Language Circle: Journal of Language and Literature 14(2) April 2020 P-ISSN 1858-0157 Available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/LC E-ISSN 2460-853X

Political Reading of Dangarembga’s Nervous Conditions

Majed Alenezi Northern Border University, Saudi Arabia Email: [email protected]

Abstract This paper explores Tsitsi Dangarembga’s debut novel, Nervous Conditions, from a political perspective. It has been read as portraying of gender relationships, social hierarchies and oppression of African women. This paper takes a different route as it analyses the role of masculinities through a political perspective. The conflict and struggle between genders in the text can be read through a political and historical perspective. This particular reading is permitted through a close analysis of the male characters in the novel. The research argues that male characters resemble or behave in away similar to white colonizers in their treatment of African women. Reading the novel through a political perspective provides the reader with the benefit of understanding the changes that occur in the characters and the role of gender conflict in the text. The triumph of Tambu and Nyasha at the end underscores the failure of colonial power to colonize .

Keywords: Tsitsi Dangarembga/ postcolonial, / feminist literary criticism.

INTRODUCTION people is hardly mentioned in the novel. There is no obvious struggle between the white colonizers Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Nervous Conditions and the indigenous African people. According to (1988) is considered a masterwork of modern Af- Sugnet Zimbabwean male authors wrote in the rican literature. It is the first English novel written late 1980s “foreground the chimurenga struggle by a black Zimbabwean woman. The work was for national liberation, Nervous Conditions barely completed in 1984, but it was rejected by local mentioned it” (33). Searle believes that Danga- publishers as it touches upon highly sensitive sub- rembga goes far above the immediate level of jects in African society. “For four years Danga- British colonization found in Things Fall Apart. rembga was rejected by Zimbabwean publishers Many critics have analysed the text through gen- whose attitudes to her writing were that she was der relationships, social hierarchies and oppressi- too much of a feminist” (Tendai 22). After its on of African women, simultaneously male cha- publication, the novel has achieved international racters in the text are only considered in terms success. It has become one of the most important of their interactions with female characters. This literary texts in African literature. Nowadays, the paper takes a different route as it analyses the role text is taught at Zimbabwe schools. Even though of masculinities through a political perspective. Nervous Conditions is a fictional literary work, the The conflict and struggle between genders in the novel’s prestige rests in part on its realistic scenes text can be read through a political and historical of actions and events. The locale of the novel perspective. This particular reading is permitted and the social context are unmistakably the ear- through a close analysis of the male characters ly colonial period of an African community. The in the novel. The research argues that male cha- novel’s internal narrative is set in the late 1960s racters resemble or behaves in away similar to and early 1970s. The author does not build her white colonizers in their treatment of African theme, characters, dialogues, conflicts and plot women. Viewed from a political perspective, the strictly around particular historical events. Yet, female characters signify the colonized nation the characters in the text are caught in a speci- (), whereas male characters represent fic historical and social framework. The female the British Empire. “Dangarembga’s heroine narrator represents the past and present of the suggests that women can reproduce the nation as African community. She reveals both the negative intellectual subjects not just as embodied ones” and positive facets of the traditional and colonial (Stone 113). Yet, there are significant differences experiences. between the white colonizer and African male, The colonial experience as an encoun- since the latter is a product of the former. “Ner- ter between European forces and the colonized vous Conditions nevertheless, shows clearly how Language Circle: Journal of Language and Literature 14(2) April 2020 those men are themselves products of the colo- Colonial domination in Tambu’s world nial system” (Sugnet 36). The other difference manifests itself in all aspects of social life, such as between the two is that African male has an am- defining the age at which African children should bivalent role in the text as colonized and coloni- start school, maintaining a racist agenda against zer. Due to the limitation of space and time, this the indigenes in educational institutions [....] and paper concentrates mainly on Babamukuru and using the selective nature of its educational sys- the two young girls Nyasha and Tambudzai. Yet, tems to limit the educated indigenous population other characters are brought into light to support (79). the above claim. Furthermore, Uwakweh argues that Dan- garembga as a postcolonial writer has shown LITERATURE RIVIEW some political concerns about major issues such as the value of Western education and the exp- Nervous Conditions recounts the story of loitative nature of colonization. “This dialectical two young African girls; Tambudzai and Nyasha. tension in the novel projects the socio-political Tambudzai is the tale orator who is raised in a dimensions of the novel” (Uwakweh 77). In fact, typical African village. Nyasha and Tambudzai’s Uwakweh’s reading of Nervous Conditions provi- personalities and motivations have attracted the des an insightful analysis of the text through the most criticism of Nervous Conditions. The novel is political dimensions. Yet, it seems that Uwakweh about Tambu’s willingness to progress through does not show how Dangarembga highlights the formal education. “ I decided it was better to be political concepts. The exploitative nature of co- like Maiguru, who was not poor and had not lonization is not revealed. been crushed by the weight of womanhood” (16). Sugnet takes a different view in his in- The text reveals how women individually or col- terpretation of the novel. Yet, he is within the lectively seek their identities within traditional fe- framework of feminism. Sugnet argues that the male daily life in colonial Zimbabwe. The female text’s depiction of feminism and anti-colonial na- characters in the novel struggle with what seems tionalism based on Fanon’s conceptual lens. He to be the prevalent rules of the society regarding traces the gradual development of the young Af- race, gender, culture and religion. The only way rican girl. Tambu‘s struggle is seen as a gendered to withdraw from this patriarchy is to refuse it. struggle for national liberation. Nervous Conditions has always been viewed The national liberation struggle is conspi- as a feminist representation of the African com- cuous by its absence in this novel, yet I think munity. Lindsay Aegerter adopts a womanist lens there may be a complex party subterranean rela- in her analysis of Nervous Conditions. She propo- tionship between it and the struggle of the young ses that Nervous Conditions articulates “a dialectic Tambudzai against the immediate manifestation and autonomy community” (231). Aegerter af- of patriarchy in her life (Sugnet 34). firms that the female characters in Nervous Condi- Sugnet goes beyond this idea and argues tions are given voice. They occupy the locus spot that Dangarembga uses Fanon’s concept “on in the text. According to Aegerter, “the African violence as the decisive rapture in the colonial women of Nervous Conditions do not merely react; situation” (39). On several occasions, female they act. And in their very action – in their refusal characters in Nervous Conditions violently resist to live their lives only in response to oppression patriarchal dominations. As an example, he con- lies their resistance” (231). Furthermore, Aeger- siders Nyasha’s resistance when her father punis- ter views Tambudzai’s identity as inextricably hes her. connected to women collectively. Thus, Tambu Dangarembga in one of her interviews dis- and Nyasha demonstrate two sides of one whole tinguishes between the situation in Africa and in person. the West concerning feminist theory. When she The novel demonstrates that African wo- is asked about the unequal treatment of Tambu men face enormous social problems. Uwakweh and her brother within their family, she replies examines the social structure of society. She ar- that the patriarchal system which is adopted by gues that Dangarembga represents African fe- Western feminism can not be applied to Africa males as encountering the double oppression “because the situation in my part of the world has of patriarchy and colonization. More precisely, one variable which makes it absolutely different: Uwakweh concentrates on the negative impact the men are also in a position of powerlessness” of colonization on the social life of the African (qtd. un Holland 121). Dangarembga’s view of community. The negative effects are seen through Africa has a great value to the above research all aspects of social life in Zimbabwe. question as the paper examines the gender rela-

