1
PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
A thesis presented by
Evan S. Saperstein
to The School of Education
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education
in the field of
Education
College of Professional Studies Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts March 2019 2
Abstract
In recent years, the idea of "global citizenship" has grown in scholarly circles and developed into a nascent discipline known as global citizenship education. As a general matter, global citizenship education strives to deepen cross-cultural understanding through the study of current transnational issues. This qualitative, interpretivist case study sought to examine and evaluate how students enrolled in a global studies curriculum at an urban New Jersey public high school view their roles and responsibilities in the world today. The study included interviews from an administrator, two global studies teachers, and six students enrolled in the second sequence of a two-year course in the global studies curriculum. The study also included observations and analysis of the course curriculum, syllabus, and student assignments.
This study advances four primary findings. First, the need for continued curriculum development and design of global studies related courses and content. Second, the need for pre- service and in-service training for teachers of global studies related courses, including teacher education and professional development programs. Third, the importance of experiential learning, among other forms of pedagogy and instructional practices, in furthering the goals of global citizenship education. Fourth, the need for class projects, international education programs, and other experiential learning opportunities (such as fieldwork, service-learning, or community programs) to cultivate student interest in global citizenship education. Upon reflection, this study also highlights the need for global studies related courses to explore the connection between liberal democratic values and the goals of global citizenship.
Through the above findings and literature, this study has proposed an elective course on global citizenship with ten units: 1) Introduction to Global Citizenship; 2) Sustainable
Development; 3) Poverty and World Hunger; 4) Global Health Issues; 5) Child Mortality; 6) 3
Peace and Conflict; 7) Human Rights and Gender Equality; 8) Universal Education; 9) Liberal
Democratic Governance and Rights; 10) Global Citizenship Action Plan. This study also has underscored the need for more research on global citizenship, global citizenship education in the
United States, global studies training and certification programs, experiential learning, and the connection between global citizenship and liberal democratic governance and values.
Keywords: globalization, global citizen, global competence, global issues, global studies 4
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deep gratitude to those who supported me through this years- long process. First and foremost, I would like to thank my doctoral thesis chair and advisor, Dr.
Afi Wiggins, for her exceptional guidance and counsel. Her prompt and insightful comments, along with her kind words of encouragement, helped me stay on schedule. To the other members of my thesis committee, Dr. Kelly Conn and Dr. Robert Fanuzzi, thank you for your invaluable feedback and thoughtful recommendations. I also would like to thank those individuals who took time out of their busy schedules to participate in this study.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for providing love and support along the way. To my parents—your patience and encouragement helped me persevere in this study.
To my brother, Daniel—you provided extraordinary assistance and incalculable advice. I greatly appreciate all the time you spent guiding me through this arduous journey. 5
Table of Contents
Abstract...... 2 Acknowledgements...... 4
Chapter One: Introduction...... 7 Statement of the Problem...... 7 Significance of the Problem...... 12 Positionality Statement...... 15 Research Questions...... 16 Definition of Key Terms...... 17 Theoretical Framework...... 18 Critics of ELT...... 19 Rationale...... 19 Application of Theory...... 20 Conclusion...... 22
Chapter Two: Literature Review...... 23 Part I: Globalization...... 23 Political Globalization...... 23 Economic Globalization...... 25 Cultural Globalization...... 29 Part II: Global Citizenship...... 31 Global Awareness...... 33 Caring...... 34 Cultural Diversity...... 35 Social Justice...... 36 Sustainability...... 37 Responsibility to Act...... 39 Part III: Global Citizenship Education...... 41 Curricular Reform...... 41 Preparing Teachers for Global Citizenship Education...... 44 Pre-Service Training...... 44 In-Service Professional Development...... 46 Active Learning...... 48 Conclusion...... 50
Chapter Three: Research Design...... 52 Qualitative Research Approach...... 52 Participants...... 53 Procedures...... 56 Data Collection Source 1: Observations...... 56 Data Collection Source 2: Interviews...... 57 Data Collection Source 3: Documents...... 58 Data Analysis...... 59 Phase One...... 60 6
Phase Two...... 60 Phase Three...... 61 Phase Four...... 61 Criteria for Quality Qualitative Research...... 61 Ethical Considerations...... 61 Credibility...... 62 Transferability...... 63 Self-reflexivity and Transparency...... 63 Limitations...... 64
Chapter Four: Findings...... 65 Developing and Designing Effective Curricula in Global Studies and Citizenship.. 66 Content and Pedagogy...... 70 Preparing Effective Teachers of Global Citizenship...... 72 Developing Global Citizens through Effective Teaching...... 74 Maintaining Objectivity...... 74 Flexibility...... 75 Student Choice...... 75 Utilizing Technology...... 76 Critical Thinking...... 76 Experiential Learning...... 77 Fostering Global Citizenship Traits...... 80 Global Awareness...... 80 Caring...... 81 Cultural Diversity...... 82 Social Justice...... 83 Sustainability...... 84 Responsibility to Act...... 85 Impact of Global Citizenship Education...... 87 Impact of Global Citizenship Education on Teachers...... 87 Impact of Global Citizenship Education on Students...... 88 Conclusion...... 91
Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications for Practice...... 93 Curriculum and Course Design...... 94 Teacher Preparation...... 97 Global Citizenship Education through Experiential Learning...... 99 Cultivating Student and Civic Engagement...... 100 Reflection on Global Citizenship and Liberal Democratic Values...... 102 Recommendations for Practice...... 106 Elective Course...... 106 Action Plan...... 109 Whole-School Approach...... 111 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 113 Conclusion...... 115 7
Chapter One: Introduction
With the continued growth of the internet and the advent of a new digital age, the dissemination of information is accelerating at an unprecedented rate (Gentz & Kramer, 2006).
Through the rapid flow of capital, goods, and services, the world has become an increasingly interconnected global system (Centeno, Nag, Patterson, Shaver, & Windawi, 2015). The divides that once kept peoples and countries apart—be it cultural, economic, geographic, historical, or linguistic—are smaller and less recognizable (Friedman, 2000; Maguth, 2012; Oblinger, 2001).
People (particularly of younger generations) are not as tethered to their national or ethnic identities, and the concept of citizenship has expanded to include global belonging (Bagnall,
2015; Vallory, 2012).
In recent years, the idea of "global citizenship" has grown in scholarly circles and developed into a nascent discipline known as global citizenship education (Brigham, 2011;
Fernekes, 2016). As a general matter, global citizenship education strives to deepen cross- cultural understanding through the study of current transnational issues (Gallavan, 2008; Guo,
2014; Maguth, 2012; Myers, 2006). This qualitative, interpretivist case study seeks to examine and evaluate how students enrolled in a global studies curriculum at an urban New Jersey public high school view their roles and responsibilities in today's world. The findings of this study will help to advance global citizenship education and to assist educators in this growing field.
Statement of the Problem
The modern global system was born from the ashes of World War II (Close & Ohki-
Close, 1999). At the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, 730 delegates from 44 countries agreed to foster cooperation through free trade and open markets, leading to the creation of the
World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and other trade organizations (Ahn, 2016; 8
Rodrik, 2011). Shortly thereafter, the establishment of the United Nations (UN) at the San
Francisco Conference in 1945, along with the development of the European Coal and Steel
Community (ECSC) and European Economic Community (EEC) during the 1950s (precursors to the European Union (EU)), marked a new commitment to global peace and security (Gilbert,
2012; Meisler, 2011). As the Cold War between American democracy and Soviet communism took roots in the mid-to-late 1940s, these nascent multilateral institutions would align around
American leadership for decades to come (Hook, 2005; Saperstein, 2008). As Zakaria (2011) points out, "For most of the last century, the United States has dominated global economics, politics, science, and culture" (p. 2).
At the same time (and particularly since the start of the twenty-first century), the combined forces of nationalism, populism, and protectionism have put strains on the post-World
War II international system (Quirk, 2008). This was particularly evident in the wake of the global financial crisis of 2008 and, more recently, with the United Kingdom's (UK) vote to leave the EU (Brexit) and the election of a United States president who made "America First" a central tenet of his campaign (Pettifor, 2017; Trump, 2017; Wolf, 2017). British Prime Minister Theresa
May, who has since led the UK's efforts to exit the EU, averred in October 2016: "If you believe you're a citizen of the world, you're a citizen of nowhere" (May, 2016). Then President-elect
Donald Trump echoed similar sentiments in December 2016, declaring: "There is no global anthem. No global currency. No certificate of global citizenship" (Trump, 2016).
President Trump has repeatedly reiterated this mantra, including at his inauguration and before the UN. Indeed, during his inaugural address, he declared: "From this day forward, a new vision will govern our land. From this moment on, it’s going to be America First. Every decision on trade, on taxes, on immigration, on foreign affairs, will be made to benefit American 9
workers and American families" (Trump, 2017). He continued: "We will seek friendship and goodwill with the nations of the world—but we do so with the understanding that it is the right of all nations to put their own interests first" (Trump, 2017). These statements stand in contrast to the long-held conception of America as a "city upon a hill" that sets an example, as a beacon of democracy, for the rest of the world to emulate (McDougall, 1997; Saperstein, 2010).
Despite recent events and trends, proponents of globalization still look to the United
States and other leading powers of the international community to confront the most pressing political and economic challenges facing the world today (Cohen & Gabel, 2017). And multilateral institutions like the UN recently have taken steps to address these growing challenges. On September 25, 2015, the UN General Assembly (2015) adopted a resolution for
"transforming our world" (p. 1), otherwise known as the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. The resolution set forth a to-do-list of 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) to achieve greater social, economic, environmental, and institutional development across the globe. These goals encompass:
no poverty;
zero hunger;
good health and well-being;
quality education;
gender equality;
clean water and sanitation;
affordable and clean energy;
decent work and economic growth;
industry, innovation, and infrastructure; 10
reduced inequalities;
sustainable cities and communities;
responsible consumption and production;
climate action;
life below water;
life on land;
peace, justice, and strong institutions;
partnerships (United Nations General Assembly, 2015).
To meet these challenges, the UN General Assembly (2015) resolution calls for a "spirit of global solidarity" (p. 10)—one in which "children and young women and men are critical agents of change and will find in the new Goals a platform to channel their infinite capacities for activism into the creation of a better world" (p. 12).
To realize these goals will require American leadership. Yet, notwithstanding the above political challenges, the educational system in the United States has too often failed to train teachers or structure K-12 curricula in ways that prepare the next generation to address global challenges (Levine, 2010; Reimers, Chopra, Chung, Higdon, & O'Donnell, 2016). Indeed, for years, teachers in the United States have had insufficient schooling or experience in global education (Gallavan, 2008; Rapoport, 2013). As the National Education Association (2010) stresses: "It is important that American students . . . begin developing a deeper understanding of the world's economic, social, and political issues" (p. 2).
A World Savvy (2012) global competence survey, conducted with the assistance of the
International Baccalaureate Organization, found that U.S. teachers too often overlook global issues (Berdan & Berdan, 2013). For instance, 48 percent of the students (grades 6-12) surveyed 11
responded that they have not received sufficient instruction on the origins of global issues and how such issues impact their lives today (World Savvy, 2012). Additionally, 63 percent of high school students surveyed responded that they never talk about world events in the classroom
(World Savvy, 2012). Moreover, only 54 percent of those surveyed responded that their high school teachers provide a global perspective in the classroom (World Savvy, 2012).
Also, reports have shown that too many students in the United States enter college or the workplace without a sufficient baseline of knowledge in global issues and require additional instruction (Balistreri, Di Giacomo, Noisette, & Ptak, 2012; National Education Association,
2010; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2008). For example, the Council on Foreign Relations
(CFR) (2016) and National Geographic Society recently surveyed 18 to 26 year olds (1,203 young adults currently attending or who recently attended a college or university in the United
States) on their understanding of economic, environmental, geographical, and international issues. CFR President Richard Haass and National Geographic Society President and CEO Gary
Knell, who conducted the survey, warned that only 29 percent of respondents had earned a passing score of 66 percent correct or better (Council on Foreign Relations, 2016). They point out that these results "revealed significant gaps between what young people understand about today's world and what they need to know to successfully navigate and compete in it" (Council on Foreign Relations, 2016, p. 4). Many of the respondents struggled with basic questions about culture and demographics (Council on Foreign Relations, 2016), reflecting a systemic flaw in the way schools teach about geography, world cultures, and international relations.
Despite these studies and concerns, some steps have been taken to further the goals of global citizenship education and related fields of study. Scholars and practitioners have called for updating curricula (Waks, 2003) and additional ways to address insufficient training and lack 12
of teacher professional development (Levine, 2010). Curricula that incorporate global citizenship education can help students understand and appreciate diverse perspectives, as well as remain competitive in a global marketplace (Johnson, Boyer, & Brown, 2011). Brunell (2013) emphasizes, in particular, that the pedagogical method of experiential learning (learning through experience) elicits student interest in global issues, builds global civic skills, and helps groom global citizens. Along these lines, to teach and learn about global matters, Evans, Montemurro,
Gambhir, and Broad (2014) stress: "multiple entry points, learning intentions, and orientations";
"high value of experiential, learner-centred, and inquiry-oriented learning and teaching practices"; "welcoming the challenge of working with multiple conceptions of global and international"; "importance of building in a critical perspective"; "role of self-reflection in the learning process"; and "embracing learner diversity in diverse contexts" (pp. 5-6).
However, while the literature supports more teacher training in global issues (Gallavan,
2008; Guo, 2014; Rapoport, 2013; Robbins, Francis, & Elliott, 2003), renewed and critical focus on pedagogy, and student exposure to other cultures (Johnson, Boyer, & Brown, 2011; Niens &
Reilly, 2012; Yamashita, 2006), too few studies have addressed specific curricular topics and teaching methods in global citizenship education. At the same time, more studies must examine how teachers can prepare students to think critically on controversial global issues (particularly through experiential learning) and to use innovative technology in today's digital age. Various stakeholders will benefit from this study, including students, teachers, administrators, curriculum writers, and policymakers.
