2 1Auchi Polytechnic Library, Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria 2Department of Mass Communication, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria Abstract This study investigated the Digitization of Nigerian Polytechnic Library Resources for Sustainable National Development in the 21st Century. A survey research design was adopted and a questionnaire was used for data collection. Accidental sampling technique was used in selecting the sample for the study. A total of sixty-two (62) questionnaires were distributed to the respondents who comprised the professionals, Para-professional and library support staff from the polytechnic libraries in Edo state and fifty- eight (58) questionnaire were retrieved and analyzed using mean score, percentage, and frequency counts. From the analysis of data collected, the findings revealed that improving library visibility, speedy retrieval of document, improved library services, space conservation, and increased access to library materials, improve inter-library collaboration, effective preservation of library materials, and increase marketing are the major reasons for digitization of polytechnics library resources in Edo State. However, inadequate funding, insufficient management support, poor internet connectivity, high cost of purchasing equipment, erratic power supply, inadequate skilled personnel and lack of planning for digitization are the major challenges affecting digitization of polytechnics library resources in Edo state. The study recommended that Polytechnic management should ensure that library budget, library dues and other monetary allocations for the library are judiciously expended on library development especially in the area of digitization. Keywords: Digitization, library resources, Nigerian polytechnics. National development Introduction Digitization being one of the important library resources. Fabunmi, Paris, and aspects of current global information Fabunmi (2006) posited that digitizing trends fits into library and information library collections, the information will for sustainable national development. be accessible to all instead of a group of Digitization improves access and use of researchers. Digital projects allow users This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 146 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches to search for collections rapidly and functions of the library as a place for comprehensively from anywhere at any storage and dissemination of time. Digitalization makes the invisible information has changed drastically. to be visible. Several users can access the Academic libraries are duly bound to same materials at the same time without acquire, preserve and disseminate hindrance. It also removes the problems information for teaching, learning and of distances, as users do not have to research from whatever source to its travel to libraries that possess the hard clientele in this information age. This has copies of library materials before they led to academic libraries in Africa and can access and use such materials. Nigeria in particular, to embark on the Pandey and Misra (2014) noted that integration of technology in their “academic libraries are digitizing operations (Oni, Abu, and Ekeniyere, materials because they know the 2018). Otebelu and Ume (2015) opined continuing valve of library resources for that there is a need for such sources of learning, teaching, research, scholarship, information to be kept, preserved and documentation, and public made available in a more convenient and accountability. They further stated that accessible format. The digitization of “another reason of digitization is to make academic library resources has a lot of access facilities to these resources: to invaluable benefit such as increasing the preserve the age-old materials for long visibility of the library’s resources, use which use which are important and improve services delivery to the users, valuable for future, to facilitate new enhanced access to current and vast forms of access and use; better and amount of information from remote enhanced access to defined stock of sites/location as users can easily access research materials; creation of a single library resources from different parts of point of access to documentation from the world no matter the distance, different institutions concerning a flexibility of information search and special subject; support for democratic retrieval. Some universities in Nigeria consideration by making public records are making frantic effort to digitize their more widely accessible; better search and library resources for effective and retrieval facilities for library types of efficient service delivery. According to materials, to give the institution Musa et al., (2014), some universities in opportunities for the development of its Nigeria have started digitization of their technical infrastructure and staff skills resources. Kashim Ibrahim Library, capacity. which is the main library of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, their digitization Statement of the problem project started in July 2005; University of With the advent of information and Jos in 2009 becoming the first institution communication technology (ICT) and the (University) to establish an institutional internet facilities, the traditional repository (IR) and second in West Africa This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 147 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches after University of Science and 3. Identify the challenges militating against Technology, Ghana; University of the digitization of polytechnic library Nigeria Nsukka joined the trend in 2008, resources in Edo state. as it commenced the digitation of its resources; Federal University of Research Questions Technology, Akure, started in 2011, To achieve the foregoing objectives, the using D space (application software) in following research questions are asked. managing the institutional content of their repository and Covenant 1. What are the reasons for digitizing University in the year 2012 becoming the polytechnic library resources in Edo first private university that owns state? institutional repository. Igwesi (2010) 2. What are the levels of skills needed for noted that Nnamdi Azikiwe University, the digitization of Polytechnic libraries in Akwa; the Federal University of Edo state? Technology Owerri and Obafemi 3. What are the challenges militating Awolowo University, (OAU) Ile-Ife are against the digitization of polytechnic digitizing their resources. However, library resources in Edo state? polytechnics in Nigeria have not done much in the digitization of their library Literature review resources. It is against this backdrop that this study attempt to investigate Digitizing Polytechnics Library Digitization of Nigerian Polytechnics Resources Library Resources for Sustainable UNESCO (2002) in one of her publication National Development in the 21st titles “the guidelines for digitization Century. project” stated that the reason for implementing a digitization project are Objective of the study varied, and may well overlap. These The objective of this research is to reasons include: investigate digitization of Nigerian polytechnics library resources for Increase access: This is the most obvious sustainable national development in the and primary reason where there is 21st century. The specific objectives thought to be high demand from users include: and the library or archive has the desire 1. Ascertain the reasons for digitizing to improve access to a specific collection; library resources in Polytechnic libraries Improve services to an expanding user’s in Edo state. group by providing enhanced access to 2. Determine the level of skills needed for the institution’s resources with respect to the digitization of Polytechnic libraries in education, long-life learning. Edo state This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 148 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Reduce the handling use of fragile or Improved Searching method through heavy used original materials and create different search engines and a “back-up” for an endangered material manipulation of information. such as brittle books or documents; Accessibility of information is made Give the institution opportunities for the possible in a short time. development of its technical infrastructure and staff skill capacity. Improve collaboration with other information institutions and centers, Establish a sharing partnership with opportunities to form consortia where other institutions to create a virtual they can pull their resources together collection and increase worldwide and get a good bargain of the scale of access; acquire library software. Seek partnership with other institutions Digitization Skills of Polytechnics to capitalize on the economic advantages Library Staff of a shared approach. Sreenivasilus (2000) emphasizes that digital information system management Ibinaiye (2012) summarized the reasons refers to the overall competencies, for digitization in the library as follows: knowledge, know-how, skills, and Universal Access: People from all over attitude necessary to create, store, the world gain access to the same organize, retrieve and disseminate information as long as an internet digital information in digital libraries. connection is available. Due to the changing nature of librarianship resulting from the Capacity: There are limited storage increasing amount of information spaces in traditional libraries while the available in digital format, educating digital library has the potential to store digital librarians who are competent to much information simply because digital work in the dynamic and complex digital information requires very physical space environment has become a high priority to contain them. within the library and information science profession and schools. Cost: The cost of maintaining a digital According to Usman and Lyun (2007), library is much lower than that of a the competency of the digital librarian is traditional library. A traditional must represented by a different set of skills, spend large sums of money paying for attitudes, and value that will enable staff, book maintenance, rent, and him/her to work as digital information additional books professional or digital knowledge worker and communicator. Sreenivasilu states that the first skill and competency This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 149 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches that a digital librarian is expected to . Protect digital intellectual property in the develop are the ability to manage network environment and knowledgeable and a digital library in . Ensure an information society. terms of digital knowledge and digital library management. Litman (2001) Ezeani and Ezema (2007) advocated the points out the skills needed by library for the training of librarians in the staff in digitization include Digital Right technical know-how of the digitalization Management (DRM). This is defined as a process to acquire the required collective name for technologies that competencies such as technical skills in prevent you from using a copyrighted metadata, checking and verifying of digital work beyond the degree to which digitized resources for quality control the copyright owner wishes to allow you and selection of hardware and software. to it. DRM facilitates the protection of Usman and Lyun (2007) posit that the digital work using technological digital librarians and required to acquire methods such as encryption and digital skills and sophisticated competencies to: marking requiring passwords and limits . Manage the digital libraries, on the numbers of times database could . Organize digital information from the be copied and used. Digital Marking is a computer-held digital information, simple