157 Language Circle: Journal of Language and Literature 14(2) April 2020 tionship through a political perspective. Danga- Nervous Conditions reveals many events and rembga in her interview was not talking about the incidents which affirm that the novel can be read male characters in the text, but she was providing above the level of gender struggle in a colonized a realistic view of Zimbabwe. Both genders are nation. In the early stage of the story, Nhamo ta- exposed to a certain degree of oppression. The kes the chance of education, while Tambu faces novel reveals many incidents in which African many impediments and difficulties in her journey males are presented as inferior to the white co- to receive formal education. For many people ac- lonizers.” Excuse me, Madam, Mr Matimba said cess to education mean gaining a certain amount in English, in the softest, slipperiest voice I have of power. It is not physical power but it is power ever heard him use, speaking to an old white wo- of progression. Viewed from this perspective man who walked arm in arm with her husband” education signifies material sources. In this case, (27). This quotation manifests the weakness of material sources are the ultimate goal of coloni- African males when approached by white colo- zation. Consequently, the struggle over educati- nizers. Also, Babamukuru admits his inferiority on between Nhamo and Tambu may be seen as to white colonizers. “I have been wondering, sis- the struggle between colonizer and the colonized ter, began Babamukuru politely. I was under the people over material sources. “Tambu’s struggle impression that the girls […](198). Babamukuru to gain an education is not a woman’s alone but has not used such highly polite rhetoric with any has been shared by colonized peoples in general other characters in the novel. who were quick to recognize that being tutored in Another facet that asserts the political rea- western wizardry meant access to power” (Nair ding of the text is found in the epigraph of the 134). Tambu’s negative feeling towards Nhamo’s novel. The title Nervous Conditions is taken from death asserts this reading since death suggests the Fanon’s The Wrathed of The Earth. This epigraph is disappearance of colonization. His death serves highly significant since it implies Dangarembga’s as a symbol of the destruction of European im- engagement with revolutionary nationalism. perialism. Dangarembga was aware of all the political ten- I was not sorry when my brother died. Nor sions and historical events in colonized countries. am I apologising for my callousness, as you many Thus, there is a high possibility that the novel define it, my lack of feeling. For it is not that in should be read at the political and historical level. the days when I was young and my brother died, and there are more reasons for this more than ANALYSIS OF THE NOVEL mere consequence of age (1). Tambu does not provide explanations for Reading Nervous Conditions through the po- her lack of emotional feeling. She makes it clear litical dimension does not reject the possibilities that her abnormal feeling has no correlation with of other readings. This analysis is an attempt to her age. It is an odd feeling in terms of a brot- add a new insight to the existing research. her and sister relationships. Her brother, as the In postcolonial discourse, indigenous wo- text depicts, acts like the colonizers whenever he men are employed metaphorically to represent approaches his sisters. Furthermore, he is repre- the invaded lands. “From the beginning of the sented as selfish and only caring about his own colonial period till its end (and beyond) female success. “Knowing that he did not need help, that bodies symbolise the conquered land” (Loomba he only wanted to demonstrate to us and himself 129). There is a connection between women and that he had the power, the authority to make us land in postcolonial discourse. “The nation-state do things for him” (10). Viewed from a political or its guiding principles are often imagined lite- perspective, Nhamo is seen as the colonizer and rarally as a woman” (Loomba 180). The uses of Tambu as the colonized nation. Tambu as the motherland and homeland are interchangeable colonized nation has manifested some sort of terms in postcolonial texts. In a narrow sense wo- resistances. She rebels against the domination of men are usually cast as mothers and wives, but in her brother. “I went straight for my brother and a broader view they signify the nation. According brought him down in a single charge” (23). These to Stone “the representations of homes and hou- two examples reveal the ambivalent role of Nha- ses have figured prominently in the production of mo as a colonized and colonizer. In one aspect he gendered national subjects” (112). Furthermore, is portrayed as having authority and power over the notion of resistance is imagined as a woman. his sisters and in the other he is just a coward. The resistance against colonizers can be port- Approaching Nhamo as a colonizer, Tambu says rayed via women. “Resistance itself is imagined that “our home is healthier when he was away” as a woman” (Loomba 180). (10). Dangarembga uses the word home delibera-