Significance of the Problem
As the world becomes more interdependent, scholars and practitioners have increasingly recognized the imperative for an interdisciplinary K-12 program that explores a range of pressing 13
global citizenship related issues from the environment to education, security, and human rights
(Huitt, 2013, Reimers et al., 2016). Recently, federal and state governments, local and organizational entities, and the private sector have made efforts to refocus high school curricula.
For instance, the United States Department of Education (2012) designed a strategy for the years
2012-2016 to help produce a more globally competent citizenry. The strategy recognized that,
"[i]n today's globalized world, an effective domestic education agenda must address global needs and trends," and that "[s]tudents will need to have the substantive knowledge and understanding to address issues, phenomena and catastrophes that cut across borders, like the spread of disease, climate change, natural disasters, and financial crises" (United States Department of Education,
2012, p. 2). Objectives of the strategy include: 1) increasing global competencies of students; 2) applying lessons from high-performing countries; 3) promoting American interests in high- priority countries through "active education diplomacy"; and 4) continuing to focus on improving international activities (United States Department of Education, 2012).
At the state level, the North Carolina State Board of Education (2013) and Kentucky
Department of Education (2014) also have drafted policy proposals aimed to improve global competency. In North Carolina, the State Board of Education's (2013) Task Force on Global
Education stated their commitment to achieve five goals: 1) providing support to prospective and current teachers; 2) emphasizing foreign language instruction; 3) designing new school models through partnerships with non-governmental and other organizations; 4) expanding networking opportunities; and 5) developing strategic international relationships. Similarly, a position statement issued by the Kentucky Department of Education (2013), emphasized that global competence is necessary to prepare students for the 21st century. 14
Teachers, administrators, and other school district employees also have sought to work with their local representatives in these regards. Indeed, certain schools, such as Avenues: The
World School (a private school in New York City), have fostered a global learning environment at the local level (Kaplan, 2011; Reimers et al., 2016). Through local commitment to global issues, otherwise known as "glocalization" or "global localization" (Benyon & Dunkerley, 2000;
Vallory, 2012), students can learn to "think globally and act locally" (Sparapani & McClain,
2016, p. 111).
As for the sector "at the other end of the policymaking spectrum" (Baumer & Van Horn,
2014, p. 21), certain private companies have developed a global citizenship strategy to respond to the challenges of living and working in a more interconnected world. In particular, HP (2011) created a Global Citizenship Council eight years ago to "promote and advance global citizenship through integrated risk and opportunity assessment, governance, and policy oversight" (p. 11).
PepsiCo (2014) has supported organizational policy initiatives (e.g., global citizenship initiatives) to improve food security and reduce poverty and hunger worldwide by partnering with high schools and youth programs across the country. As Dill (2013) points out, HP and other corporations "share a conviction that the educational system in the U.S. is terribly inadequate and not up to speed with the twenty-first-century world" (p. 56). By engaging with policymakers, including regional or national governments and regulators, the private sector can further the goals of a more sustainable global economy and environment.
Yet, there is still an ongoing educational challenge to bridge local, national, and global issues facing the United States (Hilburn & Maguth, 2015; Myers, 2006; Rapoport, 2010). If public and private sector institutions do not take more action in the near future, the United States may become less relevant on the world stage, and American students will not obtain the 15
education and skills necessary to work at certain international or multinational companies
(Casner-Lotto & Barrington, 2006; O'Hanlon, 2017). Global citizenship education can help the next generation of American leaders address climate change, poverty, world hunger, global health issues, child mortality, and many other challenges (Reimers et al., 2016; United Nations
General Assembly, 2015). But, as Zakaria (2011) puts it, "Generations from now, when historians write about these times, they might note that, in the early decades of the twenty-first century, the United States succeeded in its great and historic mission—it globalized the world.
But along the way, they might write, it forgot to globalize itself" (p. 61).
Positionality Statement
I was born in Queens, New York, and grew up with my parents and older brother in a middle-class, North Jersey suburb. After attending public school from kindergarten through twelfth grade, I attended McGill University in Montreal, Canada (and spent a summer in a
French immersion program outside of Quebec City). I majored in history, took several French language classes, and developed a strong interest in scholarly writing. After graduating from
McGill with a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), I instructed students in elementary and intermediate-level classes at two secondary schools (French National Department of Education) in the suburbs of
Paris, France. While in France, I traveled to a number of other countries across Europe.
Upon returning from France, I received a Master of Arts (M.A.) in Modern European
Studies from Columbia University's Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (the first semester of which I took classes at an affiliate campus in Paris). Since obtaining my M.A., I have worked in
New Jersey as a full-time high school teacher (U.S. and world history) and as an adjunct professor of history at a community college and four-year university. 16
My academic and professional backgrounds have shaped my opinions and views on global issues. Studying and working in three international metropolitan areas (Montreal, New
York, and Paris) provided me with the unique opportunity to explore academic issues from varied perspectives, and have since guided my pursuits in teaching and scholarship. For example, I have taken professional development courses in global citizenship education, including Teaching the Sustainable Development Goals, a course offered through Teachers
College at Columbia University.
As an educator of world history, I aim to help students develop a greater appreciation for other cultures, and to prepare globally conscious citizens. Gurin, Dey, Hurtado, and Gurin
(2002) cite the benefits of diversity in the classroom and how it can improve learning outcomes.
Takacs (2002) reinforces that "learning to listen with open minds and hearts" serves a pedagogical purpose and should be the goal of a scholar-practitioner (p. 180).
I also have learned through my studies and experience that opening the lines of communication with other cultures helps to create "transformative" leaders. As Yukl (2013) explains, "Globalization and changing demographic patterns" are increasing priorities, including for leaders who seek to understand and integrate "different values, beliefs, and expectations" (p.
360). With these trends in mind, my research will focus on individuals outside of my demographic and ideological positioning (Briscoe, 2005; Fennel & Arnot, 2008; Jupp & Slattery,
2010).
Research Questions
The purpose of this qualitative study is to develop a course that prepares high school students to become global citizens. Following the data collection process, this study will proffer 17
answers to the following questions concerning a global studies course at an urban New Jersey public high school:
1. How is the content of the global studies course structured and conveyed to the students?
How, if at all, does the course incorporate forms of experiential learning?
2. How, if at all, do the students' perspectives of global citizenship (including their roles and responsibilities in a global society) change after taking the course?
3. What, if any, plans do the students have to engage as global citizens after taking the course?
Definitions of Key Terms
Globalization. Broadly refers to the process of people and governments becoming more interdependent and interconnected along political, economic, and/or social lines (Hodos, 2017;
Ritzer, 2012).
Global citizen. Broadly refers to "someone who understands interconnectedness, respects and values diversity, has the ability to challenge injustice, and takes action in personally meaningful ways" (UNICEF, 2013, p. 3). Further definitions will follow in the next chapter.
Global competence. Broadly refers to the ability to understand and work on global issues (Boix Mansilla & Jackson, 2011; Morais & Ogden, 2011; Sutton, 2005).
Global issues. Broadly refer to political, economic, or social matters that impact the world at large (Bhargava, 2006; Fedorak, 2013).
Global studies. Broadly refers to "the emerging transdisciplinary field that incorporates a variety of disciplinary and new approaches to understanding the transnational features of our global world" (Juergensmeyer, 2013, p. 766).
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Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this study is experiential learning, which derives from the ideas of John Dewey (1916, 1938), Kurt Lewin (1951), Jean Piaget (1952), and most notably
David Kolb (1984, 2009). As Foucar-Szocki and Bolsing (1999) explain, experiential learning is
"an educational plan that integrates classroom study with practical work experience" (p. 39).
The theory of experiential learning also helps students learn about relevant global issues through civic participation (Brunell, 2013).
Dewey (1916) envisions the kind of classroom where student ideas are welcome and different perspectives elevate the discourse and learning experience. He argues that the goal of education is to prepare students to function as active and participatory citizens within a democratic society (Dewey, 1916). Along these lines, Dewey (1938) expressed his support for experiential civic education, which allows for the development of citizenship through experiences and interactions within the community.
During the 1950s and 1960s, scholars built on Dewey's theories. The social psychologist
Lewin (1951) created a model for experiential learning based on: 1) concrete experience, 2) observations and reflections, 3) formation of abstract concepts and generalizations, and 4) testing the implications of these concepts in new situations (Beard & Wilson, 2018). Piaget (1952), a biologist and developmental psychologist, added to the field of experiential learning with his experience-based cognitive development theory, which seeks to understand how people learn and develop from infancy through adolescence. Similar to Lewin (1951), Piaget's (1952) theory examined active learning and concrete experiences in four phases (developmental stages one and two include concrete and physical experiences; the third and fourth phases are based on social interaction and abstract thinking). 19
Building on the work of Dewey (1916, 1938), Lewin (1951), and Piaget (1952), David
Kolb designed his own Experiential Learning Theory (ELT). Kolb's (1984) Experiential
Learning Cycle (ELC) model proposes that learning occurs in four stages. Under this model, the learner: 1) actively participates in an activity (concrete experience); 2) reflects on that experience
(reflective observation); 3) conceptualizes a theory based on his or her observation (abstract conceptualization); and 4) tests the theory or plan for an imminent experience (active experimentation). Tennant (1997) touts this type of model as "an excellent framework for planning teaching and learning activities" (p. 92).
Critics of ELT
Although Kolb's (1984) theory is well-known in scholarly circles, some have offered critiques of ELT. Greenaway (2004) argues that Kolb's theory does not sufficiently focus on reflection. Rogers (1996) points out the limitations of the four-pronged ELC model, noting that experiential learning includes such elements as objectives, aims, and choices. Kayes (2002) cites to empirical and theoretical critiques of ELT. Miettinen (2000) contends that the ELC model offers an inadequate interpretation of Dewey's ideas on "experience and reflective thought" (p.
70). Jarvis (1987) cautions against the assumption that learning will change perspectives or
"automatically result in growth" (p. 193). And Jarvis (1987) and Tennant (1997) add that empirical evidence for ELC is lacking, calling for more studies to test or examine the model.
Rationale
Despite these criticisms, Kolb's (1984) ELT is a gateway to a greater understanding of the experiential and civic-minded components of global citizenship education. A manifestation of the ELT model, service-learning is such a form of experiential learning (Bellner & Pomery,
2005; Deeley, 2010), in which students apply what they learn in the classroom to effect change 20
in the community. As Donahue (2000) writes, this pedagogical method "integrates academic learning with meeting community needs to the benefit of both students and the community" (p.
429). Service-learning has led students to participate in social action and community service initiatives (civic participation), and otherwise become active and engaged citizens (Eyler &
Giles, 1999; Sigmon, 1979) (i.e., "developing the combination of knowledge, skills, values and motivation to make [a] difference") (Ehrlich, 2000, p. vi).
This study also was conducted under the broader conceptual framework of "good citizenship" developed by Westheimer and Kahne (2004), which describes three types of "good citizens": the personally responsible citizen, the participatory citizen, and the justice-oriented citizen (Westheimer & Kahne, 2004). The personally responsible citizen "acts responsibly" within the community by, for instance, "picking up litter, giving blood, recycling, obeying laws, and staying out of debt" (Westheimer & Kahne, 2004, p. 241). Both the character education
(Anderson, 2000; Davies, Gorard, & McGuinn, 2005; Hoge, 2002; Howard, Berkowitz, &
Schaeffer, 2004; Silay, 2014) and community service movements (Hart, Donnelly, Youniss, &
Atkins, 2007; Raskoff & Sundeen, 1999; Youniss & Yates, 1997) are consistent with this model of citizenship. The participatory citizen "actively participate[s] in the civic affairs and the social life of the community at the local, state, or national level" (Westheimer & Kahne, 2004, p. 241).
The justice-oriented citizen calls "attention to matters of injustice and to the importance of pursuing social justice" (Westheimer & Kahne, 2004, p. 242). These models of citizenship can advance the knowledge, skills, and values of a global citizen.
Application of Theory
The application of service-learning has "the potential to affect students' concepts of themselves as global citizens" (Gisolo & Stanlick, 2012, p. 118). For instance, international 21
service-learning (ISL) programs, the international equivalent to domestic service-learning programs (Niehaus & Crain, 2013), aims to groom teachers and students as global citizens
(Larsen & Searle, 2017; Tyran, 2017). ISL programs seek to develop partnerships with global educational institutions or corporations (Pless & Borecká, 2014; Silcox & Leek, 1997), and are the types of cross-border collaborative initiatives and opportunities that derive from Kolb's
(1984) theory on experiential education. As Bamber (2015) concludes, ISL "prepares citizens to function in a multicultural society and a global economy" (p. 29).
Teachers and students who participate in service-related activities also can make a difference in a global area of interest (Fry, Griffin, & Kirshner, 2012). Extracurricular activities such as the high school club, Nuru, "work[ ] locally to understand and resolve the problem of extreme global poverty" (Moffa, 2016, p. 145). Following his case study of Nuru, Moffa (2016) concluded "that extracurricular service clubs hold the potential to act as powerful conduits of experiences to foster global awareness and global citizenship dispositions in students" (p. 151).
Both practical research and fieldwork can further the objectives of global citizenship (Miller,
2013).
Westheimer and Kahne's (2004) framework for good citizenship further supports the goals of global citizenship curricula in the 21st century. Schools can apply the values of democracy and "good citizenship" to their curricula (Feinberg & Doppen, 2010; Martin, 2008).
Participatory and justice-oriented citizens can serve to strengthen democratic communities at the local and statewide level; and justice-oriented citizens can serve to confront injustices (UNICEF,
2013).
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Conclusion
In conclusion, the theory of experiential learning aligns with this study's objective of preparing students to become active global citizens within their community. A curriculum that incorporates the four stages of Kolb's (1984) model, as amended, serves as a foundation for global citizenship education. Blending forms of experiential learning (e.g., service-learning and civic participation) with global citizenship instruction can help to prepare students to address global issues and take social action locally and beyond. 23
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Three strands run through the body of literature reviewed for the purposes of this study.