label that attaches right to . Provide digital information service and information content or watermarks that electronic knowledge warehouse, typically hide information that can be . Handle the tasks of massive digitization, used to identify a work. digital storage, process, and digital preservation. Igun (2006) emphasized that the training . Provide universal access and retrieval of of the librarian for the 21st century must digital knowledge. be mainly in the mode of a digital librarian. Zhou cited in Agbo (2015) Challenges Affecting the Digitization pointed out the responsibilities of digital of Polytechnics Library Resources librarians as the following: The advent of digital technology and . Select, acquire, preserve, organize and digitization of library resources poses a manage digital collections, lot of challenges to the major . Design the technical architecture of the stakeholders, that is, the library digital library, management, employees and library . Plan, implement, and support digital users. In developing countries, services such as information navigation, digitization has posed serious challenges consultation and transmit services, to librarians and other information . Establish friendly user interface over the managers (Oni, Abulaw, and Ekeniyere, network for the digital library, 2018). Chidi and Oyeronke (2011) opined . Design, maintain and transmit/add- that the departure from the manual value to information products, methods of carrying out library services This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 150 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches has without a doubt improved the of adequate fund for the digital quality of service offered by the library to conversion by the appropriate its clientele and it has also, on the other authorities. hand, brought about a reasonable degree of technostress experienced by A financial constraint has been a bane to professional librarians while carrying the effective and efficient management of out library services. Usman and Lyun the library; hence the need to put into (2007) identified some of these consideration adequate source of fund challenges which include: inadequate and funding. Most polytechnic libraries funds, lack of digitization equipment do not have the basic information inadequate knowledge and skills, lack of technology infrastructures or facilities institutional policy and lack of electricity that would facilitate the establishment of support. Mutula and Ojedoku (2008) an institutional repository. Some identified some challenges of digital polytechnic libraries do not have a library development in African which website, computers, Wi-Fi (internet include; severe financial constraints, connectivity), server, etc. Internet facility inadequate infrastructure (i.e. electricity, is a general factor in accessing telephone line, building etc.), outdated knowledge in this 21st century. staff training opportunities and facilities, Management of polytechnics in Nigeria harsh environmental conditions, should provide these facilities as a top acceleration equipment degradation, priority. A perennial problem in many inadequate salaries and difficult working universities is that not all researchers conditions, and inadequate skills in may have their own computer, or one strategic planning and in grant proposal that is linked to the University network, for Digital Library Projects. Inadequate or one with the right software on that funding had been a hindrance to library computer (Chibini, 2011). INASP (2005) development in developing countries. in its survey report states that, use of e- Despite the shrinking budgetary journals in Africa is greatly hampered by allocation to polytechnic libraries, the the following factors: Lack of library libraries do not even have access to the automation systems, Poor ICT facilities, money neither are they aware of the Lack of e-journals, Poor connectivity to availability of such funds. In Nigeria, the Internet, Poor funding, Lack of students pay the library fees alongside management support/commitment, with school fees but the institution Lack of user education in use of e- management in most cases do not use the journals and Low bandwidth, etc. Lack money for library development. If not of automation in most polytechnic Tertiary Education Trust Fund libraries in Nigeria has hampered (TETFUND) most polytechnic libraries digitization of library resources. in Nigeria would have been in shamble. Automation of the library is a sine-qua- Stafan (2001) advocated for the allocation non to the establishment of Institutional This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 151 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches repository. Some librarians in academic frequent breakdown of the system, are not ICT compliance. They cannot electric power failure, and inadequate operate a computer, use the internet, computers in the libraries and librarians' social media, etc. as a result, they do not inadequate computer skills. Ramesh, support any IT driving policy and Babu, Vinayagamoorthy, and program. Baro, Oyeniran, and Ateboh Gopalakrishnan (2007) conducted a (2013) posited that among the major study of ICT skills among librarians in challenges facing digital library projects engineering educational institutions in in Africa has been the readiness of Tamil Nadu to identify the types of ICT academic libraries in terms of skills and skills, assess the level of skill, the means knowledge to implement digital library of acquiring ICT skills and identify the services. constraints in acquiring such skills by the librarians. The study found that the Rosenberg (2006) averred that skills in e- librarians of these institutions have resources management, e-service acquired basic skills in ICT, but they development, full-text digitization, and lacked knowledge about network-based teaching skills are lacking in African services and digital library services. University Libraries. Polytechnic libraries are even worse. Information and Methodology communication technology skills in Nigerian tertiary institution face a lot of The survey research design will be challenges Technophobia has led to the adopted for the study. The choice of the delay in the application of ICT in survey as the research design for the performing library services in Nigeria. project was necessitated by the nature of The new information revolution in the study. This is because the survey librarianship has provided a unique design gives room for studying very platform for speedy provision and small and large population. It enables the dissemination of information. This researcher to gather data from members highly celebrated technology in of the selected population with the aid of librarianship has also created some the questionnaire in order to determine distresses. This technological change the current status of the issue under could be resisted due to phobia (Ekuoye, study from the respective institution Oni and Momoh, 2015). Safahieh and (Foddy, 2004 cited in Oni, Abu and Asemi (2008) assessed the computer Ekeeniyere, 2018). The population of this literacy skill of librarians in Isfahan study consisted of the entire University of Iran. The results indicated professional, para-professional and that the majority of the librarians have library support staff of the selected acquired their computer skill through polytechnics library in Edo state. The informal channels. The most common polytechnics are Auchi polytechnic, problem cited in computer usage was a Auchi and Edo state polytechnic, Usen. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 152 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches The total population is sixty-two (62) frequency counts were used in the data library staff. The researchers consider the analysis. Any item with a mean score of population to be small and such they 3.0 and above is considered as an decided to use the entire population as a acceptable standard for judgment/ sample using accidental sampling decision making in this study. technique. The research instrument adopted for this study was the Results questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed in line with the research The researchers distributed a total of objective and other relevant information sixty- two (62) copies of the related to the research. The questionnaire questionnaire to the respondents but was structured into two sections: Section fifty- eight (58) were returned completed. one contained the bio-data of the This indicates a percentage of 93.5% respondents and section two dealt with which the researcher considered items raised from the research questions appropriate for use. of the study. Mean Score, Percentage and Table1: Analysis of Returned Questionnaires Categories of No. of Respondents Percentage staff Professional 14 24 Para- 12 21 professional Library 32 55 support staff Total 58 100 Source: field survey, 2019 Table 1 reveals that majority of the respondents were library support staff with 32 (55%), while 14 (24%) of the respondents were professional and 12 (21%) were Paraprofessionals. Table 2 Gender Distribution of Respondents Sex Frequency Percentage (%) Male 25 43 Female 33 57 Total 58 100 Source: field survey, 2019 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 153 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Table 2 shows the gender distribution of that there was more female among the respondents. The result reveals that 33 respondents. (57%) of the respondents were females while 25 (43%) were males. This implies Table3: Reasons for Digitization of Polytechnics Library Resources Reasons for N SA A Total D S Total Mean Decision Digitization No % D N % o Increase 58 34 22 56 96.6 2 - 2 3.4 3.5 A access to library materials Effective 58 18 33 51 87.9 7 - 7 12. 3.2 A preservation 1 of library material Improved 58 32 25 57 98.3 1 - 1 1.7 3.5 A library services Improve 58 30 20 50 82.2 8 - 8 13. 3.4 A inter-library 8 collaboration Improving 58 42 12 54 93.1 4 - 4 6.9 3.7 A library visibility Speedy 58 43 14 57 98.3 1 - 1 1.7 3.7 A retrieval of document Increase 58 31 9 40 69.0 13 5 18 31. 3.1 A marketing 0 Space 58 36 13 49 84.5 9 - 9 15. 