158 Language Circle: Journal of Language and Literature 14(2) April 2020 tely to indicate the nation. Therefore, Zimbabwe the struggle between Nyasha and her father be- was a better place before the arrival of the whi- comes the centre of the novel. te colonizers. This image of Zimbabwe prior to Babamukuru has a highly enigmatic perso- the arrival of colonialism is enhanced as Dan- nality. He is portrayed as having two contradic- garembga depicts the awful deeds of the white ting roles in society. Within his small community, colonizers. “He threw my grandmother and her he is the colonizer, while in the larger one, he is children off his farm” (18). Moreover, throug- the colonized. His cultural background and his hout the text the white colonizers are described colonial education have coupled together to form as wizards. The imagery Dangarembga adopts the complexity of his identity. This vacillation of divulges the feeling and the power struggle that Babamukuru’s character is apparent throughout white colonizers brought with them. the story. “Babamukuru appears to triumph in Wizards well versed in treachery and black both traditional African and British realm” (Hol- magic came from the south and forced the peop- land 128). Consequently, his social behaviour is le from the land [...] the wizards were avaricious a mixture of the two values. Prominence among and grasping: there was less and less land for the masculinise is an important feature of African people. At last the people came upon the grey culture. Men of Africa need to achieve certain sandy soil of the homestead, so stony and barren characteristics in order to be recognized as impor- that the wizards would not use it. There they built tant figures in the community. Yet those features a home (18). are changeable in accordance with the political White colonizers come to Africa with cer- and social changes. “The characteristics of a Big tain assumptions about their own cultural, intel- Man began to change, melting into western stan- lectual and moral superiority. They view Africans dards of manhood” (Holland 123). Thus, Baba- as savages and members of primitive inferior mukuru works extremely hard to obtain a high cultures. During colonization, indigenous po- social status within his community. “He surprised pulations are marginalized and their voices are the missionaries by performing exceptionally well not heard. Therefore, the resistance of colonized at school, in spite of putting in a full day’s work people may be seen as counter responses to the on the farm” (19). dominant Eurocentric discourse. Dangaremb- Throughout the novel Babamukuru is ga sheds light on the terrible deeds of the whi- viewed as the patriarch of Tambu’s family. At a te colonizers. This type of discourse is seen as a number of levels, Babamukuru can be seen as the form of resistance to the negative representation colonizers. His attitudes and behaviour towards of Africa. In addition, the author shows negative the members of his family are viewed as a sort of attitudes towards the white colonizers. “Some of colonization. Babamukuru resembles the white the crowd cheered, saying she was more human colonizers in many ways pertaining to the social than most of her kind. Others muttered that whi- life in Shona. Physically he does not live in the te people could afford to be, in fact ought to be village but he controls the village from a distance. generous” (29). Dangarembga expresses her ne- In a similar way British colonizers do not perma- gative political stance towards colonization. Mo- nently settle in Zimbabwe. They colonized and reover, the novelist indicates the huge lands that have power over the place and people for some are owned by the white colonizers. “I never did time. In other words, the people of Zimbabwe discover how many hectares of land those nuns were under colonization by the British coloni- owned, but to the eye it looked like hundreds” zers. One of the pretended tasks of colonizers (196). is to provide formal education to the indigenous The female characters of Nervous Conditions group through missionary schools. engage in many rebellious acts that include figh- They had come not to take but to give. ting brothers and fathers and starving self. The They were about God’s business here in darkest rebellious acts are perceived as a form of social Africa. They had given up the comfort and secu- protest against the prevailing political and social rity of their own homes to come and lighten our conditions of the people of Zimbabwe. The novel darkness. It was a big sacrifice that the missio- provides all types of women old, young, married naries made (105). and unmarried. The rebellious acts are apparent Dangarembga illustrates the colonizers’ throughout the novel between male and female. rhetoric, yet the storyline does not glorify the This study concentrates on Tambu and Nyasha colonizer’s claimed morality. Dangarermbga de- on one side and Bababmukuru on the other side. monstrates the pretended moral aspect of colo- The resistance of female characters is seen as a nization. The white colonizers have a counterfeit blow against the dominant male society. In fact, proclaim to enlighten Africa. There are no poli-