First, the world became increasingly globalized (politically, economically, and culturally) throughout the second half of the 20th century. Second, this trend toward globalization has helped foster a notion of "global citizenship" based on shared values of global awareness, caring, cultural diversity, social justice, sustainability, and the responsibility to act. Third, as the idea of global citizenship grew, it became the focus of increasing attention in academic circles and a discipline unto itself, global citizenship education.
Part I: Globalization
The history of globalization dates back several centuries. While there were trends toward globalization during the premodern (before 1500) and modern (1500-1945) periods, those trends hastened during the contemporary period following World War II (1945-present) (Hopper,
2007). By the dawn of the 21st century, Friedman (2000) perhaps best captured the rise of globalization with the following analogy: "If the first era of globalization shrank the world from a size large to a size medium, this era of globalization is shrinking the world from a size medium to a size small" (pp. xix). The discussion that follows examines the growth of three types of globalization since World War II: political, economic, and cultural.
Political Globalization
Political globalization is defined as the "intensification and expansion of political interrelations across the globe" (Steger, 2009, p. 58). For centuries, countries tended to shy away from political globalization. In Europe, for example, countries jealously guarded their sovereignty, and generally refused to form longstanding political alliances (Kissinger, 1994).
The "nation-state," rather, defined Europe's geopolitical landscape (Amstutz, 2008). 24
In the aftermath of World War II, however, that changed. Europe began to transform from a patchwork of sovereign nation-states to a community of nations (Bickerton, 2012).
Through several treaties over the decades following World War II, a growing number of
European countries entered into enduring political and economic alliances (McCormick, 1999;
Shore, 2000). With the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 and the formation of the EU,
Europe became a more interconnected global community (Follesdal, 2002; Maas, 2014).
Through the aforementioned treaty, the EU focused on aligning foreign and security policies along with creating a common currency (Feld, 1998). Comprised today of 28 countries from Western, Central, and Eastern Europe, the EU focuses on directing Europe's economic, environmental, social, and foreign policy, among other areas (Archick, 2017). Through the EU,
European nations have created a shared identity and "common citizenship status for citizens of
EU member states" (Maas, 2014, p. 409). EU citizens have:
the right to move and reside freely around the European Union;
the right to vote or stand as a candidate in elections to the European Parliament and in
municipal elections in the EU country in which [the individual] reside[s];
the right to protection by the diplomatic or consular authorities of any EU country in a
third country (non-EU state);
the right to petition the European Parliament, to apply to the Ombudsman, and to write to
any of the EU institutions or bodies (European Commission, 2010, p. 4).
As Olsen (2012) writes, "European citizenship is at its core a transnational construction with free movement rights and nationality as the main building blocks" (p. 2).
Countries outside of Europe also have entered into cross-national agreements and unions, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the African Union (AU), the 25
Association of Southeast Nations (ASEAN), and the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR)
(Shaw, Grant, & Cornelissen, 2011; Telò, 2014). While these regional and continental groups do not grant the same breadth of transnational rights and freedoms as the EU provides, they have served to strengthen political ties and promote economic integration (Falk, 2002; Maas, 2014).
Yet recent efforts to expand upon these agreements and unions have been modest at best
(Hufbauer & Globerman, 2018; Natalegawa, 2018). Indeed, while some have welcomed global governance and "cosmopolitan democracy" (Archibugi, 2008; Caney, 2005; Held, 1995), others have lamented the rise of international institutions (Axtmann, 2002; Hawthorn, 2003; Zolo,
1997). Critics have argued that "the international order above the scale of the nation-state is largely defined by anarchy" (Smallman & Brown, 2011, p. 375), and that allegiance to an international order may undermine loyalty to a nation-state (Urry, 2000).
Despite this pushback, "rights, duties and participation . . . [have] becom[e] increasingly globally oriented" (el-Ojeili & Hayden, 2006, p. 112). As state and non-state actors work together in multilateral and transnational organizations, citizens increasingly view themselves in relation to their global counterparts (Langran, 2016). Where countries form political alliances, the citizens of those nation-states gradually develop ties and bonds with one another (Pierik &
Werner, 2010). These citizens, also known as transnational citizens, "transcend the nation state"
(Stokes, 2004, p. 121).
Economic Globalization
Economic globalization "refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital and wide and rapid spread of technologies" (Shangquan, 2000, p. 1). Since the end of World War II, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) (which the World 26
Trade Organization (WTO) replaced in 1995), the World Bank, and IMF have served to open markets, lower tariffs, and expand global trade (Beatty & Samuelson, 1996; Braithwaite &
Drahos, 2000; Kennedy, 1998). The World Bank was designed to promote economic development and combat poverty around the globe by providing loans to governments of the developing world (Gilbert & Vines, 2000; Woods, 2006). The IMF, which also provides loans to other nations (Bird, 2003), aims "to ensure the stability of the international monetary system— the system of exchange rates and international payments that enables countries and their citizens to transact with each other" (International Monetary Fund, 2018). And, the WTO seeks to regulate and ensure the free flow of global trade among various countries (Hoekman & Kostecki,
1995).
Over the past few decades, economic globalization has brought individuals, neighborhoods, local communities, and nations together (Langran, 2016; Zhao, 2014).
Companies and corporations have increasingly spread to other parts of the world (Kordos &
Vojtovic, 2016). Consequently, citizens have felt less isolated and more part of a global community (Csaba, 2003; Stiglitz, 2002), leading to "important implications for the nature and prospects of global citizenship" (Newlands, 2002, p. 213).
While not a panacea for the economic challenges confronting developed and developing countries, on the whole, international trade and foreign aid have helped a number of nations
(Goldin & Reinert, 2006; Stiglitz, 2002). Globalization has lowered poverty rates and increased economic growth in some countries (Shin, 2009), and created a higher standard of living
(Bhagwati, 2004; Sachs, 2005; Wolf, 2004). According to the World Health Organization
(WHO) (2016), global life expectancy has increased over the past few decades. At the same time, economic globalization also has helped multinational companies acquire knowledge and 27
refine business practices (Inkpen & Tsang, 2005; Mamman, Baydoun, Sulaiman, & Ismail,
2013). Employees have had more opportunities to work off-site or live overseas (Gonzalez,
2011; Schattle, 2006; Stark, 2011; The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2014), and impact local communities (Schattle, 2008).
When a corporation becomes multinational and no longer bound by the confines of a nation-state, new corporate challenges can arise, however (Wettstein, 2005). According to some scholars, economic globalization can have negative consequences for global citizens (Buckman,
2004; Cavanagh & Mander, 2002; Langran, 2016), including higher unemployment for failing companies; and deterioration of the "natural environment and the health, safety, working conditions and wages of employees" (Newlands, 2002, p. 217). Economic globalization also can favor the interests of corporations over those of everyday citizens (Cruikshank, 1998). Other scholars cite increased poverty and homelessness, a growing disparity between the rich and poor, and worldwide recessions as further evidence that global financial institutions have failed to cure the ills of capitalism (Cruikshank, 1998; Tuca, 2014).
The shortcomings and inequalities of economic globalization have led some to advocate for a new type of global citizenship known as transnational activism (Isiksel, 2013; Newlands,
2002). Some of these activists have fought to restructure or abolish the World Bank, IMF, and
WTO, and even proposed creating a world central bank (Newlands, 2002; Schattle, 2008).
Others have advocated to:
reduce the relative voting strength of rich countries;
involve civil society in less developed countries more in the design and implementation
of development programmes; 28
and police the operations of transnational corporations more effectively (Newlands, 2002,
p. 220).
By the turn of the 21st century, more global activists publicly protested against economic globalization in cities across the world, such as Prague and Seattle (Bisley, 2007; Newlands,
2002; Schattle, 2008). In 2011, in the wake of the global financial crisis of 2008, the anti- globalization movement intensified with Occupy Wall Street (OWS) protests spreading from
New York to the rest of the globe (Schattle, 2012; Smith, 2012). As leading economist Stiglitz
(2002) pondered: "Why has globalization—a force that has brought so much good—become so controversial?" (p. 4).
To address these types of challenges, Scholte (2001) calls for more global governance and regulation. He suggests upgrading the International Labour Organization (ILO) and WTO along with creating a global competition agency, world financial authority, world environmental organization, and global tax office (Scholte, 2001). Taking a different tack, Schwab (2008) explains that companies should commit themselves to "global corporate citizenship" and invest as stakeholders in society to a degree to which government does. Through global corporate citizenship, multinational companies can "identify[ ], analy[ze], and respond[ ] to the company's social, political, and economic responsibilities as defined through law and public policy, stakeholder expectations, and voluntary acts flowing from corporate values and business strategies" (Post & Berman, 2001, p. 68). Despite these differing viewpoints on economic globalization, there is growing consensus that a responsible global corporation should commit to broader universal values; reduce the economic, social, and environmental risks associated with operating a business overseas; develop new goods and services to benefit the company and society; and monitor progress in the abovementioned areas (Nelson, 2004). 29
Cultural Globalization
Cultural globalization "describes the interconnectivity between the global and the local in terms of social practices and customs" (Green, 2010, p. 13). It also refers to "the emergence of a specific set of values and beliefs that are largely shared around the planet" (Castells, 2009, p.
117). These values and beliefs are universally disseminated through technology and mass media with the objective of creating a "global village" (McLuhan, 1964), "global culture" (Robertson,
1992) or "world society" (Albrow, 1996). Cultural globalization has kept pace with the political and economic trends of globalization following World War II. Take the United States, for example, which has exported popular culture across the globe, including cinema, music, art, commercial products, food, sports, clothing, and the internet (Crane, 2014; Crothers, 2007; van
Elteren, 2011). During this time period, the world also has witnessed an unprecedented telecommunications or digital revolution (e.g., computers, cellular phones, social media)
(Kolodko, 2011) that redefined global borders (Ahmad, 2013; Crothers, 2007).
With the variety of effects that cultural globalization has had on countries across the globe (Berger, 1997; Heywood, 2011; Hopper, 2007; Wise, 2008), one scholar has classified the phenomena through the framework of the following three theses: homogenization, polarization, and hybridization (Holton, 2000). The homogenization thesis proffers that, beginning with the advent of the Information Age during the 1950s, globalization contributed to a cultural convergence aligned to the American or westernized way of life (Holton, 2000). Yet, at the same time, there have been limits and resistance to homogenization (Tomlinson, 2003). And while some scholars simply use the terms "Americanization" or "Westernization" to describe
American mass culture (Artz & Kamalipour, 2003; Holton, 2000; Langran, 2016), others have suggested that cultural globalization represents a form of cultural imperialism, citing examples 30
such as "Coca-colonization," "McDonaldization," or "McDisneyization" (Howes, 1996; O'Byrne,
2003; Ritzer, 1993; Ritzer & Liska, 1997; Tomlinson, 1999).
Keeping with this critique, the polarization thesis contends that cultural globalization can lead to conflict and discord (Holton, 2000). While "simplistic" and "pessimistic," this thesis
"tells a vivid, morally loaded story, easy to translate into one or another version of the struggle between good and bad, sacred and profane, depending on the location of the storyteller in time and space" (Holton, 2000, p. 148). Huntington (1993) agrees with the premise of this thesis, suggesting at the end of the Cold War that much of global discord is rooted in cultural differences. Nonetheless, some scholars have been critical of Huntington's "clash of civilizations" thesis, suggesting that his claims about civilization and culture are unfounded (el-
Ojeili & Hayden, 2006; Fox, 2002; Said, 2001). Akimoto (2017) proposes how global citizens can avoid this conflict, calling for inter-civilizational dialogue to foster global citizenship and a
"global identity."
The hybridization thesis posits that cultural globalization "encourages a blending of the diverse set of cultural repertoires made available through cross-border exchange" (Holton, 2000, p. 141). This practice involves global and local cultures combining to form new and distinctive hybrid cultures or identities (Ritzer & Dean, 2015; Rowe & Schelling, 1991). Hybridization in a globalized world has resulted in an "increase in the available modes of organization," which include "transnational," "international," or "macroregional" levels (Pieterse, 1995, p. 50). In this pluralistic and far-reaching society, different citizens, food, musical genre, and mass media, among others, forge a "global mélange" of cultures (Axford, 2013; Benyon & Dunkerley, 2000;
Pieterse, 2003). 31
Each of the abovementioned theses explore how citizens of different countries may view themselves in relation to others, and the potential for resulting tensions between a global or
"cosmopolitan outlook and one that is rooted in local or communitarian interests" (Langran,
2016, p. 3). While some scholars see cultural globalization as a positive force that promotes progress, understanding, and diversity among global citizens (Rothkopf, 1997; Wang, 2007), others consider it a threat to their local identity or culture, and express skepticism that a global village, culture, or society exists in reality (Guibernau, 2007; Guillén, 2001; Hirst & Thompson,
1996). Despite these differences, Friedman (2007) stresses the continuing importance of culture in a globalized world, writing: "To reduce a country's economic performance to culture alone is ridiculous, but to analyze a country's economic performance without reference to culture is equally ridiculous" (p. 420).
Part II: Global Citizenship
In recent years, the phenomenon of globalization has expanded the definition of citizenship beyond national borders (Acharya, 2012). While the concept of global citizenship has roots that extend as far back as ancient Greece and Rome (Dower, 2000; Schattle, 2009), in the last few decades, recent trends toward globalization have continued to redefine notions of global community and connection (Gamble, 2010). Terms like "globalization" and "global citizenship" have become increasingly common to our vernacular (Rapoport, 2013; Tully, 2014) and "represent concepts that are connected intricately and complexly" (Langran, 2016, p. 1).
The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) broadly describes global citizenship as "belonging to a broader community and common humanity," and "political, economic, social and cultural interdependency and interconnectedness 32
between the local, the national and the global" (UNESCO, 2015, p. 14). The United Nations
Children's Fund (UNICEF) assigns certain traits to a global citizen, including:
appreciation for diversity and global interconnectedness;
desire to confront societal inequities;
willingness to act meaningfully (UNICEF, 2013).