3.5 A conservation 5 Key: N=No of the respondents, A = Accepted, R = Rejected, This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 154 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches speedy retrieval of a document, Table 3, revealed the reasons for improved library services, space Digitization of Polytechnics Library conservation and increased access to Resources. The following were strongly library material, improve inter-library agreed and agreed by the respondents as collaboration, effective preservation of the reasons for the digitization of library material, and increase marketing; polytechnics library resources. They these had a mean weight of 3.7, 3.7, 3.5, include improving library visibility, 3.5, 3.5, 3.4, 3.2 and 3.1 respectively. Table: 4: The level of digitization skills possessed by polytechnic library staff in Edo state The extent of N VGE GE LE NA Mean Decision Skills Possessed Scanning skill 58 22 23 6 7 3.0 A Book marketing 58 13 15 11 19 2.4 R skill Signing of 58 7 11 20 20 2.1 R digital signature Internet surfing 58 26 23 8 1 3.3 A skill Cataloguing of 58 26 12 11 9 3.0 A digital resources Creation & 58 3 4 28 23 1.8 R management of library website Database 58 8 11 13 26 2.0 R management skill Trouble shooting 58 13 17 18 10 2.6 A skill Printing skill 58 31 7 13 7 3.1 A Document 58 16 11 17 14 2.5 R downloading skill Key: N= No of Respondents, VGE = Very Great Extent, GE = Great Extent, LE= Low Extent, NA = Not At All, A = Accepted, R = Rejected This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 155 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches The result of the mean of various score, scanning skill with a mean of 3.0 parameters as contained in table 4. The and Cataloguing of digital resources table above indicated that the library with a mean of 3.0. staff understudy possessed the following digitization skills to a great extent: Internet surfing skill with a mean score of 3.3, printing skill with 3.1 mean Table 5: Challenge affecting the digitization of polytechnic library Resources in Edo state Challenge N SA A Total D SD Total Mean Decision militating against No % No % digitization Lack of 58 17 25 42 72.4 13 3 16 27.6 3.0 A planning digitization Inadequate 58 34 20 54 93.1 4 - 4 6.9 3.5 A funding Inadequate 58 19 28 47 81.0 10 1 11 19.0 3.1 A skilled personnel High cost of 58 32 16 48 82.8 10 - 10 17.2 3.2 A purchasing equipment Erratic 58 26 17 43 74.1 12 3 15 25.9 3.1 A power supply Insufficient 58 36 14 50 86.2 6 2 8 13.8 3.4 A managemen t support Poor 58 32 17 49 84.5 7 2 9 15.5 3.4 A internet connectivity Key: N=No of the respondents, A = Accepted, R = Rejected. Table 5 reveals Challenge affecting the unanimously strongly agreed and digitization projects in polytechnic agreed that inadequate funding is one of libraries in Edo state. The result of the the major challenges inhibiting table indicated that the respondents digitalization of library resources with a This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 156 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches mean score of 3.5. Insufficient digital resources. This finding is in management support and Poor internet congruence with Sreenivasilus (2000) connectivity were also strongly agreed who emphasized that digital information and agreed by a majority of the system management refers to the overall respondents as a challenge affecting the competencies, knowledge, know-how, digitization projects in polytechnic skills, and attitude necessary to create, libraries in Edo state with a mean score store, organize, retrieve and disseminate of 3.4 respectively. Others are High cost digital information in digital libraries. In of purchasing equipment with a mean a related development, Ezeani and score of 3.2, erratic power supply with a Ezema (2007) advocated for training and mean score of 3.1, inadequate skilled retraining of librarians on the technical personnel with a mean score of 3.1 and know-how of the digitalization process Lack of planning digitization with a to acquire the required competencies mean score of 3.0. such as technical skills in metadata checking, selection of hardware, Discussion of Finding software and verifying of digitized resources for quality control. The study revealed that there are a lot of reasons for the digitization of The study further revealed that there are polytechnics library resources which challenges militating against the include: to improve library visibility, digitization of polytechnics library speedy retrieval of a document, resources for sustainable national improved library services, space development in the 21st century. Some of conservation, increased access to library the challenges are inadequate funding, materials, improve inter-library insufficient management support, and collaboration, effective preservation of poor internet connectivity, high cost of library materials, and increase purchasing equipment, erratic power marketing. This finding corroborates the supply, inadequate skilled personnel earlier observation made by Pandy and and lack of planning for digitization. Misra (2014) stated that the reasons for This finding is in agreement with the digitization access information report of Usman (2007) who revealed materials, to preserve library materials that “inadequate funds, lack of for long use, easy search, and retrieval of digitization equipment, inadequate the library. knowledge and skills, lack of institutional policy and lack of electricity The study pointed out the level of support” are the major challenges of digitization skills possessed by digitization. This finding was also polytechnics library staff in Edo state to corroborated by Mutula and Ojedoku include Internet surfing skill, printing (2008), that identified some challenges of skill, scanning skill and Cataloguing of digital library development in African to This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 157 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches include; severe financial constraints, digitization are the major challenges inadequate infrastructure (i.e. electricity, affecting digitization of polytechnics telephone line, building etc.), outdated library resources in Edo State staff training opportunities and facilities, harsh environmental conditions, Conclusion acceleration equipment degradation, inadequate salaries and difficult working Digitization of Nigerian polytechnic conditions, and inadequate skills in libraries resources is very crucial for strategic planning and in grant proposal sustainable national development in the for Digital Library Projects. Inadequate 21st century. No library in the world is funding had been a hindrance to library static. As a matter of fact, the fifth law of development in developing countries. librarianship stated that the library is a growing organism. Dynamism is a very Summary 1. The finding revealed that a crucial attribute of academic libraries improving library visibility, where polytechnics library falls into. speedy retrieval of a document, digitization facilitates easy access and improved library services, space use of information resources. conservation, increased access to Digitization of polytechnic libraries library materials, improve inter- facilitates speedy access and utilization library collaboration, effective of information and knowledge by the preservation of library materials, research community which would and increase marketing are the enhance sustainable national major reasons for the digitization development. Digitization of polytechnic of polytechnics library resources libraries would improve library in Edo state visibility, speedy retrieval of a 2. The finding showed that Internet document, improved library services, surfing skill, printing skill, scanning space conservation, increased access to skill and cataloging of digital library materials, improve inter-library resources are major digital skills collaboration, effective preservation of possessed by polytechnics library library materials, and increase marketing staff in Edo state. of libraries and their resources. it would 3. From the analysis, the finding showcase polytechnics library resources revealed that inadequate funding, to the scholarly world. Some skills such insufficient management support, as the Internet surfing skill, printing skill, poor internet connectivity, high cost scanning skill, cataloging of digital of purchasing equipment, erratic resources and other digital skills are power supply, inadequate skilled required from library staff to fully personnel and lack of planning for digitalized polytechnic library resources. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 158 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Digitization of polytechnics library 4. Alternative power supply to be resources in Nigeria particularly Edo provided such as high capacity state is hampered by inadequate standby generator and the solar funding, insufficient management electricity in order to leverage the support, poor internet connectivity, high problem of erratic power supply cost of purchasing equipment, erratic in digitization of library resources power supply, inadequate skilled for sustainable national personnel and lack of planning for development. digitization. References Recommendations Agbo, A.D. (2015). Digitization of library Based on the findings of this study, the resources in Nigeria: problems and following recommendations are made: prospects. International Journal of 1. Polytechnic management should Information Research and Review. 2(1), 256- ensure that library budget, library 260. dues and other monetary allocations for the library are Baro, E.E, Oyeniran, K.G. and Ateboh, B. judiciously expended on library (2013). Digitization projects in University development especially in the libraries in Nigeria: the journey so area of digitization. far. Library Hi Tech News, 9:.21-36 2. Polytechnic management should be committed to library Chidi, I and Oyeronke, A. (2011). The development by providing it with Impact of Technostress on Librarians: A the necessary infrastructures and Survey of Covenant University Library. facilities such as strong internet The Information Manager, 11 (1&2) connectivity to facilitate effective and efficient digitization of the Chibini, V.M. (2011). Use of electronic library resources in order to journals by academic staff at Strathmore provide 21st century services for University. A Thesis submitted in partial sustainable national fulfillment of the requirements for the development. Degree of Master of Philosophy in 3. Polytechnic authorities should Information Sciences. ensure that training and retraining of library staff is a Ekuoye, O, Oni, O and Momoh, U.A priority by sponsoring them to (2015). Gender and Techno-Phobia workshops, seminars and among Library Staff in Some conferences on digitization in Selected Polytechnic Libraries in South- order to acquire all the relevant South Region of Nigeria. Pyrex Journal and up to date digitization skills. of Library and Information Science, 1 (3): 13- This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 159 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches 19. Retrieved from (Unpublished master’s dissertation), http://www.pyrexjournals.org/pjlis University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 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Roles of Library of Nigeria, at the University of information technologies in electronic Jos, Plateau State. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 161 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Chapter Seventeen Prospects Accrued to Using Found Objects as Tools for Curbing Land Pollution in Gombe Metropolis, Nigeria Deborah Ishaku 1 and Samuel Faida2 1Department of General Studies, Gombe State Polytechnic Bajoga, Gombe State 2Department of Fine Art, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State. Abstract To change the nature of an object into a new figure is like giving birth to it all over. The study examined the prospects accrued to using found objects as a tool for curbing land pollution in Gombe metropolis, Nigeria. Data was collected from existing literature, visit to dump sites, interview with scavengers and the immediate communities. The result shows that there are several refuse dumpsites (legal and illegal) within the metropolis. Solid wastes like metals, plastics, woods, glasses, ceramics, leather, stones among others are disposed at the sites. These wastes, to the artists, are known as found objects. They are burnt, allowed to litter the environment and decay or scavenged for either reuse, recycling or reclamation. This paper, therefore, recommends the need for using found object materials at the dumpsites to creatively produce works of art known as found object sculptures, using them as a tool for curbing solid waste decomposition and burning which is hazardous to groundwater and climatic condition of Gombe Metropolis and the world at large. Keywords: Pollution, Curbing, Sculptures, Found objects, Solid waste. Introduction Given the situation of our contemporary According to the Encyclopedia of Art waste management in the Nigerian Education (2015), the translation of the environment and the need to correct it, it French phrase “objet toure” is used to is important that artists are encouraged describe the object(s) found by an artist to recycle everyday waste materials such of which with minimal modification is or as cards, papers, glass, tin, metals, are then presented as work(s) of art. The aluminum, and plastics instead of the idea is