` Sectarian Discourse in Pakistan: Case Study of District Jhang (1979-2009) Doctoral Thesis to Fulfil the Requirements of a Doctor of Philosophy (Dr. Phil.) from the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Erfurt Supervisor: Prof. Jamal Malik Islamic History and Culture (University of Erfurt) Co-Supervisor: Prof. Hans Harder South Asian Institute (University of Heidelberg) Muhammad Yasir Ali Khan Erfurt, May 2017 urn:nbn:de:gbv:547-202000039 2 Abstract Sectarianism involves differences, divisions and ruptures with a supposedly homogenous religious community or group, which often ignites flames of religious violence between sects over doctrinal differences. Pakistani society has been the victim of shia-sunni sectarian violence over the last four decades which has engulfed the peace of the country by appearing in various ways. Its appearance in both violent and non-violent ways, has affected almost the whole country but Jhang, a district of Punjab province, stands prominent. Its central position is due to many reasons which include the influence of Shia feudals in the politics, the foundation of Anjuman Sipāh Ṣaḥāba and the demographic proportion of sectarian populations after the establishment of Pakistan. Sectarianism in Jhang attracted the attention of journalistic and academic analysis. The works of Khalid Ahmad, Tahir Kamran, and Mariam Abou Zahab cover the different aspects of the issue. Most of the works discuss historical, political and socio-economic aspects of sectarianism. The present study on the sectarian discourse in Jhang tries to understand the phenomenon by employing the cultural tools of inquiry. It seeks to investigate sectarianism by exploring those sectarian performances, which, inherently, are culture specific. These performances are the parts of discourse. Every discursive position in the shape of a particular viewpoint involves some practices and performances. These performances, according to the newly emerging theories of cultural performance, seek credibility from the audience to achieve a dominant position in a discourse. This credibility is a relationship between the performance and the audience in a particular culture. It is a subjective relationship which varies with the changing dynamics of time and space. Similar discursive formations have differences of structural building in different sets of cultural conditions. The hegemonic status of a particular viewpoint in a particular discourse depends upon the intensity of relationship between the act and the audience in the performances attached with that viewpoint. This relationship is relative, and this relativity keeps the discursivity alive in a discourse. This relativity rather than the absoluteness keeps the struggle alive and reduces the level of inertia in a society. Sectarian performances, in this study, include textual, oral and customary 3 performances. It also includes the concept of cultural script for the examination of cultural sectarian performances. This categorization yearns to explore sectarian texts, sectarian oral traditions and some customary practices. This scheme of research will help to find the cultural roots of sectarianism and will be equally significant for the overall understanding of the issue, which till now, is understood dominantly as religious and to some partially socio-political. 4 Acknowlegdment The foremost gratitude for the beginning and successful completion of my doctoral thesis goes to Professor Jamal Malik. He is remarkable in maintaining his academic beneficence, while, both encouraging and criticizing the research work. Diversity of scholarship under his patronage, pursuing doctoral and post-doctoral research projects also enabled me to have a multiple angle of self-evaluations. At second, I am highly obliged to Professor Hans Harder for being my second supervisor and also for allocating a space to me in his graduate colloquium. It was an immense pleasure to present my work in his study circle at South Asian Study Center, University of Heidelberg. His feedback widened the extent of theoretical understanding and helped to bring the theory and subject in concert with each other. I am at the loss of words to extend gratitude to the scholarly and social contribution of Professor Christopher Bultmann. He always remained at a nourishing end. I enjoyed teaching a course with him at University of Erfurt. The consultations and feedback by Professor Francis Robinson and Professor Sarah Ansari during a research visit of United Kingdom in 2015 were not only encouraging but also helped in the future advancement of my research. The list of acknowledgements will be incomplete without mentioning the support extended by Professor Jeffrey Alexander, Center for Cultural Sociology, Yale University, USA. It was remarkably helpful to present my research work carved in his theoretical concepts in a workshop session at CCS, Yale University. As mentioned above, Professor Jamal Malik runs a diverse group of researchers. Their areas of research range from literature to political aspects of Muslim societies and cultures. Dr. Saeed Zarrabi-Zadeh, Dr Misbah al-Rehman and Dr. Surraya are among the people who always helped me resolve various questions which I came across during my studies. I found them ever ready to extend their experience and knowledge to the newcomer PhD scholars. Learning of Persian language, while I lived at Erfurt was also a privilege which Dr. Zarrabi-Zadeh and Dr. Surraya bestowed courteously. I am grateful to the extension of immense support, throughout my stay at Erfurt, by two of my best friends Dr. Hasnain Bokhari and Dr. Syed Furrukh Zad Ali Shah. They were sources of strength and encouragement. 5 Being a member of History department, Bahauddin Zakariya University, I am pleased to admit the scholarly contribution of Professor Muhammad Farooq, Professor Javaid Akhtar Salyana, Professor Shafiq Bhatti, Professor Shams al- Rehman, Professor Mumtaz Khan, Mr. Rehan Iqbal and Mrs Farheen Altaf in my early academic research training. I extend my special thanks to Professor Shafiq Bhatti, whose guidance and criticism regarding my PhD research helped me a lot. The friends who helped me and assisted me in conducting the research tours of United Kingdom and field research in Pakistan include Haroon Abbas, Fakhar Bilal, Tanveer Ahmad Tabish, Ismail Khan Alyana, Imran Iqbal, Zeeshan Raza Khokher and Ghulam Ali Gujjar. I am obliged to their support. The physical and moral support of my family members, my mother, brothers and sisters, made it comfortable for me to remain engaged with my research pursuits. Sabeeka Ali, my better half, extended her real support to conclude my project. Her assistance enhanced my courage and commitment with my work. 6 Dedicated To my Parents Mubarak Ali Khan Saleem (Late) & Shamim Akhtar 7 Contents Chapter 1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 13 1.1. District Jhang: Present and Past .................................................................................. 16 1.2. Religious tradition in Jhang: from sufi spirituality to sectarianism ............................. 21 1.2.1. Elections 1951 ....................................................................................................... 25 1.2.2. Ḥasū Bulail incident 1957 ..................................................................................... 25 1.2.3. Sectarian victimizations in 1960s ......................................................................... 26 1.2.4. Bāb al-ʿUmar incident 1969 .................................................................................. 27 1.2.5. Foundation of Anjuman Sipāh Ṣaḥaba .................................................................. 27 1.3. Literature review .......................................................................................................... 29 1.3.1. Doctrinal aspects ................................................................................................... 29 1.3.2. Constitutional issue ............................................................................................... 30 1.3.3. Extra-territorial aspects ......................................................................................... 31 1.3.4. Socio-political ....................................................................................................... 32 1.3.5. Socio-cultural ........................................................................................................ 32 1.4. Description of research ................................................................................................ 33 1.5. Theoretical framework ................................................................................................. 36 1.5.1. Systems of collective representation ..................................................................... 39 1.5.2. Actor ..................................................................................................................... 40 1.5.3. Observer/Audience ............................................................................................... 40 1.5.4. Means of symbolic production .............................................................................. 40 1.5.5. Mise-en-scène ....................................................................................................... 41 1.5.6. Social power .......................................................................................................... 41 1.6. Research