Another multinational organization, Oxfam, includes similar characteristics when defining global citizenship, while also adding the following traits:
concern for environmental problems;
commitment to sustainability;
ability to critically think and reason;
appreciation and empathy for others to promote conflict resolution;
recognition of self-worth and identity (Oxfam, 2006).
Scholars also have advanced similar definitions of global citizenship (Carter, 2001; Diaz,
Massialas, & Xanthopoulos, 1999; Noddings, 2005; Reysen & Katzarska-Miller, 2013). Diaz,
Massialas, and Xanthopoulos (1999) define a global citizen as someone "who is characterized by an attitude of openness toward all others, irrespective of their gender, race, ethnicity, age, religion, and language" (p. 191). Noddings (2005) highlights the need to achieve economic and social justice, protect the earth, embrace social and cultural diversity, and educate for peace.
Carter (2001) agrees that global citizens adhere to "social justice, diversity, sustainable economic development respecting the environment and to a peaceful world" (p. 98).
The subsections that follow expound on the defining traits of global citizenship set forth by Reysen and Katzarska-Miller (2013), which perhaps best captures the above definitions:
global awareness; 33
caring;
cultural diversity;
social justice;
sustainability;
responsibility to act.
Global Awareness
Global awareness means understanding the interrelated nature of the world (Dower,
2002; Pike, 2008). It "refers to knowledge of globalization and the resulting issues and problems that affect everyone's lives" (Gibson, Rimmington, & Landwehr-Brown, 2008, p. 15). Werner and Case (1997) define global awareness through four concepts: knowledge of cultural principles and traditions; appreciation for the interconnected nature of global systems; understanding of global concerns; and recognition of the global past and future.
Global citizenship requires global awareness to wrestle with the pressing economic, social, environmental, cultural, and ethical issues of the 21st century (Noddings, 2005). In business and governmental circles, employers increasingly have stressed the importance of understanding different cultures and developing 21st century skills (Bruett, 2006; Mendoza,
2007) by, for example, studying abroad (Trooboff, Vande Berg, & Rayman, 2008). For instance, the Partnership for 21st Century Learning (2015) stresses that global awareness promotes collaboration in the workplace and broader community. Given the demands of a rapidly changing world, global awareness is increasingly necessary for American leaders and employees of various industries (Bowerman & Van Wart, 2014; Milman, 2015). Exhibiting global awareness also may create more career opportunities, improve decision making, and enhance entrepreneurial and leadership skills (Goldsmith, 2012). 34
In education, colleges and universities also have increasingly stressed studying abroad as a means to learning another language and becoming more culturally aware (DeLoach, Kurt, &
Olitsky, 2015; Gieser, 2015; Haring-Smith, 2011; Kurt, Olitsky, & Geis, 2013; Wang, Peyvandi,
& Coffey, 2014). As Clarke (2004) argues, "[f]oreign languages are essential for a world of intercultural convergence" (p. 68) and the necessary part of a curriculum. Sisk (2010) and
Roeper (2008) focus particularly on gifted children or students "who exhibit high ability across one or more academic subject areas" (Bates & Munday, 2005, p. 4). Their studies have shown that gifted students, with the support of loving and caring adults, can develop the traits of a global citizen, (i.e., "empathy and sensitivity to justice, honesty, fairness, and a sense of responsibility for making a difference" (Sisk, 2010, p. 10), and "aware[ness] of the world around them" (Roeper, 2008, p. 9)). Incorporating global awareness into curricula helps students to understand and address important 21st century challenges (Burnouf, 2004).
Caring
Another key component of global citizenship is caring, namely the ability to express empathy and understanding for others (Reysen & Katzarska-Miller, 2013). Noddings (2005) explains that, "The demands of caring for involve not only immediate response . . . but also concern for the future" (p. 7). She adds that: "Caring for . . . requires us to respond to expressed needs and to monitor the effects of our actions and react anew to the responses of those we care for" (Noddings, 2005, p. 7).
Caring for the global community and humanity is a responsibility globally conscious citizens should share (Dill, 2013). Indeed, according to UNESCO (2015), one of the key learner attributes for a global citizen is "to develop motivation and willingness to care for the common good" (p. 29). For instance, in the medical field, nurses care for a global population that 35
transcends borders and cultural barriers (Cesario, 2017). Indeed, "[b]eing a global citizen and a cosmopolitan nurse . . . requires participation in, and valuing of, the common good of society as a whole" (Petit dit Dariel, 2009, p. 569).
"Caring" also is an important ethos for teachers entering the profession (Hawks & Pillay,
2017). Countries over the past few decades like Sweden have started to incorporate this principle of "care" into their pedagogy for students at an early age (Johansson, 2009). Ruby
(2014) concludes "as we debate the ways to educate young people for global roles . . . that a duty of all is . . . to care for others" (p. 54).
Cultural Diversity
As discussed above, global citizenship is based on "shared membership and shared global values" (Mullens & Cuper, 2012, p. 44). Ibrahim (2004) specifically connects the concept of
"cultural diversity" with "global citizenship," calling for organizations such as Oxfam to promote multiculturalism both locally and globally. As UNESCO (2002) noted in its Universal
Declaration on Cultural Diversity, cultural diversity is "the common heritage of humanity" (p.
62) In this declaration, UNESCO (2002) explained that cultural diversity "is embodied in the uniqueness and plurality of the identities of the groups and societies making up humankind" (p.
62). "Embracing cultural diversity" is a significant part of global citizenship (Reysen &
Katzarska-Miller, 2013, p. 860).
In certain countries, such as Spain, cultural diversity is part of a broader educational curriculum (Engel, 2014). Exploring Spain's 2006 Education for Citizenship and Human Rights curriculum (later replaced in 2013) along with corresponding textbooks, Engel (2014) explains that "cultural diversity is conveyed largely through non-threatening ideas of global connections such as in relation to food, festivals, and flags" (p. 251). The National Commission for 36
UNESCO (2016) also emphasizes cultural diversity and interdependence as part of a global citizenship related curriculum. Banks (2004) argues that each democratic nation-state should encourage citizens to preserve their traditions and heritage as they participate in society and the global community. He also stresses the importance of citizens in diverse democratic societies being literate, thoughtful, ethical, and engaged "citizens of their nation and the world" (Banks,
2003, p. 19).
To confront 21st century challenges, Fedoroff (2012) calls for the creation of "a global knowledge society" (p. 503). Others, however, have expressed concern that shared global values may discourage cultural diversity (Arneil, 2007; Cheng, 2012). In response to Fedoroff (2012),
Cheng (2012) writes that a "global knowledge society" could undermine the character of local cultures and, therefore, serve to inhibit cultural diversity, calling instead for "a global mosaic of multiple, pluralistic knowledge societies, each rooted in its own unique cultural identity" (p.
157). Arneil (2007) also takes issue with "anchoring citizenship at the global level in a set of shared values," warning of "the potential to do violence to cultural diversity at best or engage in western cultural imperialism at worst" (p. 315). As Zayani (2011) concludes, preserving cultural diversity "is a complex endeavor" (p. 49).
Social Justice
Although the definition can vary among scholarly authors, social justice broadly refers to a process whereby every individual or group works to challenge oppression and receive the same opportunity, regardless of their race, religion, gender, or sexual orientation (Bell, 2007; Bhugra,
2016; Garcia & Van Soest, 2006; Greene, 1998). White (2007) explains that, "Social justice and cultural diversity tend to be important societal issues in the 21st century" (p. 1). As a 37
consequence, some nation-states have increasingly embraced not only cultural, but also racial, religious, ethnic, and language diversity (Banks, 2004).
Scholars have expressly tied the principle of "social justice" to a globalizing world
(Brock, 2009; Fraser, 2009). Brock (2009), for instance, calls for a cosmopolitan model of global justice that addresses various international challenges while preserving the national identity of citizens. To achieve social justice in a globalizing world, Fraser (2009) proposes a theory based on redistribution, recognition, and representation. Redistribution refers to socioeconomic matters, such as poverty or unequal educational opportunities (Fraser, 2009).
Recognition corresponds to sociocultural issues that affect one's social identity or standing
(Fraser, 2009). And, representation relates to political affairs, exploring decision-making procedures and membership within a community (Fraser, 2009). Each of the above ideas advance a different approach to confronting social injustices in an ever-globalizing society.
Moreover, social justice education and pedagogy have provided teachers with growing opportunities to raise social awareness in the classroom (Adams, 2007; Hytten, 2015). As
Adams (2007) notes, educators can foster "connections between awareness and action by helping participants recognize various spheres of influence in their daily lives" (p. 30). Howe and Xu
(2013) also stress social action, calling for teachers to play a significant role in fostering both social justice and global citizenship. With the assistance and guidance of teachers, students can learn to "share the world and live together in harmony and peace" (Howe & Xu, 2013, p. 41).
Sustainability
Being a global citizen also requires accountability, flexibility, and collaboration (Patel,
Li, & Sooknanan, 2011). To address climate change and other critical environmental challenges, educational institutions have recognized the importance of sustainability research (Brundiers & 38
Wiek, 2011; Rowe, 2007). According to a World Commission on Environment and
Development (1987) report, sustainable development broadly refers to "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (p. 43). Sustainability also can be described "as an intertemporal relationship between human needs and human productive capacities, as a relationship between human welfare at different stages of human development" (Norton, 1992, pp. 98-99). To better understand sustainability, Elkington (1994) has employed the business term "triple bottom line" (TBL), categorizing this commitment along environmental, financial, and social lines.
First, through an environmental or ecological perspective, some scholars have recognized the responsibility citizens share in affecting our supply of natural resources and materials
(Dobson, 2011; Heater, 2004; Marzall, 2005). Heater (2004) views it as "a moral responsibility"
(p. 12). Given its importance, Marzall (2005) advocates for environmental laws and ethics.
Dobson (2011) adds that environmentally conscious citizens are "driven by a belief in fairness of the distribution of environmental goods, in participation, and in the co-creation of sustainability policy" (p. 10).
Second, some scholars have examined sustainability from an economic standpoint (Foy,
1990; Laasch & Conaway, 2015; Penner & Sanderse, 2017). Economic sustainability "ensur[es] that future generations have at least the same economic opportunities as the current generation"
(Pearce & Barbier, 2000, p. 18). To build a more sustainable and just society, Penner and
Sanderse (2017) argue that children must be educated in global citizenship and sustainable development, and call for the inclusion of Economic Citizenship Education (ECE) in school curricula at the local, national, and global level. Ensuring long-term economic sustainability is 39
also critical at the organizational level, as companies seek to adopt responsible management strategies and practices (Laasch & Conaway, 2015).
Third, some scholars have examined sustainability from a social standpoint (Barbier,
1987; Benn & Bolton, 2011; Colantonio, 2009; Polèse & Stren, 2000). While few scholars have defined the term "social sustainability," of those who have, their definitions are largely consistent. For instance, Barbier (1987) broadly defines the term as adhering to social values, customs, and characteristics. Polèse and Stren (2000) define it as "compatible cohabitation of culturally and socially diverse groups . . . encouraging social integration" (pp. 15-16).
Furthermore, from a business or corporate point of view, social sustainability specifically refers to a "corporation internally creat[ing] a supportive and developmental environment for staff and externally meet[ing] the legitimate expectations of key stakeholders" (Benn & Bolton, 2011, p.
64). Tying these concepts together, global citizens have an environmental, financial, and social responsibility to protect and safeguard the quality of life and rights of others through community initiatives (Leslie, 2009).
Responsibility to Act
The responsibility to act requires a global citizen who "knows how the world works, is outraged by injustice and who is both willing and enabled to take action to meet this global challenge" (Oxfam, 1997, p. 1). Responsibility "involves being proactive, and taking the initiative . . . rather than waiting for others to take the first steps" (Schattle, 2008, p. 44). In this case, global citizens feel a duty to initiate change, inspiring others to join this cause on their own volition (Schattle, 2008). One of the more notable, wide-reaching examples of this commitment to act is the Global Poverty Project co-founded by Hugh Evans and Simon Moss in 2008 (Bryan,
2016; McKinley, 2012). Among the global citizenship initiatives of this project is the Global 40
Citizen Festival, which brings world leaders, celebrities, and activists together to raise awareness and money for global causes (Bryan, 2016).
There are other important, albeit less publicized, examples of action initiatives. While
Associate Professor and Social Studies Education Program Director at Columbia University's
Teachers College, William Gaudelli (2016) designed and founded the Global Competence
Certificate (GCC) program (Levine, 2014). Partnering with World Savvy and the Asia Society, this program helps teachers become more proficient in global issues by taking online courses and traveling abroad to Bangladesh, Tanzania, Colombia, or Uganda (Levine, 2014). Another initiative, the Belize Education Project, encourages students and teachers in the United States and Belize to take action and create lasting partnerships (Fry, Griffin, & Kirshner, 2012).
Moreover, The Global Citizens' Initiative (TGCI), founded by Ron Israel (2012), strives to further the goals of global citizenship through advocacy, citizen engagement, and education.
This member-based organization is simply a "call to action" for global citizens (Israel, 2012, p.
161).
To initiate this call to action and educate for global citizenship, Gaudelli (2015) proposes three recommendations: adopting curricular reforms; encouraging teachers and students to embrace exchange programs and online discussion forums; and calling for citizens to create gardens and grow food in order for students in their community to better understand the ecosystem. Through dialogue and collaboration, teachers can effect change through the classroom and prepare citizens to meet some of the pressing global challenges (Gaudelli, 2016).
As Gunzelmann (2014) concludes, "We all must come to terms and step up to take responsibility, for each and every one of us plays an important part in the outcome of our global world" (p.