159 Language Circle: Journal of Language and Literature 14(2) April 2020 tical or economic exploitation behind their arri- education, when combined with the generous val to Africa. Through such a type of discourse distribution of goods [...] was a potent mix that the white colonizers deceive many indigenous granted Babamukuru extraordinary authority people. As stated earlier, Babamkuru is seen as a and influence within the network of his extended product of this system. He wins a scholarship to family” (Searle 57). He is used by the colonizers pursue his higher education in England through to serve their aganda. His role is to naturalize co- the missionary funds. “He had pushed up from lonization. Beza argues that the general opinion under the weight of white man with no strong re- of these men is not always positive. They are vie- lative to help” (64). wed as products of British colonization, “which In a similar way to the colonizers, Baba- had become not only very proficient at facilitating mukuru provides education for the people of his the transfer of wealth to their former master, but homestead. He has a plan to educate one member also one that had generally assumed colonial me- of each family in the village. “We need to ensu- ans of repression, and in some cases even worse”( re that at least one member from each family is 5). Singh reveals a negative stance towards these educated, at least to Form Four standard, because men. He says “at whatever cost, they will help in after that he will be in a position to take a course” keeping the colonial enterprise alive, particularly (44). Babamukuru gains the vision of education if it mean food on the table” (128). through his experience with the colonizers. In Almost all the female characters rebel this way, education is viewed as a moral element against Babamukuru’s colonial acts. As stated that colonizers provide to colonized people. Yet, earlier, Babamukuru resembles the colonizer in in actuality colonial education is a means to im- a number of dimensions. Dangarembga depicts pose and maintain colonial ideology. “But there him as the only African man who lives in a whi- was one terrible change. He had forgotten how to te house. “My uncle was the only African living speak Shona” (53). In this short quotation, Tam- in a white house. We were all very proud of this bu is describing how her brother has changed as fact” (63). Also, Tambu describes the house as a a result of colonial education.” But submitting to kingdom. “This kingdom that I should not have an alien system of education” Nair states, “also been entering” (66). The degree of resistance meant a transformation of traditional cultures varies from generation to generation. The two and a threat to existing structures of power wit- young girls demonstrate serious resistance and hin the family, clan and community” (134). In a reject the colonization of Babamukuru. Other fe- similar vein, Loomba asserts that colonial edu- male characters refuse to be under the control of cation devalues native literatures. The people of Babamukuru. However, their rebellious acts are Zimbabwe, in this case, are subject to change in not as serious as those of two young girls. For accordance with the colonial education they re- instance, Maiguru stands up against her colonizer ceive. husband. Her resistance is not permanent: Babamukuru as both colonized and colo- But when it comes to taking my money nizer plays double roles in the text. He is the first so that you can feed her and her father and your person of his small community to interact with whole family and waste it on ridiculous weddings the western world in a significant way. His acts [....]. Let me tell you Babawa Chid, I am tired of and attitudes towards his family are aggressive my house being a hotel for your family. I am ti- sometimes. Babamukuru is described as having red of being a housekeeper for them. I am tired plenty of power. “He had plenty of power. Plen- of being nothing in a home I am working myself ty of power. Plenty of money. Alot of educati- sick to support [....] I have had enough (174). on. Plenty of everything” (50). Furthermore, In the quotation, Maiguru refuses the op- Babamukuru is similar to a colonizer in terms of pression of her husband. Additionally, she ex- enlightening other members of his family. “He presses her anger about a specific material thing. pointed out that the blessing I had received was Money in this case is an issue for Maiguru. The not an individual blessing but one that extended conflict between Maiguru and her husband to all members of my less fortunate family, who around material things is seen through a wider would be depend on me in the future” ( 89). I scope as the struggle between colonized people argue that Babamukuru uses the colonizer’s dis- and colonizers. Maiguru‘s rebellious acts are sup- course whenever he describes his family. He does ported by her own daughter. Nyasha’s position on not use exactly the same terms savage and uneduca- this conflict gives credence to the political reading ted but he implies that members of his family rely of the text. “I do not know admitted the daugh- heavily on him. Babamukuru acts as a provider ter, but it would be good for her if she did”(175). and hero for his family. “The aura of a foreign On several occasions Nyasha and Tambu