that the artist believes that the mismanagement habits being witnessed discovered objects possess certain in our society today. aesthetic qualities in appearance and therefore displays it or them for the appreciation of others. Typically, found This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 162 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches objects include natural materials like (2006), concentration (mg/L) of leachate shell, shaped piece of wood, stone, bone, constituent are in phases namely; and horn just to mention but few. Man- transition (0-5 years), acid formation (10- made objects include scrap metal, nuts, 20 years) and finally maturity (>20 parts of motorcycle, bicycles, cars, and years). Groundwater may not be others. It also includes rod, old shoes, contaminated at the inception of waste and clothes, among others. Found objects deposition on the land. It is on this have been used in many different types background that the study is aimed at of art including paintings, various forms highlighting the prospects accrued to of sculptures that include assemblage using found objects sculpture as a tool and installations (Faida, 2016). for curbing land pollution in Gombe metropolis, Nigeria. Human activities on earth give rise to residual materials which are not of Hence, this paper seeks to look at the immediate use where they are. These study area i.e the dumpsite for collecting residual materials may be recycled, the found objects, and an overview of reclaimed, or reused; otherwise, they found objects sculptures. Data were constitute waste which will ultimately be collected from both primary sources released to the environment in mobile which include authors field observation, form or in situ (USEPA, 2008). Solid interview and secondary sources include waste is defined as a nuisance, unwanted existing literature. The data was or discarded material with insufficient analyzed and presented using liquid content or gas for free movement descriptive statistics. (Vision 20:20). It can be classified as biodegradable, or non-biodegradable, Study Area soluble or insoluble, organic or Gombe is located in the northeast inorganic, toxic or non-toxic (Kostawa, geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It is the 2006; Ajadike, 2007). Irrespective of the largest city and capital of Gombe State. classification of solid wastes, most of the Gombe State created on 1st October 1996 urban wastes are degradable which aid and has eleven local government areas the rate of leachate formation and namely: Akko, Balanga, Billiri, Dukku, migration compared to non- Gombe, Funakaye, Kaltungo, Kwami, biodegradable that can last for many Nafada, Shongom, and YamaltuDeba. years without any sign of decomposition. The state is situated at latitudes 90 30’ and 120 20’ North and longitudes 80 45’ and There is, therefore, a possibility of 110 45’ East. It has boundaries to the west leachate generation, plume extension, with Bauchi State, to the south with and migration at the base of urban Adamawa and Taraba States, to the landfill owing to the decomposition of north with Yobe State and to the east discarded materials. According to Irina This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 163 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches with Borno State (SEED II 2008 – 2011) (Figure 1). Figure 1: Map of Nigeria Showing Gombe State The state covers an area of 20,265km2 and Result and Discussions has a population of 2,587,159 according to the 2006 population census. It is The results of the analysis show that situated in the Sahel Savannah with a there are a lot of legal and illegal refuse tropical continental type of climate that dump sites in Gombe metropolis where has a longer dry season, November to solid wastes are disposed (Plates I-IV). April, and a shorter rainy season that Solid waste disposal has become a major lasts from May to October. Mineral problem in the town. Therefore, resources in the state include gypsum, indiscriminate dumping, irregular talc, limestone, dolomite, silica, uranium collection of waste generated and and kaolin. Most of these minerals are inadequate resources are the key extracted in commercial quantity. There problems facing solid waste is only one large scale industry in the management in Gombe. The agencies state. It produces cement and is located entrusted with the task of collection of in Ashaka near Bajoga. Other industries waste generated per day collects less in the state fall in the category of small than half of the waste generated in any scale industries and are ubiquitous and parts of the town. This leaves a backlog include bakeries and block industries, of tones of waste uncollected a day which pottery, leatherworks and blacksmithing resulted in littering, heaping of waste This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 165 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches and overflowing of skips with waste in the town. Plate III: An illegal refuse dump site in Gombe metropolis, photograph by Ishaku Deborah, Source: Fieldwork, 2018 Plate I: legal refuse dump site in Gombe metropolis, photograph by Ishaku Deborah, Source: Fieldwork, 2018 Plate IV: An illegal refuse dump site in Gombe metropolis, photograph by Ishaku Deborah, Source: Fieldwork, 2018 Plate II: legal refuse dump site in Gombe Therefore, materials dump at these sites metropolis, photograph by Ishaku can be used by artists to aesthetically Deborah, Source: Fieldwork, 2018 produce sculptural works, using different techniques and style of their This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 166 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches choice. Hence, based on the foregoing, monitoring and supervision, use of artists using these materials will greatly integrated solid waste management solve the problem of pollution compared model and use of appropriate to burning them. These refuse are being technology. This research did not only burnt, allowed to decay and only a few identify the waste, but it also showed scavenged daily by scavengers to extract how some artists have put such waste solid waste for reuse, reclaiming or into use, sculpturally. recycling. However, results from existing literature by Buba (2013) whose study Gombe metropolis has an area of 52km2 examines the household solid waste and a population of 266,844 persons management practices and the role of according to 2006 population census agencies responsible for its management (NPC, 2006), the population is projected in Gombe, revealed that majority of the to be 399,531 persons using 3.2% growth residents in Gombe dump their wastes in rate (National Population Commission). open spaces, drainages and vacant plots. The rise in the population level brought About 32% of the residents do not have with its rapid economic growth and their wastes collected at all most consequently the rise in living standards especially in the low-income of the people. Wastes and other neighborhoods. The results also indicate contaminants from residential and other that waste separation does not take place land uses in Gombe town are highly at both household level and official visible. dumpsites. Most of the wastes generated are food, paper, textile materials, plastic Over the years, solid waste disposal has materials, polythene bags, bottle and tin become a major problem in the town cans. The results indicated that the causing land pollution. Therefore, agencies in charge of solid waste indiscriminate dumping, irregular management in Gombe were not collection of waste generated and efficient. This could be closely linked inadequate resources are the key with the lack of equipment, trained problems facing solid waste manpower, and poor funding of these management in Gombe (Buba, 2013). agencies and also the negative attitude of This has resulted in littering, heaping of the households towards solid waste waste and overflowing of skips with management. Based on these findings, waste in the town which pollutes the the study recommended strategic land, reduces the groundwater quality options for efficient and effective and apart from groundwater quality, the management of solid waste in Gombe. society and the environment as a whole These include community participation, is facing a threat of being deteriorated payment for waste management, public- because of improper solid waste private partnership, adequate resourcing management, and therefore creating a of waste management agencies, threat to human health. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 167 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Found Objects Sculptures who experimented with found objects to Duniya and Faida (2018) state that, create relief paintings, while at the Yaba “Found object sculptures are phenomena College of Technology Lagos, Olu that are not restricted to contemporary Amoda and a few others also joined and Nigerian art. Indeed, in several other experimented with found objects. All of places including Nigeria, it is known these initial experiments culminated into with a variety of nomenclatures such as a new consciousness of the discarded objects, waste/ rejected objects resourcefulness of found objects as and junk art, among others”. According materials for creativity. It is important to to Olbrantz in Faida (2016), the idea to quickly add that, the waste to art culture explore with found objects are seen in the was initially not widely accepted among works of artists such as Alexander artists and in particular, the collectors. Calder, Robert Rauschenberg, John Re-use of waste began to gain popularity Chamberlain, and Louise Nevelsun that when artists like El Anatsui emerged are dated to, as early as the 1930s and 60s. with more engaging experiments that These artists explored the creative received global accolade and brought possibilities of junk/waste as media for international recognition. With the art production, such as coffee cans, scrap gradual spread of the waste-to-art wood, twisted bumper, just to mention tradition among academic artists and a but three. They used all of these, among few professionals, the culture began to other objects, to create dynamic and find acceptability in public quarters. expressionistic works of art. Many young Nigerian artists and professionals now found satisfaction in Adewumi (2013), notes that the use of creating with recyclable materials. found objects became popular in the mid-80s when the former military ruler For instance, Timothy Washington’s Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida work titled “Final Notice” (Plate V) is a introduced the Structural Adjustment sculptural piece that looks like a female Programme (SAP). According to the figure, using mug handle to serve as ears. author, the idea started first with The arms are wide open created with sculptors before the 2-dimensional artists bicycle tyre, pieces of long cloth, including Jacob Jari, and Jerry Buhari alongside ribbons which are hanged on picked it up. This is similar to the each arm, and a tag captioned ‘warning’ experience at the Institute of which signifies caution, is placed on the Management and Technology Enugu, left hand of the sculptural figure. where sculptors like Chris Afuba and Obi Anidi, as students in the 80s were experimenting with scrap metals. Later painters joined in the experimentation. Foremost among them is Nsikkak Essien, This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 168 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches The sculptural work in (Plate VI) also depicts a human figure, shown to be seated on a wheelbarrow. Interestingly, the figure is resting its head on its right- hand palm. The figure’s left leg is tilted upward, enabling the left elbow to rest on its thigh, while the right leg rest from its seated position normally on the floor. This posture creates a rhythmic movement, between