173). 41
Part III: Global Citizenship Education
In this new age of globalization, global citizenship education has become part of high school curricula in several countries across the globe, including Japan, China, the UK, and
Canada, among others (Bickmore, 2014; Brown, Morgan, & McGrath, 2009; Chong, 2015;
Davies, Evans, & Reid, 2005; Evans, Ingram, MacDonald, & Weber, 2009; Motani, 2007).
Given its broad appeal around the world, global citizenship "focuses on preparation for civic engagement in increasingly diverse and global contexts" (Whitehead, 2015, p. 8). Global citizenship education is perhaps best defined as an instructional field that seeks to hone students' critical thinking skills while teaching them to be agents of change in society (Bickmore, 2009;
Peterson & Warwick, 2015; UNESCO, 2015). While global citizenship education has become the subject of increasing scholarly attention in the United States, it has not become part of high school curricula in the same way that it has in other countries (Burnside & Mackesy, 2015;
DiCicco, 2016; Rapoport, 2010; Reimers et al., 2016). This section of the literature review examines how the United States and other countries have promoted global citizenship education through curricular reform, teacher preparation (pre-service and professional development programs), and active learning.
Curricular Reform
Curricular standards derive from state and local requirements on academic content in the classroom (Maloy & Laroche, 2015). Such standards "are a channel of political influence of the society on education" and "are the major document that guides curricular policy" (Rapoport,
2013, p. 410). Global citizenship education has not become a standard staple of high school curricula in the United States (Reimers et al., 2016). Nevertheless, there have been examples of curriculum development. Take, for example, Avenues: The World School, which in 2012 42
incorporated global citizenship education into its curriculum (Reimers et al., 2016). At Avenues, the World Course seeks to teach students global citizenship education through an interdisciplinary curriculum that includes social studies, economics, and geography (Reimers et al., 2016). Yet, as recently as a decade ago, only 15 states used the term "globalization" and only
Maryland and Mississippi incorporated the term "global citizen" in their social studies standards
(Rapoport, 2009). Terms like "globalization" and "global citizenship" are frequently missing from U.S. content standards (Rapoport, 2009).
Teachers in the United States have not had enough discretion to tailor curricula or initiate discussions on global issues (Rapoport, 2013). On the other hand, certain countries outside the
United States afford teachers greater autonomy over the curriculum (Myers, 2007; Schweisfurth,
2006). Studying curricula in Canada and Brazil, Myers (2007) concludes that teachers in some schools had the freedom to modify instructional practices and curricular standards when teaching citizenship education. In another study, Schweisfurth (2006) examines the civics curriculum in
Ontario, Canada, which, like the United States, can be restrictive. Nevertheless, the more motivated teachers found creative ways to instruct students in global citizenship education
(Schweisfurth, 2006).
Curricula from other countries also have placed greater emphasis on global citizenship education (Bickmore, 2014; Brown, Morgan, & McGrath, 2009; Chong, 2015; Evans, Ingram,
MacDonald, & Weber, 2009; Guo, 2014; Lee & Leung, 2006; Motani, 2007; Xing, 2015).
During the mid-1990s, for example, Japan incorporated global citizenship education into its curricula as part of a larger progressive educational movement (Motani, 2007). Specifically, the
Ministry of Education in Japan has created a new discipline entitled "integrated studies" to teach global citizenship education (Motani, 2007). Fields related to global citizenship education have 43
gained traction in Japan, including development, guidance, environmental, human rights, and global education (Motani, 2007). Moreover, the National Curriculum of 2002 developed specific student-centered standards intended to groom global citizens across Japan (Motani, 2007).
In China (e.g., Hong Kong and Shanghai), teachers have focused on integrating global citizenship education into secondary schools (Lee & Leung, 2016). In the UK, schools and organizations (e.g., Council for Education in World Citizenship, One World Trust) have a history of promoting global citizenship education within the National Curriculum (Brown, Morgan, &
McGrath, 2009; Gough, 2013; Pike, 2008). More recently, within the past decade, global citizenship education has received increasing curricular attention in Canada from ministries of education, schools, non-governmental organizations, and agencies (e.g., Canadian International
Development Agency) (MacDonald-Vemic, Evans, Ingram, & Weber, 2015; Pike, 2008).
To advance global issues within U.S. curricula, DiCicco (2016) concludes that
"curriculum frameworks like the Common Core need to be expanded to make room for robust global citizenship education" (p. 18). Myers (2006) analyzes two American high school programs that "teach about the world" and, based on his study, concludes that "social studies curriculum makers should consider the ways that curriculum topics can address the local-global relationship as well as integrate current scholarship on globalization" (pp. 389-390). Lessons and studies from other countries can serve as an example for U.S. curricula to connect local, national, and global issues. In Northern Ireland's Council for the Curriculum, Examinations &
Assessment (CCEA), for instance, 15- and 16-year old students are expected to "identify and exercise their rights and social responsibilities in relation to local, national and global issues"
(Gallagher & Duffy, 2016, p. 532). In Hong Kong, the Curriculum Development Council (CDC) and the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) aim "to cultivate 44
students' sensitivity about diversity, and bring to light their interests and concerns for local, national and global issues" (Chong, 2015, p. 234).
Preparing Teachers for Global Citizenship Education
There is little scholarship addressing American pre-service and in-service high school teacher training in global citizenship education. As such, this strand primarily examines how other countries have trained teachers in this discipline.
Pre-Service Training. Several scholars have stressed that increased content knowledge and pedagogical training are necessary to prepare prospective educators in global citizenship
(Carr, Pluim, & Howard, 2014; Gallavan, 2008; Guo, 2014; Howe, 2013; Rapoport, 2013).
Gallavan (2008) adds that "[t]eacher candidates must be competent, confident, and ready to share the complexities associated with world citizenship" (p. 252). Proficiency in global citizenship education also requires competency, through hands-on instruction, in the following areas of study: the interdependence and interconnectedness of the world; diversity of viewpoints; and cultural, social, and ethnic norms (Guo, 2014).
According to a recent UNESCO report, various countries have not made global citizenship education a mandatory part of their traditional teacher education programs (McEvoy,
2016). Regarding the United States, teacher education programs have proven unable "to develop pre-service teachers' global competencies" (Aydarova & Marquardt, 2016, p. 24). To groom globally competent educators, Zhao (2010) proposes changes to American teacher education programs (e.g., more opportunities for students to attend conferences, study abroad programs, and courses covering global issues).
To prepare teachers for this field, American universities and education departments have begun to incorporate global components into general education courses. Both William Paterson 45
University in New Jersey and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte offer courses in international education and non-Western areas of study (Reimers et al., 2016). Other institutions have stressed the importance of study abroad programs and knowledge of foreign languages (Longview Foundation, 2008). Some universities, like Miami University, Ohio State
University, the University of Oklahoma, the University of San Diego, and the University of
Wisconsin-Madison allow pre-service teachers to work as instructors outside the United States to promote global competency (Longview Foundation, 2008).
Some undergraduate and graduate schools in Canada and Japan have begun to prepare prospective teachers to educate on global issues in elementary and secondary schools (Guo 2014;
Howe, 2013). For instance, Canadian Faculties of Education have integrated global citizenship education in their teacher education programs, including the University of Ottawa, University of
Toronto, University of British Columbia, University of Prince Edward Island (UPEI), Queen's
University, and University of Alberta (MacDonald-Vemic, Evans, Ingram, & Weber, 2015). In fact, UPEI and UNICEF Canada designed an undergraduate course entitled "Educating for
Global Citizenship," which has become mandatory for the teacher preparation program at UPEI
(Guo, 2014). This course contains nine sections:
1) Introduction to global citizenship and global citizenship education;
2) Goals and objectives of education for global citizenship;
3) Key concepts and themes in global citizen education;
4) GCE pedagogy;
5) GCE assessment and evaluation;
6) Rights respecting educational practices;
7) Valuing and promoting diversity through GCE; 46
8) Connecting GCE to school curricula;
9) GCE in action (Guo, 2014, p. 5).
Guo (2014) conducted a three-year study at UPEI, finding that greater emphasis on global citizenship education at the undergraduate level helps teaching candidates increase interest in learning, hone analytical skills, appreciate multiple perspectives and diversity, and commit to action. The federal government in Canada spearheaded a Global Classroom Initiative, known as
Strengthening Global Education in Canadian Faculties of Education (Guo, 2014). As part of this initiative, more than 7,000 prospective and current educators partook in workshops related to global education (Guo, 2014). While a master's degree can help teachers learn about this important field of study, undergraduate teacher education programs that focus on global citizenship issues (e.g., cultural diversity, social justice, etc.) can be effective as well (Howe,
2013). Citing examples from Canada and Japan, Howe (2013) concludes that integrating global citizenship education into undergraduate programs can help provide teachers with the tools needed to nurture the next generation of global citizens.
In-Service Professional Development. The literature reviewed for this section demonstrates that professional development opportunities help train current educators in global citizenship (Gallavan, 2008; Harshman & Augustine, 2013; Larsen & Faden, 2008). Some states have created professional development programs to prepare teachers in global competency. One such program, the California International Studies Project, assists educators in low-performing schools by providing them with educational resources related to global issues at workshops and institutes (Reimers et al., 2016). Another statewide initiative, the University of Vermont Asian
Studies Outreach Program, provides instruction in various areas of Asian history and culture for teachers at the K-12 level (Reimers et al., 2016). Other programs and universities are starting to 47
build partnerships with state departments of education (e.g., Ohio, Indiana) to help internationalize curricula and train teachers in global studies (Frey & Whitehead, 2009; Reimers et al., 2016).
New forms of technology and online resources offer ways for teachers to educate for global citizenship (Johnson, Boyer, & Brown, 2011; Lim, 2008; Maguth, 2012). While educators in social studies have not always embraced the "educative potential of technology" in the digital age (Maguth, 2012, p. 70), one study out of Singapore shows how technology can help educators grow as global citizens (Lim, 2008). After all, the advent of the Internet has transformed the way that teachers instruct their students (Luan, Fung, Nawawi, & Hong, 2005).
Furthermore, a study on the impact of the Internet on International Baccalaureate teachers across more than 30 countries shows how online discussion forums empower them to formulate diverse beliefs (Harshman & Augustine, 2013). Harshman and Augustine (2013) suggest that online discussion forums can bring global citizenship educators together to share professional and pedagogical teaching practices. This study concludes that these online discussion forums prompt not only professional growth, but also personal reflection (Harshman & Augustine, 2013).
In addition to technology, Myers (2007) and Schweisfurth (2006) explore the role of teachers incorporating citizenship education into their instruction through another pedagogical model. Focusing on secondary teachers from Brazil and Canada, Myers (2007) underscores the importance of teacher involvement in local politics. Politically active teachers better prepared students to think critically about their localities and country (Myers, 2007). Furthermore, in a study of six secondary teachers from Canada, Schweisfurth (2006) demonstrates how motivated teachers worked with non-governmental organizations (NGOs), a network of like-minded educators, and various institutions to pool resources together in the pursuit of global citizenship 48
education. Schweisfurth (2006) concludes that even in a school environment where global citizenship education is not stressed, teachers can take the initiative to further the goals of this discipline.
Active Learning
The final strand analyzes how students in the United States can actively learn through global citizenship education to explore diverse cultural viewpoints and become global citizens of the 21st century. To create "an active global citizen and worker capable of taking on a new global identity and responsibility" (Vásquez, 2006, p. 48), some studies have shown that a more inclusive global curriculum helps students better understand other countries and cultures along with their place in the world (Johnson, Boyer, & Brown, 2011; Myers, 2010). As students engage in "active learning" and consider "diverse perspectives," they can become more globally aware citizens (Johnson, Boyer, & Brown, 2011, p. 513).
According to Oxfam (2006), global citizens of all ages should actively engage in and learn about issues that have varying and contentious opinions. Niens and Reilly (2012) agree that students should study controversial issues, particularly with regard to their country's history.
For instance, a study of students from nine schools across Northern Ireland shows that global citizenship education may help students begin to repair fractured local identities (Niens & Reilly,
2012). In some cases, however, teachers have shown reluctance to address these "complex contemporary issues" (e.g., war and conflict) (Yamashita, 2006, p. 38) in the classroom, highlighting the challenges confronting students and teachers in this endeavor.
Studies also examine the role of technology in preparing students for global challenges
(Johnson, Boyer, & Brown, 2011; Lim, 2008; Maguth, 2012). In many classrooms today, students do not use technology enough to address global issues (Maguth, 2012). However, as 49
more schools embrace technology, students are slowly gaining more exposure (Cennamo, Ross,
& Ertmer, 2010; Wiley, 2014). Through student interviews, online discussions, and document analysis, Maguth (2012) correlates the use of technology with teaching global citizenship to students. Pre-and post-test scores on the technology-driven GlobalEd Project demonstrate increased student knowledge, communication skills, and problem-solving ability related to global issues (Johnson, Boyer, & Brown, 2011).
Moreover, Lim (2008) explains how students can take on an active role as global citizens through the use of technology. Using a classroom computer game, students in two classes from
Singapore were able to explore diverse concepts related to English, mathematics, and science
(Lim, 2008). The educational multiuser virtual environment (MUVE) helps keep students engaged through the learning process, and conduct their own research on global and local issues
(Lim, 2008). Yet, technology may not be enough. In particular, Rye (2013) examines the limitations of technology and the Internet in developing global citizens among students. While providing students with useful information, Rye (2013) concludes that the Internet may not help them develop a strong connection to another area of the world.
Finally, to cultivate engaged, active learners in the study of global citizenship education, it can be helpful to create a student-centered learning environment outside and inside the classroom (Reimers et al., 2016). Teachers, for instance, need to integrate more field experiences (e.g., service-learning, community initiatives, and special out-of-school projects), and travel outside the community to another state or country (Gallavan, 2008). Classroom instruction, along with field experiences, service-learning, cultural activities, and study abroad programs, also help foster global values and attitudes (Gallavan, 2008; Wynveen, Kyle, &
Tarrant, 2012). 50
According to Miller, Hahs-Vaughn, and Zygouris-Coe (2014), however, the majority of educators still prefer "teacher-centered over student-centered learning environments" (p. 74).