160 Language Circle: Journal of Language and Literature 14(2) April 2020 resists the colonization system of Babamukuru. in his school. Being a colonizer, Babamukuru sets a number “Nyasha was always urging me to go with of rules and forces every one under his power to her and in the end told me frankly that while Ba- follow these instructions. Moreover, he is seen bamukuru could not forbid her going because as God. “Babamukuru was God, therefore I had the dances were a school activity from which it arrived in Heaven”(Dangarembga 70). He is gi- would not be appropriate to debar his daughter, ven high status like the white colonizers. It seems he believed them to be sinful all the same” (96). that he is distinguished within the indigenous Babamukuru is not able to stand up against group. Consequently, his rules and instructions the white colonizers. In fact, he is not able to dis- have to be followed. “I am the head of this house. cuss this issue with them. Even though he con- Anyone who defies my authority is an evil thing siders dancing as a sin which violates his own in this house, bent on destroying what I have religion, tradition and values, he can not remove made”(Dangarembga 169). it from his school. He is forced by the white colo- Tambu also rejects the colonization of her nizers to let this subject to be taught in his school. uncle. There is a moment of realization when Tambu encourages herself and stands against her CONCLUSION uncle and refuse to attend the wedding party of her parents. Despite, the threat and punishment Nervous Conditions is open for many inter- that Babamukuru shows Tambu remains firm on pretations. Many critics have analyzed the text her position. Her tolerance of the punishment is from different perspectives. Reading the novel viewed as a price for her new identity. “To me that through a political perspective provides the rea- punishment was the price of my newly acquired der with the benefit of understanding the changes identity” (171). The political reading of this situa- that occur in the characters and the role of gender tion suggests that there is a price for freedom. The conflict in the text. The triumph of Tambu and colonized people need to sacrifice something in Nyasha at the end underscores the failure of colo- order to gain their equality and freedom. nial power to colonize Zimbabwe. The resistance Throughout the novel Nyasha uses diffe- against colonization is symbolized in the struggle rent methods to show her resistance. She develops of Womanhood versus Manhood in the lives of methods to act gradually against Babamukuru’s the characters. standards. She on different occasions deliberately breaks those standards. 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