the head, the arm, and the leg. More so, the left leg is also resting on the tyre of the wheelbarrow, Plate V: Final Notice, Timothy while the right leg is firmly rested to the Washington, Found Objects, Unknown, base of the work, which strikes a balance 2013, Source: www.blogs.kcrw.com on the composition. Again, found objects from vehicle and motorbike parts, a discarded wheelbarrow and other varied scraps, have been used in this sculpture composition The work speaks volume of the typical Nigerian situation, where unemployment is the order of the day, especially among youths. Citizen’s struggles for survival, engaging in menial jobs such as wheelbarrowing, masonry work, as well as, hawking, among others. The title of the work “where demdey?” can be said to be indirectly referring to the Nigerian leaders, who usually compromise their position of authority, by the mismanagement of the resources in their trust, in favor of selfish interest, that is manifested through primitive accumulation of wealth, thus, letting the Plate VI: Where Dem Dey? Artist: Emeka citizens suffer. The artist, therefore, is Egose, Medium: found objects, Size: 6 questioning the leaders, who make feet, Year: unknown, Source: Duniya and unrealistic promises during campaign Faida 2018 and manifestoes; stating that, they will This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 169 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches provide jobs and other social amenities, works and by so doing, reducing land but who usually fail to fulfill their pollution in the community and promises. economically solving the issues of artist buying materials. References Adewumi, A. (2013). Art is every where 10. A Workshop Catalogue, Published by Department of Fine and Applied Arts, IMT, Enugu, Nigeria. Pp 3-5. Ajadike, J.C. (2007). Urban solid wastes: Problems and management in Nigeria, In: G.E.K. Ofomata and P.O. Phil-Eze The Energy Source Plate VII: : Second (Eds.). Geographical Perspective on warning, Timothy Washington, Found Environmental Problems and Objects, Size: Unknown, 2003, source: Management in Nigeria. Department of Faida Samuel 2015 Geography, UNN. The work by Zac Freeman in Plate VII is Buba, H.B., (2013) “Assessment of a relief sculpture portrait made of found household solid waste management in objects; The materials used to execute Gombe, Nigeria” a Dissertation this art piece are, Buttons, Jar lids, and submitted to the Department of Urban Legos of different sizes, shapes, colors, and Regional planning, Ahmadu Bello and texture. Thus, the materials used to University Zaria, Nigeria. creatively produce the work were gotten from dumpsites. Artists collecting such Duniya, G.G and Faida S. (2018), An materials from dumpsite help in Overview of Found Objects Sculptures in pollution reduction in the community. the Sculpture Garden of Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. JOCED journal, A Conclusion Publication of University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State. Pp 70, 76. Therefore, it is the submission of this paper that given the situation of our Encyclopedia of Art Education. (2015). contemporary waste management in Retrieved June 4, 2015, from Gombe metropolis and its environment, Encyclopedia: materials found at dump sites can be creatively used to produce sculptural htt//www.googleadservicess.com/pag ead/aclk?sa=LSai=NTIbyDhb. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 170 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Faida S., (2016). “A study of found object Irina K. (2006). Leachate from Sanitary sculptures found in the sculpture garden landfills origin, characteristics of Ahmadu Bello University Zaria” Treatment. International Journal of An undergraduate project submitted Science and Technology. to the department of fine arts, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria Kostawa, I. (2006). Leachate from (unpublished). Sanitary Landfills Origin, Characteristics and Treatment. International Journal of Gombe State of Nigeria. State Economic Science and Technology. 7(3) 545-552. Empowerment and Development Strategy-II (SEEDS II 2008–2011), Budget United States Environmental Protection and Planning Bureau, Ministry of Agency (USEPA) (1999). State and Local Finance and Economic Development, Solutions to Solid Waste Management Gombe. Problems. (http://www.epa.gov). Accessed on 18th July, 2008. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 171 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Chapter Eighteen Agricultural Development and Sustainable Income to Farmers in Osun State: Challenges and Prospects Bola Abefe and A. G Salaudeen Department of Business Administration and Management, The Federal Polytechnic, Ede, Osun State, Nigeria. Abstract The dwindling oil price and expected population rise is a serious cause of concern for every Nigerian at home and in the Diaspora. This calls for the need to diversify the economy and expressly shift focus to once abandoned agriculture considering Nigeria abundant natural and human resources, and the role of agro-allied enterprises in economic development. The study sought to examine the role of small-scale livestock, cocoa and fisheries farmers in a developing economy. It can be noted that agricultural practices have the potential for the development of any economy which can manifest in employment generation, skills acquisition, economic growth, rural development, industrialization and better utilization of indigenous resources. Therefore, the study addressed the importance/roles, challenges, and prospects of farmers in the socio-economic development of the rural community vis-à-vis the Osun State. It has been discovered through the findings that small-scale farming has contributed to the growth and development of the economy, while there is no commensurate attention/contribution by the government. Developing agricultural sector is the best alternative to the oil economy, and an important strategic move to get the country out of her current economic predicament. The government should encourage local farmers and production of goods and services to promote small industries by buying/using locally made products and or services and allocating adequate funds for SMEs (more importantly agricultural sector) growth and development in the Nigerian economy. Keywords: Agriculture, Rural community, Economic development, Small-scale. Introduction The volatility of global oil price has every individual, business plunged Nigeria into recession and this organizations/corporations and the has been a serious matter of concern to government because it dwelled only on This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 172 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches its huge crude oil and gas resources as Agriculture was the mainstay of the the major source of revenue. Nigeria is Nigeria economy, the sector was the the largest oil exporting country in Africa major employer of labor. The main cash and depends largely on United State of crops were cocoa, palm oil, rubber, America (USA) for sales of its cotton, and groundnut. In the year 1958, exploration but over the years, USA has when oil was discovered in commercial doubled effort on domestic production quantities and as Nigeria began to earn pushing oil import low. The economic fast money from oil sale, agriculture was woes befalling Nigeria, however, is neglected to the background. The neglect getting has her due to the crashing of oil of agriculture in Nigeria hindered efforts price in the global market over the years. at different levels to reduce poverty, In the year 2016, the “fall continued to unemployment and food shortage. The the lowest level in more than five years” danger such “sole dependence portends (Rotimi, 2016). There is also widespread might have informed the tremendous disenchantment among the masses and a commitments by the government feeling of hopelessness in many quarters. towards diversifying the economy” The sole dependence on oil and gas not (Bamidele, 2016). only rendered the economy unviable, the proceeds from there sources are being It is on the backdrop of oil and gas mismanaged at the expense of economic unstable revenue allocation from the growth and national development. This Federal Allocation (FA) that the has imposed irreparable damage on government of Osun State decided to various factors depending on the embark on revamping the agricultural economy for survival, currently, the sector as a primary source of materials, government is incapacitated, business improved food sufficiency, reduce total organizations find it difficult to survive reliance on FA, and create employment and those that manage to survive to for millions of skilled and unskilled retrench workers as a result of people. Aregbesola (2016) describes the unfavorable economic condition. recession as a beehive of opportunities available to the State to fully resuscitate Diversification presents the most agricultural sector using the abundant competitive and strategic option for natural resources to accrue wealth, Nigeria in light of her developmental economic growth than development. challenges and given her background. For a country to attain growth and It is recognized that agricultural development of the economy has to be commercialization and investment are diversified, that is there should be a the key strategies for promoting simultaneous development of various accelerated modernization, sustainable sectors instead of practicing mono- growth and development and hence economy. poverty reduction. However, to attract This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 173 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches investment into agriculture, it is aspirations. Therefore, there is a need to imperative that those constraints look towards generating sustainable inhibiting the performance of the sector income via agricultural practices. are first identified with a view to unlocking them and creating a conducive Purpose of the Study investment climate in the sector. This study aims at highlighting the role of agriculture in generating sustainable This paper examines the challenges and income for the farmers in particular and prospects of farmers to generate the government in general. It is also to sustainable income in Owode-Ede Local identify the problems facing agriculture Council Development Area, Osun State and agro-businesses in Owode-Ede with a view to providing policy LGDA, Osun State. recommendation to accelerate the performance of farmers and agro-allied Research Questions enterprises. The following questions guided this study. Statement of the problem - What are the various contributions of the The current state of the economy and agricultural sector to the sustainable lingering volatility of oil prices which income of the farmers and the Osun serve as the bedrock of the national State? revenue drag the attention of government at all levels to source for - What are the constraints of the farmers alternative means of generating revenue and Osun State Government to the to rescue the economy from total growth and development to the collapse. It is on this call that the agricultural sector? diversification of the economy becomes a reality and leading to various efforts by Statement of Hypotheses individuals, corporate bodies and all In order to achieve the objective of this arms of government to redeem the lost study the following hypotheses will be glory of agriculture, as the best tested: H0-Agricultural development alternative to oil to generate required does not contribute to the sustainable funds, in recognition of the sector income of the farmers and the state. potentials towards national development. The dawn of realization of H1-Agricultural development the fact that heavy dependence upon contributes to the sustainable income of Federal Government Allocations by the