While, in some instances, teachers try to strike a balance between student- and teacher-centered instruction (Maloy & Laroche, 2010), to build an engaged student population of global scholars, educators may need to move further from the middle ground to active student-centered participation on global issues.
A study by the Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education examined the results of student-centered learning, concluding that it is "more likely to develop students who have transferrable academic skills, feel a sense of purpose and connection to school, graduate, and go on to college at higher rates" (Friedlaender et al., 2014, p. 3). This method can help to empower students to find practical solutions to real-world problems (Wurdinger & Carlson, 2010). As students become more independent and pro-active, they should be better prepared for the future
(Crumly, Dietz, & D'Angelo, 2014; Daggett, 2010; Hodges, 2015). After all, personalized learning encourages students to become lifelong learners inside and outside the classroom
(Jenkins, Williams, Moyer, George, & Foster, 2016; United States Department of Education,
2016).
Conclusion
Three strands run through the body of literature reviewed for this study. First, the concept of global citizenship has grown out of the rising tides of political, economic, and cultural globalization since the latter half of the 20th century. Second, global citizens should exhibit the following traits: global awareness, caring, embracing cultural diversity, advocating for social justice, promoting sustainability, and responsibility to act. Third, global citizenship education has developed in the last few decades, and will continue to develop, provided that educational 51
institutions: adopt curricular reforms with a greater emphasis on global citizenship; offer teachers relevant pre-service and in-service training; and prepare students as active learners to meet the global challenges posed by the 21st century. Global citizenship education has a number of important objectives: to develop students' ability to express their ideas and interpretations about global events; to think critically; to apply history to modern-day issues; to draw connections between local and global issues; to value social justice and equality; to evaluate global problems; to integrate knowledge and ideas; to collaborate in group assignments; to use electronic technologies; and to become agents of change in their communities. 52
Chapter Three: Research Design
A case study requires an investigator to conduct research in a real-world, present-day setting through the framework of a "research paradigm" (Creswell, 2013; Guba & Lincoln,
1994). The purpose of this qualitative, single instrumental case study was to understand and evaluate, through a constructivist-interpretivist paradigm, the perceptions and experiences of students enrolled in a global studies course. Through this approach, this study researched the following:
1. How is the content of the global studies course structured and conveyed to the students?
How, if at all, does the course incorporate forms of experiential learning?
2. How, if at all, do the students' perspectives of global citizenship (including their roles and responsibilities in a global society) change after taking the course?
3. What, if any, plans do the students have to engage as global citizens after taking the course?
Qualitative Research Approach
Case studies are common to the social sciences (Yin, 2013). Their antecedents date back to the field studies of the early 1900s examining other cultures (Johansson, 2003). From the
1920s to the 1950s, the Sociology Department at the University of Chicago became the center for continued development of the case study (Creswell, 2013). By the 1960s, as textbooks began to include chapters on case studies (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), "a second generation of case study methodology" (Johansson, 2003, p. 6) had emerged to fuse positivism (the data of experience) and hermeneutics (the theory of interpretation).
By the 1980s, Yazan (2015) explains, three leading scholars continued to delineate the contours of the case study (Merriam, 1988; Stake, 1988; Yin, 1984). Yin (1984) defines it as a process of "empirical inquiry" into a "contemporary phenomenon" in a "real-life context" (p. 23). 53
Merriam (1988) characterizes it as a method of "intensive, holistic description" and the "analysis of a single instance, phenomenon, or social unit" (p. 21). Stake (1988) considers it "a bounded system"—be it "a single actor, a single classroom, a single institution, or a single enterprise - usually under natural conditions - so as to understand it in its own habitat" (p. 256).
The interpretivist or constructivist research paradigm—the paradigm chosen for this study—focuses on the "lived experiences" and perspectives of others through "interactive researcher-participant dialogue" (Ponterotto, 2005, p. 129). Through this paradigm, the researcher seeks to understand the subject in a detailed, hands-on way (Butin, 2010; Orlikowski
& Baroudi, 1991); and uses in-depth data gathering efforts through various sources (Merriam,
1991). As part of this process, the researcher must maintain appropriate boundaries with the participants of the study (Charmaz, 2006; Rodwell, 1998).
Participants
This study employed purposeful or purposive sampling, which seeks to "select a sample from which the most can be learned" (Merriam, 1998, p. 61). Through this "non-probability form of sampling," the participants most suited for the study are deliberately selected (Bryman,
2016, p. 408). This decision-making process requires gathering information about the research site and individual participants (Creswell, 2013).
This study took place at an urban public high school in New Jersey, located outside of
New York City, with more than 400 students and approximately 50 faculty members. The research site is expressly committed to the principles of global citizenship, and values diversity, social and racial equality, responsibility, and addressing the challenges of the 21st century. The school offers a number of extracurricular activities (e.g., music, dance, theatre, visual arts, and media arts) and sports to supplement the educational experience of students outside the 54
classroom. The student body is a diverse one, with approximately 63% identifying as Hispanic,
29% as African-American, 4% as Caucasian, and 3% as Asian. The gender breakdown of the student body is approximately 52% female and 48% male.
As part of their curriculum, students must complete 125 academic credits and pass a proficiency examination to graduate. Required coursework includes: English/language arts
(ELA) (20 credits), mathematics (15 credits), health and physical education (20 credits), science
(15 credits), social studies (15 credits), world languages (10 credits), 21st century life and careers
(5 credits), financial, economics, and entrepreneurial literacy (2.5 credits), visual and performing arts (5 credits), and programs within the electives (17.5 credits). One of the programs within the curriculum consists of the international seminar series, which provides students the option to take specialized courses over the course of four years on the water management crisis, genetically engineered foods, free trade and globalization, and human rights.
As part of an Accelerated Cohort, select students can complete the same specialized global studies courses (Accelerated Global Studies I and II) in their first two years of high school. This advanced program of study intends to prepare students for Advanced Placement courses and the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Programme (DP) in the 11th and 12th grades, as discussed further below. To be admitted to the Accelerated Cohort, students must successfully complete an interview; earn at least a 750 on the Partnership for Assessment of
Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) in ELA/literacy and mathematics; and submit an essay (or student portfolio), teacher recommendations, and report cards from middle school, among other things. If accepted, these students must maintain a minimum of a 3.0 grade point average (GPA), participate in a sport or extracurricular activity each year, and fulfill 150 hours of community service, among other things. 55
Select students aged 16-19 also can apply for the IB DP. The IB is an international educational foundation founded five decades ago consisting of four programs (including the IB
DP) (International Baccalaureate, 2016). The IB DP is designed to prepare students for college and the workplace in the 21st century through an international curriculum and service-learning experience (International Baccalaureate, 2012). Designated a "World School" by the IB, the research site offers a DP curriculum that consists of six subject groups and the DP core. Within the six subject groups, students must complete two-year courses (three courses at the higher level consisting of 240 hours of instruction and three courses at the standard level consisting of 150 hours of instruction) and study two languages. The DP core consists of three components: an interdisciplinary course that fosters critical thinking known as theory of knowledge (TOK); an independent research project known as the extended essay (EE); and a variety of experiential and service-learning activities (including community service projects) known as creativity, activity, and service (CAS) (International Baccalaureate, 2016).
Like the sample size of other studies (Fenech, Fenech, & Birt, 2013; Lai, Zhum, &
Zhang, 2014), this study included interviews of nine participants. One participant is an administrator and former global studies teacher. Two participants are currently global studies teachers. And six participants are students from the Accelerated Cohort enrolled in Accelerated
Global Studies II (the second of the two-year course in the global studies curriculum). The student participants were aged 15-16 from the 10th grade. Two-thirds of the student participants identified as female. Three of the student participants identified as Asian, one identified as
Hispanic, one identified as both Hispanic and African American, and one identified as two or more races. Each of the student participants have participated in an experiential, student- 56
centered learning environment involving fieldwork, research assignments, and project-based learning (e.g., a final seminar project).
Procedures
Consistent with recent scholarship, the protocol for this case study included an overview of the project (e.g., general matters, key issues); defined field procedures (e.g., for the purpose of protecting human subjects); interview questions; and a report guide (Yin, 2013). As part of the protocol for interviewing the participants, I prepared a recruitment letter, an informed consent form, and a series of questions designed to evaluate how the participants responded to the course material, and how, if at all, the course motivated them to act and serve as global citizens. The protocol also included a schedule for collecting and analyzing data. Research has shown that a protocol can help the researcher stay on point and generate more reliable findings (Yin, 2013).
Although some scholars suggest using as much as six types of data sources (Stake, 1995; Yin,
2013), this study followed the approach of Merriam (1998) and collected data from three sources: observations, interviews, and documents.
Data Collection Source 1: Observations
Researchers should gather "open-ended, firsthand information" to analyze behavior
(Creswell, 2012, p. 213). For this study, I visited the research site on a few occasions to obtain background information and learn about the school environment. I observed the different ways in which the high school promoted global diversity, including through the architectural layout of the school, the display of flags from numerous countries, and signs and words reflecting the objectives of global citizenship (e.g., compassion, tolerance, responsibility, commitment).
For purposes of this study, I was a nonparticipant observer (i.e., did not partake directly in classroom or school-wide activities) (Creswell, 2013; Flick, 2009). As part of the pre- 57
interview data collection process, I observed student interactions with their peers and the teacher.
I took descriptive and reflective notes through an observational protocol form (Bailey, 2007;
Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2010) and commented on the teachers' and students' rapport.
These notes provided my initial impressions on the space and participants of the study (Creswell,
2012).
Data Collection Source 2: Interviews
Interviews serve to elucidate "the experience of the participants through their stories"
(Seidman, 2006, p. 119). The second phase of the data collection process included interviewing the administrator, teachers, and students participating in the study. Before interviewing the participants, I obtained each interviewee's consent and assured confidentiality to the greatest extent possible (Jacob & Furgerson, 2012). I also described the purpose of the study, noted that the interview would be recorded, and detailed other procedures related to the study (Ravitch &
Carl, 2016).
I conducted one-on-one interviews (ranging from 45 minutes to an hour) with the administrator and teachers after school. Research has shown that one-on-one interviews are effective, and generate more reliable and detailed data (Creswell, 2012; Morrison, Haley,
Sheehan, & Taylor, 2012). I also conducted a focus group with six student participants after school. When questioning the students, I was mindful not to exert too much power or influence
(Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009), and tried to adapt to the different directions of the conversations (Castillo-Montoya, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
The interviews included open-ended questions designed to elicit wide-ranging, personal responses (Creswell, 2012; Pinnegar & Hamilton, 2009) about global citizenship. The first set of questions focused on the participants' academic background and life experience. For students, 58
this included demographic questions about gender, race, and ethnicity in an accompanying survey. The next set of questions covered the aims and objectives of global citizenship, as well as how the students understood the meaning of global citizenship and the pros and cons of being a global citizen.
The participants were asked to describe the role of experiential learning in a global studies course and how, if at all, the course fosters civic engagement through academic and extracurricular activities. The open-ended nature of these questions provided a forum for the participants to provide concrete examples regarding hands-on practical experience outside of the classroom (e.g., field trips, volunteer work, local community initiatives, etc.). At the end of each interview, I thanked the participants for sharing their perspectives, reiterated that confidentiality will be maintained to the greatest extent possible, and offered to provide them with a summary of the results (Creswell, 2012). I later transcribed the recordings of the interviews and memorialized the findings in a report (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Data Collection Source 3: Documents
The final source of information derived from curriculum and course-related documents
(Creswell, 2012) provided by the teachers or the school administration. Documentation (both public and private) relevant to this study included: the district curriculum, the course syllabus, lesson plans, primary and secondary source readings, assignments, assessments (summative and formative), and evidence of student work, as well as the school and teacher websites. These documents elaborated on the structure and themes of the course regarding experiential or service- learning and global citizenship.
The scope, sequence, and pacing chart, educational technology standards, and career ready practices listed on the syllabus and school curricula provided additional context and 59
clarification. The lesson plans (topics, objectives, procedures, assessments, homework) further defined teacher goals and student learning objectives, as did the summative and formative classroom assessments. Personal documents (e.g., student reflections) also provided additional insight into student experiences inside and outside the classroom.
Data Analysis
The data analysis process should include the use of multiple sources of evidence
(triangulation), through a case study database, while maintaining a chain of evidence (Yin,
2013). The objective of triangulation is to use "different kinds of measurements" and "sources that have different foci and different strengths" (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014, p. 299).
This "quality assurance tactic" intends "to ensure [the] case study research is based on a disciplined approach and not simply a matter of intuition, good intention, and common sense"
(Stake, 1995, p. 107).
Data should be documented in an efficient and organized manner, and analyzed from multiple sources in a converged process (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Saldaña, 2009). Data analysis can include collecting data through an iterative and systematic process, and processing data through general analytic strategies such as theoretical propositions, rival explanations, and a case description (Hartley, 2004; Yin, 2003). Pattern matching, explanation building, time-series analysis, logic models, and cross-case synthesis can complement these analytic strategies (Yin,
2003). At all times, the researcher should maintain a chain of evidence (e.g., citations and accessibility of documents) to preserve the integrity of the study (Yin, 2013).
Two additional analytic strategies include: categorical aggregation and direct interpretation (Stake, 1995). Categorical aggregation entails "compil[ing] descriptions of instances to create a more general picture," while direct interpretation "tease[s] out the meaning 60
of a single episode or instance with no need for aggregation of instances to arrive at a more general meaning" (Luton, 2010, p. 141). Other analytic strategies also can manage data and help implement these techniques (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003). The data analysis process (analysis of observations, interviews, and documents) for this study consisted of four phases.
Phase One. As part of the first phase of data analysis, I documented my observations, transcribed the interview recordings into written text, and began to organize and analyze relevant documents (Creswell, 2013). I then conducted a preliminary exploratory analysis (Creswell,
2012), including re-reading the transcripts, notes, and documents (Coolican, 2013), writing additional notes and memos, and underlining items in the margins. Through this process, I began to better understand the data and to identify key quotes, phrases, or observations in a separate
Word document.