farmers and the State. states; ministries, departments, and agencies (MDAs), and paid employment Scope and limitation of the study by individuals, can no longer sustain the The government of this country has teeming population and its economic declared that there is an urgent need to This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 174 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches tap and explore the potentials endowed production, other human needs such as in agriculture to rescue the crumbling clothing, medicines, tools, artistic economy. It becomes imperative to display, and dwelling, or for economic examine the challenges and prospects of gain or profit. In most countries of the farmers in generating sustainable income world agriculture, according to Victor in a depressed economy. This research (2016), “remains the biggest sector work covers small scale livestock, cocoa, responsible for employing and feeding a and fisheries farmers and traders in larger percentage of the population. It is Owode-Ede Local Council Development also important from the point of view of Area, Osun State. appraising the standard of country development, based on the competence Conceptual Review of the farmers.” The agriculture sector is one of the earliest sectors of the economy globally. Traditionally, agricultural practices It started when a man has to survive include farming in all its branches and through the gathering of fruits and nuts. cultivation and tillage of the soil, Rimando (2004) defines agriculture as dairying, the production, cultivation, the “systematic raising of useful plants growing, and harvesting of any and livestock under the management of agricultural, aquaculture, floricultural or man. Moreover, the agricultural sector horticultural commodities; the growing plays an important role in providing and harvesting of forest products upon large scale employment for people. Large forest land, breeding and raising of and moderately large farms employ livestock including horses, the keeping workers to undertake the various jobs of horses as a commercial enterprise, the relating to the cultivation of crops and keeping and raising of poultry swine, care of farm animals.” Agriculture, cattle and other domesticated animals, according to Bareja (2014), agriculture is and any forestry or lumbering the “art and science of growing plants operations. The main purpose of and crops and the raising of animals for agriculture is to provide food and raw food, other human needs or economic materials for human use. Ikponmwosa, gains. “This definition describes (2016) noted that agriculture currently agriculture as both an art and a science- contributes between 30 and 40 percent to needs skill and founded on scientifically the national gross domestic product verified facts-, and thus includes (GDP) of Nigeria. specialized disciplines; the words growing and raising are descriptive of Nchuchuwe and Adejumo (2012) quoted enterprise, activity or practice. It has two Macrae et al. (1990) as saying that: main divisions; plant or crop production “Sustainable agriculture is both a and animal or livestock production; and philosophy and a system of farming. It is its ultimate purpose is for food rooted in a set of values that reflects an This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 175 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches awareness of both ecological and social . realities and a commitment to respond Osun Farm Settlements appropriately to that awareness. It The current administration under emphasizes design and management Ogbeni Rauf Aregbesola, Governor State procedures that work with natural of Osun, had since assumption of office processes to conserve all resources and through the Osun Rural Enterprise and minimize waste and environmental Agriculture Programme (O-REAP) damage while maintaining and embarked on programmes directed at improving farm profitability integrated revitalizing the nine farm settlements into their regions, are better able to (Ago-Owu, Esa-Oke, Oyere, Igbaye, generate robust growth and sustainable Ifon-Orolu, Oluponna, Mokore, Iwo, Ila growth than mono-economy as we have Orangun) through the measures that today. ”Based on this wide scope, would bring about improvement to agriculture must henceforth be treated as make them conducive for existing a business and cease from being only farmers as well as encourage new ones treated as development program if the especially the youths who are interested current efforts at diversifying the Nigeria in farming. economy must be gainfully realized. “The ancient counsel remains, that no Resuscitation of Cocoa Processing matter how far one has gone on a wrong Industry, Ede path, the right thing to do is to turn back, The Osun State Government (OSG) if one is to get to the destination; no one partnered with Shanghai Golden Minkey can get out of a pit by continuing to dig Group, China to revive Cocoa Processing deeper, one must stop digging” Industry in Ede for the production of (Ajimobi,2015). cocoa paste, powder, and cake. The maximum capacity of this plant before it Diversification in the present Nigeria was upgraded was 5000 tons but it can economy context simply means creating now produce 20,000 tons. This is done to new avenues for economic growth. It diversify the utilization of cocoa and also involves using the right strategy to boost create close market availability for the revenue generated from other sectors of sales of cocoa by farmers in the state. In a the economy. That is, facilitating the bid to revive the agricultural sector to growth of other sectors of the economy stimulate the diversification plan of the and through this, reversing the effects of OSG signed a $50million Agriculture the economic crisis and returning the Investment Memorandum of economy to a growth path. It, however, Understanding (MoU) with International will not necessitate neglect of the oil and Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) gas sector but accommodates for the establishment of demonstration maximizing revenue derivable from the farm at Ago-Owu Farm Settlement for sector (Okechukwu, 2016). best farming practice. “The State This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 176 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches currently has nothing less than 66,000 mechanization, etc. Osun State is cocoa trees which can fetch us N40 “predominantly an agrarian society with billion every year if fully cultivated” about 70% of the population directly or (Aregbesola, 2016). indirectly dependent on agriculture and related occupations. There are many sub- In the agreement, the state government sectors in agriculture but these have been would make available 20,439 hectares of condensed and treated under four land at the farm settlement for the subsectors: Crops, Livestock, Fisheries development of agriculture and and Forestry” (Osun State Government, production of massive food as an 2005) alternative to the reliance of oil sector. The demonstration farm is also for the Crops Production. The major arable purpose of conducting research and crops in Osun State include maize, training young farmers in the state in cassava, rice, and cowpea while major modern, commercial and profitable tree crops are cocoa, oil-palm, citrus, and farming IITA will also carry out cassava, cashew. Cultivation of these crops is plantain, and other crop multiplications. rainfed thus subjecting them to the Other aspects of the MoU covered the vagaries of the weather, with the result of development and infrastructural grade becoming susceptible to moisture stress. of breeding, farming, and processing of beef cattle ranches and the establishment Fisheries: The major fish species in Osun of agricultural equipment leasing and State waters include Clarias, Tilapia spp. hire centers to be managed by a private Heterotis niloticus, Ophio cephalus, carp, firm via public-private partnerships chrysichthys, mormyrm, Hepsetus, etc. (PPP) scheme. The highly culturable among these are Clarias, Tilapia spp. and Heterotis. Fish Types of Agriculture:-Agriculture is one fingerlings production level at present is of the most widespread activities in the less than 500,000 per annum as against world, but its character is not uniform the current requirement of 10million throughout. There are a number of ways fingerlings for about 5,000 fish farms. to classify agriculture and some of the The yield from the over 5,000 fish ponds major criteria which can be adopted in the State is around 5,000 metric tons include the scale of farming, crop and per annum as against the expected 30,000 livestock combinations, intensity of metric tons. This a by small low yield is farming, means and ways of disposal of due to the limited application of the farm produce and the level of farm Raw Materials Potential and Possible Cottage Level Industries in Ede North LGA. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 177 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Ede Cashew, pineapple, citrus, Fruit juice, edible oil, P.K Oil, soap making, North cassava, yam, cocoyam, broom and other house hold products, LGA maize, beans, soyabeans, oil basket, toothpick, cocoyam, flour chips, palm, pawpaw, bamboo, livestock, feeds, bean cakes, flour, soyabean livestock, vegetable cake, oil, salad, food soup, bone mill Culled from ww.osunstate.gov.ng/Seeszontent.htm(2016) Modern fishing and fish farming of neighboring states. (v). Support methods. Fish farmers in the state are cooperative efforts of farmers. forced to rely on poultry feeds, the (vi). Catalyze the development nutritional qualities of which are and promotion of micro, small inadequate for fish growth (OSG, 2005) and medium enterprises that will stated. exploit available raw materials. (vii). Set up price support scheme Osun Government Policy Reforms and for farmers through commodity Strategies on Cash Crops exchange board. (viii). Ensure Some of the State Government policy efficient and effective distribution reforms and strategies to banish hunger of fertilizers and other farm in and enhance wealth through a inputs. massive increase in food production and agriculture are listed below:- Sustainability is a multidimensional i) Closer collaboration with concept covering environmental, social, Universities and Research political, economic, cultural and spiritual Institutes to facilitate the (Otitoola, 2009). Olokundun (2014:47) introduction of high yielding quoted Harris (2003) as describing varieties of crops to farmers; (ii) “Sustainable development as Encourage the production of cash development which meets the needs of crops which can enhance farmer’s the present without compromising the income and provide a basis for an ability of future generations to meet their effective agro-industrial society in own needs. ” From agriculture angle, Osun State. (iii). Specifically, to Barbic (1995) refers to sustainability as vigorously develop extensive the “successful management of resources farming in palm trees to create a for agriculture to satisfy changing fully integrated oil palm human needs while maintaining or processing industry. (iv). Targets enhancing the quality of the and capture a minimum of 10% of environment and conserving natural the multi-billion naira per day resources.” food market This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 178 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches National income, according to Ande Agriculture helps human beings grow (2015), is the “money value of the total the most ideal food crops and raise the volume of goods and services produced right animals with accordance to or the total income earned in a given environmental factors. Agriculture plays country over a period of time, usually a a prominent role in the socio-economic year. He explained further that personal growth and development to rural areas income is the amount of money/income as the largest job creation for mankind received by individuals/households guarantying food security. Majority of over a given period of time, while real the populations in rural settings engage income is money in terms of goods and in agricultural dominated activities. services it will buy. Disposable income is the amount of money that is left to an Other areas of agricultural importance individual/household for spending and according to European Commission-EU- saving after the deduction of personal (2000), Pragyandeepa (2015) and income taxes. ” Therefore sustainable Studyread.com (2016) areas follow. income is a financial resource at the disposal of an individual/state to satisfy Contribution to National Income: The changing needs independently while lessons drawn from the economic history living a virtuous life. of many advanced countries tell us that agricultural prosperity contributed Importance of Agricultural Activities considerably in fostering economic in Economic Development advancement. In India, still, 28% of Importance of agriculture includes some, national income comes from this sector. though not exhaustive, of the following. Farming is the fabric of rural society and, in many countries of the world; it is the Source of Food Supply: Agriculture is main economic activity. The main very important to human beings because potential contributions of farming to it forms the basis for food security. rural development are in terms of Olukunle (2013) opined that supporting employment, ancillary “agricultural products have been businesses, and environmental services. recognized to have domestic food and In peripheral regions, farming may be industrial value and great export necessary to support the economic and potential because they can provide food social infrastructure as a “major source of for the entire population and income to non-oil foreign exchange earnings for the farmers as well as many economic agents nation” (Olukunle, 2013). Aregbesola involved in the marketing of agricultural (2016) reiterated his plan: “In our bid to products. ” It is not only nature-friendly achieve bountiful economy, there is the but also a very reliable source of need for us to go back to farm as the only livelihood form a kind and also one of alternative to avert the effects of the the honest sources of incomes. dwindling revenues in the State and This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 179 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches Nigeria at large because farming is the great importance for the economic only venture in the country which is growth of a country. permitted by all.” Pre-Requisite for Raw Material: Since agriculture employs many people Agricultural advancement is necessary it contributes to economic development. for improving the supply of raw Return to the agricultural economy will materials for the agro-based industries reduce food imports, increase food especially in developing countries. The production, and the timely turn around shortage of agricultural goods has an investment within the country. As a impact on industrial production and a result, the national income level, consequent increase in the general price economic development as well as level. It will impede the growth of the people’s standard of living rely on the country’s economy. The flour mills, rice agricultural growth rate to improve. The peelers, oil and dual mills, bread, meat, fast rate of development in agriculture milk products sugar factories, wineries, sector offers progressive outlook as well jute mills, textile mills, and numerous as increased motivation for other industries are based on agricultural development. Agriculture is the main products. source of national income for most developing countries. It is the premier Provision of Surplus: The progress in source of our national income. The large the agricultural sector provides a surplus population of over 170 million people in for increasing the exports of agricultural Nigeria provides a steady business for products. In the earlier stages of agro-allied activities to not only ensure development, an increase in the exports food security but also human and earning is more desirable because of the business survival. greater strains on the foreign exchange situation needed for the financing of Agriculture is the basic source of the imports of basic and essential capital food supply of all the countries of the goods. The potential of agriculture world; whether underdeveloped, includes “generating growth in export developing or even developed. Due to earnings through increased cultivation of the heavy pressure of population in crops, generating increased income for underdeveloped and developing labor and entrepreneurs who are countries and its rapid increase, the engaged in small scale industries as well demand for food is increasing at a fast as large scales agro-based industries that rate. If agriculture fails to meet the rising make use of agricultural products as raw demand for food products, it is found to materials. Its commercialization and affect adversely the growth rate of the investment are the key strategies for economy. Raising the supply of food by promoting accelerated modernization, the agricultural sector has, therefore, sustainable growth and development This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 180 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches and, hence, poverty reduction in the tractors, harvester, farm cutting sector” (Olukunle, 2013) reiterated. machines, etc. Indirect farm Improvement in agriculture can go a employment is not on the farm, the long way in increasing savings. Surplus source is linked to agriculture as earnings from rich harvests can be re- scientists in industries related seed invested into farming and agro-allied production company, farm machine businesses for further development of manufacture, pesticide and fertilizer the sector. Saving potentials are large in manufacture. There is also scope in the agriculture sector which can be academics for teaching and scientist properly tapped for the development of jobs” (Studyread.com, 2016). communities and the entire country. Improving Rural Welfare: It is time that Employment Opportunities for Rural rural economy depends on agriculture People: -Agriculture provides and allied occupations in an employment opportunities for rural underdeveloped country. The rising people on a large scale in agricultural surplus caused by increasing underdeveloped and developing agricultural production and productivity countries. It is an important source of tends to improve social welfare, livelihood. Generally, landless workers particularly in rural areas. The farm and marginal farmers are engaged in sector in every country supports a range non-agricultural jobs like handicrafts, of ancillary and service industries, furniture, textiles, leather, metalwork, generating economic activity in supply processing industries, and in other and distribution chains as well as service sectors. These rural units fulfill processing industries. Where farming is merely local demands. In India, about the primary economic activity, the entire 70.6% of the total labor force depends rural economy, including services such upon agriculture. As at the year 2010 in as health care, education, and basic Nigeria, “agriculture alone was infrastructure, may depend on the employing about 30% of the population, profitability of the sector. Throughout and this figure is steadily on the rural areas, farming may contribute to increase” (Ikponmwosa, 2016). “Many rural development by providing people from developing nations rely on environmental and cultural services to agriculture for livelihood. Some people society. involved in other business or jobs still have agriculture as a side business. Minimize the Risk of Natural Agriculture market is one of the biggest Disasters:- It is believed, according to EU sources of employment. The (2000) that “society may demand that employment can be direct for farmers, farmers should manage their agricultural daily wage workers, farm machine activities in ways which also provide technicians like drivers for environmental services to the This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 181 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches community as a whole, such as - The problem of Land Tenure: Land is minimizing the risk of certain natural one of the most important factors in disasters, or cultural services, such as agricultural production. The land tenure conservation of rural heritage.” is the way land is owned in a society. The prevailing land tenure systems in the Challenges of Agriculture in Nigeria country often discourage agricultural Ajumobi, (2016) and OSG (2015) noted land utilization. The land is owned by some challenges facing agriculture as inheritance hence land is fragmented rain-fed agriculture; the unpredictability over generations. Increase in population of rain and a long spell of the dry season, has increased the various alternatives to processing facilities, poor storage which land can be put. This further puts facilities, transportation and soon”. pressure on all the available land. However, one of the major fundamental constraints to agricultural growth and - Lack of Social Basic Amenities such as development in Nigeria is “the peasant stable electricity, standard schools, high- nature of the production system, with its interest and functioning health centers, slow productivity, poor response to recreational spots for relaxation, good technology adoption strategies and poor roads, etc., are lacking in rural areas. This returns on investment” (Olukunle, 2013). often leads to the followings: The high cost of modern Agric- equipment to aid farming practices a). Rural-Urban drifts, that is people, forced many farmers to keep faith with leaving the villages for jobs in the city. using their traditional crude implements b). Reduction in the working population such as cutlasses, hoes, harvesters, in the villages. animal-driven plow, etc. in farming (c). Low agricultural production. thereby reducing yield in production quality and quantity. Ajumobi (2016) - Problems of Finance or Poor quoted Agbakoba-Onyejianya Amaka as Financing: Most agricultural activities in lamenting: “The challenges are the developing countries are subsistent inextricably linked to the broader in nature; hence the farmers are very challenges we face living in Nigeria poor. Cannot secure the necessary relating to lack of infrastructure, power collateral for loans or have access to supply, and especially lack of enough credit facilities which often information.” attract high-interest rates either from financial institutions or money lenders, Other noticeable problems according to etc. OSG (2005) and Ajumobi (2016) include such as listed below. - Poor Transportation: This includes bad roads; high cost of bringing the farm products from rural areas to urban This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 182 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches centers. Inefficient transportation are lacking. The application of these increases the activities of middlemen in chemicals can lead to pollution of the the movement of agricultural products environment. Some inputs are very from the farm to the urban centers where substandard and do not meet the desired they are consumed. result. Most of the inputs are imported and are very expensive to procure. - Technical Constraints which include low support from the government, poor - Sociological and Psychological government policy, and low level of Attitude towards Farming: Young awareness, poverty, and lack of adequate people feel that farming is for the school research results for industrial uses. dropouts or never-do-well in society and a profession for poor people. Farmers are - Lack of good Storage