Phase Two. As part of the second phase of review, I began to describe and classify the data into codes or categories. As part of the coding process, I conducted a line-by-line analysis,
"mark[ing] on a copy of the transcript a word or phrase that represents what . . . a given passage means" (Rubin & Rubin, 2012, p. 192). Miles, Huberman, and Saldaña (2014) summarize the two major stages of coding (i.e., First Cycle and Second Cycle) along with a variety of associated methods. Consistent with the First Cycle (i.e., Descriptive, In Vivo, and Process coding), I identified words or short phrases to summarize specific topics; placed words or short phrases in quotation marks to value the observer's, participant's, or author's voice; and employed gerunds to highlight action in the data. By the conclusion of the First Cycle, I had assembled multiple codes through a combination of coding processes. 61
Phase Three. As part of the third phase of review, I started the pattern coding process and distilled the categories of information into broad themes (approximately five to seven). To convert the codes into themes, I employed "scrutiny techniques" like looking for repetitions or cutting and sorting (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). During Second Cycle coding, I grouped the data not only into themes or categories, but also causes/explanations, relationships among people, and theoretical constructs (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). I further examined the categories and groupings (originally established during First Cycle coding) related to the objectives of the study. Throughout this phase, I engaged in ongoing, heuristic analysis to inform and shape the outlook on data.
Phase Four. During the final phase, I reported the results or meaning of the case and drew conclusions on the main takeaways and objectives of the study (Creswell, 2013). The findings section included a description of the case, and the themes and conclusions of the study
(Creswell, 2013). I presented the principal lessons of the study (Rowley, 2002) in such a way that readers could determine "whether or not the study findings could be applied to their own situation" (Baxter & Jack, 2008, p. 555). As part of this process, I considered that readers may range from policymakers to scholar-practitioners, academic colleagues, community leaders, dissertation committees, funders of research, and the general public (Yin, 2013).
Criteria for Quality Qualitative Research
Ethical Considerations
As part of the research process, I accounted for ethical issues and consequences presented by the study. As an initial matter, I requested and obtained permission to conduct this study from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at both the university and research site. This process included submitting a project overview and receiving feedback from the IRB (Creswell, 2012). 62
The project overview included: the projected length of the study, a detailed description of the proposed methods and interview questions; an informed consent form and explanation on how I would protect the identity of the participants; as well as ethical standards and ways to respect the site and the participants (Saldaña, 2011; Salkind, 2012).
Data was collected in a transparent manner, and done in a way to avoid disturbance at the site. I recognized the power dynamics between the researcher and participants, and avoided taking sides or revealing only positive findings. Pseudonyms were used to protect the privacy of the participants, and the data was secured in hard copy (locked in a filing cabinet) and digital copy (backed up on an external hard drive and a password-protected computer).
Credibility
I sought to prove the credibility and validity of the study (Creswell & Miller, 2000;
Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 1998; Tracy, 2010) through detailed interviews with the participants to fully explore their views and ideas (Seidman, 2006). Through member checking, the participants "play[ed] a major role directing as well as acting" (Stake,
1995, p. 115) and were afforded the opportunity to provide feedback and clarification (Creswell
& Miller, 2000). Prolonged engagement helped establish trust and authenticity, and recognize different perspectives of participants (Creswell & Miller, 2000). Triangulation helped corroborate evidence and verify findings, and imparted various perspectives on the case study topic (Creswell & Miller, 2000; Creswell, 2013). Finally, for purposes of consistency and reliability, I was careful to use the same observational protocol, interview questions, and data analysis procedures throughout the study.
63
Transferability
Transferability broadly "refers to the idea that findings may be applicable in similar situations" (Major & Savin-Baden, 2010, p. 75). Unlike generalizability, which is typically used in quantitative studies, transferability is intended for a qualitative research audience seeking to draw parallels between certain studies (Newman & Benz, 1998). To determine whether this study was transferable to other contexts or settings, I used "thick description" (i.e., a "description that goes beyond the mere or bare reporting of an act (thin description), but describes and probes the intentions, motives, meanings, contexts, situations and circumstances of action") (Denzin,
1988, p. 39). I also highlighted the specific nature and context of the data (Creswell & Miller,
2000; Tracy, 2010), so that other researchers and scholars can better understand the scope and circumstances of this study.
Self-reflexivity and Transparency
My time as an international student (in cosmopolitan cities), and educator in a middle- class North Jersey suburb, has shaped my understanding of the world and what it means to be a global citizen. Given my knowledge and understanding of global issues, I sought to avoid exerting too much "power" or "influence" when observing and interviewing high school students.
Self-reflexivity helps establish "honesty and authenticity with one's self, one's research, and one's audience" (Tracy, 2010, p. 842). To maintain objectivity, I acknowledged "preconceptions, personal attachments, and points of view" (Machi & McEvoy, 2012, p. 18).
I also acted to prevent personal opinions or attitudes from influencing the outcome of the study. Indeed, "careful introspection" and "commit[ment] to being open-minded, skeptical, and considerate of research data" (Machi & McEvoy, 2012, p. 19) help to maintain neutrality. I was candid and transparent during the study, and created an audit trail that accounts for each step of 64
the process (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Tracy, 2010). This included keeping journals, memos, field notes, research logs, recordings, annotated transcripts, and a record of the data collection and analysis procedures (Creswell & Miller, 2000). I also acknowledged others that contributed
(e.g., participants, advisors, readers, colleagues, and family) to the completion of the study.
Limitations
This study has potential limitations. As a general matter, qualitative studies can be time- consuming, costly, and involved (Griffin, 2004; Stacks & Michaelson, 2010). The data generated from a small sampling size and a single case may not be representative of the general population (Kennedy, 1979). As such, to at least some degree, the generalizability of the results may be limited to this study, and therefore may not translate to another study. Finally, while I remembered to guard against preconceived notions, it is possible that the researcher's positionality may have some impact on the study. 65
Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to analyze the perceptions and experiences of students enrolled in a global studies course at an urban public high school. The insights and lessons gleaned from this study will serve to further develop scholarship related to global citizenship education, and to assist various stakeholders at the federal, state, and local levels. In particular, teachers of global studies courses, as well as students enrolled in such courses, can learn from how others understood global citizenship and experiential learning. Educational policymakers also can apply these results to globalize high school curricula.
The following individuals participated in this study at the high school: an administrator who formerly taught global studies (hereinafter identified as, "Administrator"), two faculty members who currently teach global studies (hereinafter identified as, "Teacher 1" and "Teacher
2"), and six students who had taken Accelerated Global Studies I and II (hereinafter identified as,
"Student 1," "Student 2", "Student 3," "Student 4," "Student 5," and "Student 6"). These individuals were selected for this study because of their experiences in a global studies high school course.
The findings derive from semi-structured one-on-one interviews with course designers and teachers; a focus group interview with students; and observations and analysis of the course curriculum, syllabus, and student assignments. The findings were analyzed using the principles of the case study method and various coding processes. After analyzing the transcripts and relevant documents, five superordinate themes and 15 sub-themes surfaced:
1) Developing and Designing Effective Curricula in Global Studies and Citizenship
1.1 Content and Pedagogy
2) Preparing Effective Teachers of Global Citizenship 66
3) Developing Global Citizens through Effective Teaching
3.1 Maintaining Objectivity
3.2 Flexibility
3.3 Student Choice
3.4 Utilizing Technology
3.5 Critical Thinking
3.6 Experiential Learning
4) Fostering Global Citizenship Traits
4.1 Global Awareness
4.2 Caring
4.3 Cultural Diversity
4.4 Social Justice
4.5 Sustainability
4.6 Responsibility to Act
5) Impact of Global Citizenship Education
5.1 Impact of Global Citizenship Education on Teachers
5.2 Impact of Global Citizenship Education on Students
The themes highlight critical aspects of curriculum design, global studies and citizenship, pedagogy, and experiential learning.
Developing and Designing Effective Curricula in Global Studies and Citizenship
The first theme examines the development and design of the Accelerated Global Studies curriculum at the research site (Research Site, 2014). The goal of this curriculum at the research site is to create organized and structured learning experiences for students, as well as to help 67
teachers arrange lessons, activities, and assessments. It is a two-year curriculum that focuses on the water management crisis, genetically engineered foods, free trade and globalization, and human rights (Research Site, 2014). The curricula for grades 9 and 10 each comprise five units:
Grade 9 Grade 10
Unit 1 - Water for life: Water uses, human Unit 1 - Poverty workbook I rights, and gender Unit 2 - Water management crisis, scarcity, Unit 2 - Bridges out of poverty II pollution, and population Unit 3 - Genetically modified organisms: The Unit 3 - Human rights issues I global debate Unit 4 - Pros and cons of GMOs, food safety, Unit 4 - Human rights issues II and fast food nation Unit 5 - Seven steps research and project Unit 5 - Seven steps research and project
(Research Site, 2014)
By the end of sophomore year, students are expected to have learned about key contemporary global issues in these areas.
According to Administrator, the curriculum includes topics on global studies in accordance with the following New Jersey Core Curriculum Content Standards (NJCCCS) and
Common Core State Standards (CCSS):
Civics, government, and human rights;
Geography, people, and the environment;
Economics, innovation, and technology;
Biogeochemical cycles;
Craft and structure;
Integration of knowledge and ideas;
Text types and purposes;
Production and distribution of writing; 68
Research to build and present knowledge (Research Site, 2014, pp. 12-14).
Administrator also stressed that the curriculum provides for:
New Jersey Department of Education (NJDOE) Student Learning Objectives;
Essential Questions;
Sample Activities;
Resources;
Interdisciplinary Connections (Research Site, 2014).
As a curriculum writer, Administrator included 12 Career Ready Practices (CRP), six of which directly relate to the global studies courses:
CRP 1 - Act as a responsible and contributing citizen and employee;
CRP 2 - Apply appropriate academic and technical skills;
CRP 5 - Consider the environmental, social and economic impacts of decisions;
CRP 7 - Employ valid and reliable research strategies;
CRP 8 - Utilize critical thinking to make sense of problems and persevere in solving
them;
CRP 12 - Work productively in teams while using cultural global competence (Research
Site, 2014, pp. 5-8).
Additionally, the curriculum contains differentiated instruction and enrichment strategies, as well as suggested formative and summative assessments. The curriculum also includes suggested unit projects and field trip ideas. For example, unit projects include public awareness campaigns and digital petitions about the lack of clean water; and field trip ideas include visiting local water commissions, the United Nations, or Human Rights Watch (Research Site, 2014). 69
During the interview, Administrator focused on the interdisciplinary nature of the global studies curriculum. When writing the curriculum, Administrator incorporated assignments and activities from other fields, such as: ELA, art, science (chemistry, geology, climatology, etc.), mathematics, technology, digital arts, world languages, music, personal finance, economics, and geography. However, Administrator acknowledged when writing the curriculum how much more work and effort it takes to teach an interdisciplinary global studies course: "Using an interdisciplinary approach requires a teacher to be really prepared and very creative. You cannot wing it when teaching a global studies class and you cannot wing it when using an interdisciplinary approach." As Administrator noted, "if you are going to do a literature circle, you have to prepare for it."
For instance, in the fourth unit of Accelerated Global Studies I, Administrator assigned excerpts from Upton Sinclair's The Jungle and Eric Schlosser's Fast Food Nation, and designed interdisciplinary activities and assignments regarding GMOs and food safety issues. As part of the assignment, students could make posters, submit an essay, create a commercial or short film, or conduct an interview and write an article for the school newspaper. Each of these assignments allowed the students to compare and contrast food safety issues from the 20th to the 21st century and to examine the impact of these two works on American consumers.
Although Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 were not involved in writing this curriculum, they both discussed their views about the curriculum serving as a model for other schools across the country. Teacher 1 explained his thought process:
If we are going to have compulsory education and particular hoops kids got to jump
through to graduate, I think these types of courses definitely have to be part of the
discussion. It is one thing to learn the facts and figures but how things actually apply to 70
the human condition has got to be part of it as well. So whatever mechanism that ends up
being I think courses are an answer to definitely do it. And I think kids seeing it as a
required course will communicate that to them that this really is important stuff that has
to be dealt with today and not tomorrow.
Teacher 2 echoed: "I hope that the curriculum is around for a long time . . . and I hope more schools . . . will be encouraged to start an elective like ours and adopt some of the curriculum or create their own."
Teacher 2 also commented on the interdependent nature of the curriculum (with each unit building upon each other). For instance, regarding Accelerated Global Studies II, Teacher 2 noted that poverty was a consistent theme throughout the course, even though it had been the main focus of the first unit. Another recurring topic in this course was human rights (even though it received more attention during the second half of the year). Teacher 2 concluded:
So it is a very diverse curriculum . . . There is something in this curriculum for everybody
. . . There is always a new and interesting type of unit that is just on the horizon . . . The
way the curriculum is designed and paced is very important because literally each unit
builds on each other. And at the end you have . . . this really nice full picture of what is
going on.
Administrator, Teacher 1, and Teacher 2 stressed how this curriculum incorporates various global issues in the four main areas of study.
Content and Pedagogy
Consistent with the curriculum, teachers have the flexibility and discretion to emphasize certain content and pedagogical techniques. Teacher 1, Teacher 2, and Administrator have developed their own teaching philosophies on how best to convey the course material. Upon 71
designing the curriculum, Administrator chose to focus on what she considered to be the most germane global issues. On the other hand, Teacher 2 chose to teach more topics with less details.
While Teacher 1 fell somewhere in the middle, favoring teaching more topics, but at the same time trying to concentrate on specific areas that appeal to his students.
Administrator noted that she prefers "doing an in-depth analysis . . . on not necessarily fewer topics but the most relevant topics . . . It is important to go very in-depth but . . . make sure that you give students enough of a variety of topics so that they see the global perspective."