and Processing believed to be low class and the public Facilities: Storage facilities like silo, seldom reckons with the mas they do to rhombus, cribs, barns, rafters are other careers/professions. Young people inadequate, thus leading to perishing of also prefer white-collar jobs where they crops like tomato, pepper, etc. Pests and can dress nicely. disease attack farm products, etc. and increase the cost of production thereby - Environmental Degradation includes reduce the quality of farm products and Pollution of the environment through the farmers’ income and discourage farmers activities of the industries. Soil erosion from further production. destroys the structure of the land. Setting up of forest fire increases environmental - Climate Change does result in natural temperature. Deforestation reduces reduces yield. Excessive sunshine leads rainfall, forest trees, and land protection. to an increase in temperature while Improper waste disposal can lead to the inadequate sunshine reduces the spreading of diseases in the photosynthetic ability of plants. Onuba environment. “Desertification is the (2012) quoted Priscilla Achakpa as major all-season environmental malaise saying: “Climate variability and climate plaguing most states in northern Nigeria impact threaten to undo or reverse where more than 90 percent of its citizens Nigeria’ social and economic gains.” In rely on fuelwood. The activities of summary, unfavorable climates reduce herdsmen whose animals grace on the farm activities from harvesting to sales. available vegetation compound the problem, leading to low annual - Agricultural Inputs such as cropping” (Oyeshola, 2008) agricultural chemicals like insecticides, and pesticides. Inputs like improved Prospects of Agriculture in Nigeria seeds and seedlings improved animal The fact that agriculture provided the materials like the parent stock in birds basis for the world’s great civilization in This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 183 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches the past and laid the basis for, and and other such activities. With the fast- sustained the first industrial revolution growing population and high incidence both in developed and developing of unemployment, it is only the nations cannot be denied. Agriculture agriculture sector which provides more plays a crucial role in the life of any job opportunities or employment economy. It is the best alternative to oil chances to all cadres of labor without and gas in generating revenues/incomes discrimination. In this way, the for our economic system. Agriculture not significance of agriculture will be more only provides food and raw material but pronounced. also multiple employment opportunities to a very large proportion of the - Ready Market: Operating government population. It is a sure bet to food assisted markets, the introduction of security. Omorogiuwa, Zivkovic, and standard measuring scale (Osuwon Ademoh (2014) posited that “Nigeria has Omoluabi) for traders and buyers as well the necessary components in place to as collaboration with some stakeholders return to an agricultural-based economy especially Lagos State Government, that which is not only possible but will has the largest food market in Nigeria greatly benefit the entire country of and with over20 million people, to help Nigeria.” in opening market for Osun farms products signals brighter prosperity for - Source of Raw Material- farmers and the government of Osun. Agriculture has been the source of raw materials to the leading industries like Methodology cotton and jute textiles, sugar, tobacco, edible and non-edible oils, etc. All these Data of the study were collected from depend directly on agriculture. Apart both primary and secondary sources. from this, many others like processing of The primary data for the study were fruits and vegetables, corn milling, rice collected from the field through the use husking, and also depend on agriculture of a structured questionnaire with the aid for their raw material. EU (2000) noted of a personal interview. that industries with an agricultural raw material of origin accounted for 50 Population, Sample and Sampling percent of the value-added and 64 Techniques percent of all jobs in the industrial sector. The population of this study is from the small-scale livestock, cocoa and fisheries - Vast Employment Opportunities:- The farmers in Owode-Ede Local Council agricultural sector is significant as it Development Area, Osun State. The provides greater employment population used was selected through opportunities in the construction of random sampling of sixty (60) farmers irrigation projects, a drainage system, This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 184 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches from five farmers’ cooperative societies X2=Chi-Square symbol computed and within the study area. calculated. o=Observed frequency of any value. e=Expected frequency of any Data Analysis Techniques value. The data gathered from the sample of ∑=Summation of the total volume the study were subjected to statistical Degree of freedom (v)=N-1 analysis by using the chi-square method. Where; N=Number of variables Chi-square test was used to test the Level of significance used is 5%=0.05 hypothesis. Hypotheses Testing The formula for Chi-square Contribution of agricultural development to sustainable income. Variable No of Percentage Respondents. (%) YES 56 93.3 NO 4 6.7 Total 60 100 Source: Field Survey, 2016 Interpretation:-“Yes” has 93.3 percent, Hypothesis “No” has 6.7 percent which implies that H0-Agricultural development does not small scale farming has contributed to contribute to the sustainable income of generating sustainable income for the farmers and Osun State. farmers and the State of Osun. H1 - Agricultural development contributes to the sustainable income of the farmers and Osun State. Table 2. Impact of Agriculture on the Economy Variable O E o–e o-e o-e e Yes 56 30 26 676 22.5 No 4 30 -26 676 22.5 Total 45.0 2 2 X2cal=52.6 X2tab=(df, ls) Degree of freedom (df)=(r-1)(c-1) This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 185 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches (2-1)(2-1) discriminations. Also, small-scale 1x1=1 farmers/agro-allied entrepreneurs in rural communities are faced with some Level of significance (ls) =0.05 challenges and constraints, which X2tab=0.05(1) =3.84 automatically impede the growth and development of the LCDA/Osun. ThereforeX2cal=45.X2tab=3.84 Reject H1 and accept H0 when X2 cal is These are some of the constraints. lesser than X2 tab - Insufficient personal savings/funds resulting in low initial startup capital Since X2 cal is greater than X2 tab, it was - Lack of basic social amenities observed that agriculture has an impact - Poor transportation to ferry farm on economic development of Owode produces/products to the urban LCDA and by extension the Osun State centers/markets. though it has not been well tapped into. - Poor storage, infrastructures and processing facilities. Findings - The high cost of agricultural inputs.- - Problems of climate change such as This study has tried to examine the floods, extremely high temperature, etc. challenges and prospects of small-scale - Fluctuating and prohibitive interest rate farmers to generate sustainable income regime on loans from banks, private for an improved standard of living and lenders and even the governments. contribute to the development of their communities and the State. Agricultural In the hypothesis, it was discovered that practices are integral parts of Owode- agriculture (farming and agro-allied Ede LCDA vis-à-vis State of Osun businesses) though operating in a development with its impact spreading subsistence level has an impact on socio- to other sectors. In addition, the study economic development of study area and covered the key dominant issues such as the Osun State. roles, prospects, and challenges of agro- allied enterprises which are the broad Conclusion objectives of the agriculture sector. This study examined whether The important roles performed by small- agricultural practices can be a good scale farmers and agro-allied source of generating sustainable income entrepreneurs can be seen in generating for farmers in Owode-Ede LCDA and by income, poverty eradication programs extension the State Government of Osun, which include the provision of multiple Nigeria. Results showed that the place job/employment opportunities to all and roles of the agriculture sector to cadres of the labor force without generate sustainable income cannot be This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 186 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches overemphasized. It is so important that should be emulated to promote local successful and developed economy of production, consumption and export of the world had explored it to the fullest in farm produces. order to have edge economically. The State government can formulate1. In order to encourage local production of proactive agricultural policies meant to goods, most especially farm products encourage agro-allied enterprises, food and related services the government production, and other economic benefits should show a good example to promote to enhance reliable internal revenue, small scale industries by create multiple jobs and put her into the patronizing/buying/using local made rightful place performing socio- products and services. economic, infrastructural and political2. development of the state well. And to let3. It is paramount that agricultural micro- agro-allied enterprises succeed in credits by the state, Bank of Agriculture Nigeria, the agricultural problems most (BOA) and other financial institutions, especially in rural communities-the made available to farmers’ cooperatives, custodians of agriculture need to be if possible at zero interest, should be addressed seriously and give strong strengthened and repayments easy. One political will to solve the multiple way of achieving this is by providing problems of the agricultural sector and adequate funding of the agricultural put the country on the match again sector especially the Federal towards economic buoyancies. Government. 4. Recommendations 5. Adequate storage facilities are in dire needed across the farm settlement and Based on the findings of the study the other agriculture dominated following recommendations are being communities in Osun especially now made: when the food security in Nigeria is Public-Private-Partnership between threatened. Provision of silos, barns, and State Government and private soon, is needful not only for food entrepreneurs such as TUNS Farm sufficiency but also to, at all time, avert (Nigeria) Limited; JIL (Nigeria), Farmers usual wastages of farm produce like Congress, TJ Flour Mills (Nig.) Limited, tomatoes, pepper, oranges among others ABEBI Foods Enterprises, and IITA, that cannot stand the test of time during Bank of Agriculture (BOA) and Bank of harvest period. Industry (BOI), etc must be6. strengthened. Collaboration between7. In a period like this when the country’s Lagos State and Kebbi State for the food security is threatened it is highly planting, production, processing, essential for government to make urgent packaging, and sales of LAKER ice and adequate provision for modern This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License ISBN: 978-978-54770-2-3. Science and Education Development Inst., Nigeria 187 Multifarious Issues in Nigeria Today: Multidisciplinary Approaches farming tools such as tractors, Ajimobi, A. (2015). Current Economic harvesters, planters, sprayers etc. to Challenges is an Opportunity for Nigeria farmers at a subsidized price. Irrigation to Urgently Diversify the Economy and facilities should be made available to Break Monopoly of Oil. 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