Teacher 2 has consistently stated that he likes "to have more topics and keep it at a shorter length
. . . because it gives you a lot of freedom . . . You can . . . choose what you want to talk about based on what is relevant in current events or even student interest." Finally, Teacher 1 has advocated presenting students "with lots of different issues . . . to . . . give them a broad understanding on the range of issues . . . being debated currently in the field. But then you . . . keep your eye out for the one or two that resonate . . . most and . . . those are the ones you dive into."
The international seminar series at the high school is completed over the course of multiple years. When asked which of the 17 UN SDGs they would include in a year-long course, Administrator, Teacher 1, and Teacher 2 responded as follows:
Administrator - no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, quality education,
gender equality, clean water and sanitation, climate action, and peace, justice, and strong
institutions;
Teacher 1 - no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, quality education,
gender equality, clean water and sanitation, industry, innovation, and infrastructure, 72
reduced inequality, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and
production, climate action, and life on land;
Teacher 2 - zero hunger, quality education, clean water and sanitation, and climate action.
As the above responses reflect, Administrator, Teacher 1, and Teacher 2 all chose to include zero hunger, quality education, clean water and sanitation, and climate action.
In summary, Administrator helped to design a curriculum as part of the international seminar series, with best practices for career development. The curriculum focused on issues related to water, GMOs, global trade, and human rights. Using an interdisciplinary and interdependent approach, Administrator also incorporated other important global issues into the curriculum (e.g., poverty, climate change, etc.). According to the weight of the interviews, these topics are necessary ingredients for a strong global studies curriculum.
Preparing Effective Teachers of Global Citizenship
During their one-on-one interviews, Teacher 1, Teacher 2, and Administrator stressed that, given the interdisciplinary dimensions of global citizenship education, an effective global studies teacher must be well-versed in several disciplines. Teacher 1 made the point "that you can be a super expert in any one field but to understand a lot of issues you got to at least have some competency in another issue."
All three individuals also spoke to the importance of professional development. Both
Administrator and Teacher 1 attended professional development seminars offered by the
Princeton University East Asia Program one Saturday a month. Through this program, they learned from faculty members at Princeton University, Columbia University, or the University of
Pennsylvania how to incorporate Asian Studies into a curriculum. Citing the importance of these seminars, Administrator noted: 73
That professional development was very eye-opening because professors went into the
emphasis on the Euro-centric curriculum and . . . over the years how hard it has been to
implement a really well-grounded World Civ course in a New Jersey high school because
there is a lot of pushback.
Teacher 2 also received in-service training in global studies. At a conference held at the
United Nations International School (UNIS) in New York City, Teacher 2 met people from all over the world. Citing the benefits of this professional development experience, Teacher 2 emphasized:
You got to understand different learning styles and teaching styles from around the globe
and different ways that people view global issues. The conference centered mostly
around theory of knowledge. However, in that theory of knowledge conference, it was
totally around politics and global movement and how each country essentially is dealing
with different aspects of globalization and how society is being impacted whether it was a
good way for some or a bad way for others.
After attending the conference, Teacher 2 considered plans of action and measures to address seminal global issues, and stated his intention to attend a similar conference in the future or a forum at the UN "to see how global politics actually works and comes together."
Finally, all three individuals emphasized that schools should offer pre-service or in- service opportunities in global citizenship education to prepare global studies teachers. To teach a global studies course, Teacher 2 indicated that it helps to have a social science background in subjects like history, sociology, or economics. Teacher 1 also added that having "direct exposure to some current research being done" at the "undergrad or postgrad university level" would "be very useful." As a proponent of in-service training, Administrator discussed the utility of 74
attending professional development workshops and online seminars through international education programs such as the IB. Since the IB emphasizes "international-mindedness and the global perspective in everything that they do," Administrator finds it helpful for other global studies teachers to attend these conferences. In summation, to teach global citizenship effectively, Administrator, Teacher 1, and Teacher 2 all agreed that teachers should be well- versed in various subject areas, and should receive appropriate training and professional development.
Developing Global Citizens through Effective Teaching
According to the weight of the interviews, developing global citizens requires that teachers be objective, flexible, offer choice, utilize technology, spur critical thinking, and foster experiential learning. Throughout the interviews, Administrator, Teacher 1, and Teacher 2 cited examples of how to incorporate these instructional practices into the classroom. The sub-themes below provide further details.
Maintaining Objectivity
While discussing how to teach the material, Administrator noted the importance of maintaining objectivity:
The last thing you want to do as a teacher or an administrator is to put your opinion on it
because they have the right to form their own thoughts and beliefs. And that is truly
learning. Affective domain says that it is part of recognizing that it is something and
taking it in and digesting it and seeing what side you are on and what you agree with and
then it becomes part of your belief system and part of who you are and part of the way
you think. The last thing you want to do is make the kids think how you think. 75
Administrator cited an example about Walmart to emphasize the importance of presenting both sides of the issue and allowing students to make an informed opinion. For instance, she explained to students some of the "controversial" labor practices of Walmart, while at the same time played video clips from the president of Stonyfield Farm "who would say that Walmart purchasing Stonyfield yogurt keeps a number of organic dairy farmers in business."
Flexibility
Administrator also talked about the necessity for global studies teachers to be flexible in the classroom. Although teachers write lesson plans in advance, current events around the world can shift the focus of the discussion at any point during the school year. According to
Administrator, to be effective global studies educators, "it requires a teacher to do some research.
It requires them to find new and current material as they go." Administrator provided examples of events that caused her to change a lesson plan:
For example, in 2011, when I was teaching globalization and a tsunami hit the port of
Fukushima Atomic power plant and stopped the production of Honda for six months, we
really went in on Japan and what was happening . . . In 2011, we were going over the
Arab Spring. We were so involved in it because the world was changing in front of our
eyes . . . Because that is what was going on right then. And so you had to deviate from
the plan a little bit and I think that there have to be in-service training on creativity and on
what is a current event and how you present it.
Student Choice
Another sub-theme that emerged during the interviews was student choice. For both formative and summative assessments, Administrator provided students the option to use art, 76
music, or technology, such as writing a song, making a poster, or creating a website, documentary, or graphic novel. Administrator further explained:
Choice is sort of the basis in my opinion of differentiated instruction . . . I think that it is
essential to a global studies class to . . . give that creativity and the interdisciplinary
approach to everything . . . And also when you give choice, you are accommodating
student ability and student interest. And that is so important because not everybody
wants to create a PowerPoint or write an essay.
Utilizing Technology
In addition to providing student choice, Administrator has been a proponent of incorporating technology and social media into the classroom. She noted that "social media is the new journalist . . . of the 21st century. Even . . . journalists go to Twitter and Instagram and
Facebook for live in the moment information." Administrator added that her focus was for students in her global studies class to acquire 21st century skills and be comfortable with technology. Administrator concluded that global studies teachers and schools should embrace the use of social media:
Our librarian is focused on our online library now because kids are way more likely to
pick up a kindle . . . We put links to newspapers around the world online because they are
not going to fan out a copy of the New York Times. It is not going to happen . . . They
are not even comfortable with the idea of a newspaper. They are like, my God, what is
this? It might as well be in cuneiform. They do not get it."
Critical Thinking
Administrator, Teacher 1, and Teacher 2 also agreed that being able to think critically is one of the most important skills for students to learn. Since there is so much information 77
available to students, Administrator noted that students must look at multiple sides of an issue and conduct in-depth analysis. She explained that this "was one of the most important skills that was imparted. Students learn to read between the lines. Students learn to look at the source of information and evaluate whether or not it was legitimate."
Another aspect of critical thinking is the ability to determine the accuracy and relevancy of information. Teacher 1 has found that a critical thinker is someone who can assess the validity and bias of a source, explore potential financial conflicts of interest, back up assertions with specific evidence, and explain the difference between causation and correlation. Teacher 1 stressed the importance of "knowing how to assess information. That is . . . the entire game at this point. There is no shortage of information. Now we just have to figure out how to swim through."
Teacher 2 added that a critical thinker should be open-minded, willing to listen to multiple sides, and capable of examining a multi-faceted argument while deconstructing it. In addition, he discussed how vital it is for students not to get frustrated or discouraged when there is potentially more than one answer to a particular problem. When confronting these ethical questions, Teacher 2 concluded that, for his students to become critical thinkers, they "have to figure it out for themselves . . . There is nothing that they can turn to or Google or ask a teacher about. It is something that they have to figure out."
Experiential Learning
The final sub-theme in this section refers to the process of obtaining knowledge, skills, and values through experience. Administrator, along with Teacher 1 and Teacher 2, have already incorporated or plan to integrate experiential learning into their classroom. Since the high school has become an IB World School, there have been more opportunities for the students 78
to participate in experiential learning activities. To fulfill the requirements of the DP, IB students must participate in CAS projects. Each of these three components are tied to experiential learning, whether it involves the arts, physical education, or volunteerism.
At the time of this study, many students had taken part in after school activities within the community. For instance, some have helped clean up a local national park, restore a school stadium, volunteer at a nearby environmental organization, work at Habitat for Humanity, lend a hand at a water quality monitoring project, tutor sign language and Mandarin Chinese, and give time to a community recycling program. Student 2 stated the importance of helping in the local community to effect change:
Every year, I make it a priority to give back to the community. I give sandwiches to
homeless people or I might clean up the local parks. I make sure I do that every year . . .
And I feel like the next thing to do when I become of voting age is to vote someone into
power that has similar ideas as me and that also cares about the less fortunate and . . . the
environment.
Student 5 added that she would like to become more involved and help her community rather than sit by and wait for others to contribute to society since "change starts here."
Student 4 and Student 6 also expressed interest in making a difference at the local level as well as the global community by volunteering and helping to build schools. In addition, they mentioned their plans to start a humanitarian club for the following school year. Student 4 explained that the objectives of the club are "to spread the word around the community, to get sponsorships, get more people involved, and give back to charities." Student 6 added that they hope to raise money through school fundraising events or by building partnerships with organizations such as UNICEF or the Red Cross. Once Student 4 and Student 6 have collected 79
donations, they will send it to an organization working on a particular cause. Student 6 concluded that they are trying to bring awareness in their community while also helping to solve global challenges.
Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 have spoken to Administrator about the relevance of the CAS project for each global studies course. Teacher 2 has even suggested administration make a revision to the international seminar series so the CAS project becomes a requirement in his class: "It would fulfill two requirements. The next step is really getting them into the community and getting them to do something." As Teacher 1 pointed out, since many students already have planned their CAS project based on the experiences and lessons they learned in one of the global studies courses, it makes sense to incorporate CAS in Accelerated Global Studies I and II.
Experiential learning activities also benefit teachers. Teacher 1 has discussed the value of gaining direct exposure to certain sites: It "would be kind of cool to be able to bring some firsthand observations and experience to relay to the kids . . . and would certainly be very useful." For example, Teacher 1 would like to first see a water treatment facility, a waste water management operation, or to gain exposure to the work of engineers. Following some preliminary research, he expressed plans to organize a field trip where students would encounter issues related to solid waste treatment and water in the global studies course.
In conclusion, to be an effective global studies educator, Administrator stressed the need to maintain objectivity and allow students to formulate their own thoughts. Furthermore,
Administrator emphasized the importance of teachers incorporating current events into their lessons, as necessary and appropriate. Administrator also spoke to the importance of offering student choice and promoting 21st century technology in the classroom. In addition,
Administrator, Teacher 1, and Teacher 2 agreed that students need to learn how to think critically 80
about global issues. Finally, both the students and teachers spoke to the benefits of experiential learning, with students noting that they have either engaged in experiential learning activities or will take part in these activities (CAS project) as required by the IB DP.
Fostering Global Citizenship Traits
Global citizen character traits identified in the literature include global awareness, caring, cultural diversity, social justice, sustainability, and the responsibility to act (Oxfam, 2006;
Reysen & Katzarska-Miller, 2013; UNICEF, 2013). The study participants addressed these traits in the course of their interviews.
Global Awareness
Global awareness was a recurring sub-theme throughout the interviews. Administrator highlighted this point: "If you are truly a global citizen, you are constantly keeping up with what is going on in the world." Teacher 2 added that a global citizen needs "to be aware of what is going on. Because if you are not aware, then you are . . . on that same plateau that you were.
You are not increasing your self-knowledge. You are not adding any worth."
Administrator noted that awareness requires ongoing exposure and, therefore, she would prefer that students take four years of global studies courses. Nevertheless, for those students who take two years of courses through Accelerated Global Studies I and II, Administrator still found that such students can achieve the desired outcomes. Administrator urged that every student at the high school complete at least one year of global studies and explained her reasoning for designing these courses.
I was adamant that the kids were not going to miss out on these topics . . . Now in a
perfect world, I think it is important to have all four. But in the interest of making sure
that all the IB students were able to take it, I thought it was important to do . . . I made it 81
a requirement of the IB program that they get these global studies topics because I think it
is super important.
The majority of students who participated in the focus group interview affirmed that they have become more globally aware citizens as a result of these courses. Student 1 explained that with global awareness "you are capable of making changes on not only a local scale, but also . . . to impact the world . . . by spreading knowledge." Student 3 added that the global studies courses fostered global awareness, and helped her understand the roles and responsibilities she has in the community and beyond as a global citizen.
Caring
Another sub-theme is the importance of caring for others around the world. Both
Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 have found it more challenging to get students to care about global issues that do not affect them directly. Teacher 1 explained this predicament:
It is a little tricky to get the caring . . . But at the same time, I find if you show an image
of kids in a dusty desert somewhere having a walk two hours each direction to a muddy
hole in the desert, then it kind of brings it home . . . It is kind of a mixed bag.
Teacher 2 disclosed that the course made many of his students a little more empathetic and sympathetic, while acknowledging that some felt "it does not affect me, so I can keep my head down and keep moving on."
To illustrate the importance of caring, Teacher 2 provided a historical reference to the
Holocaust. Citing a poem by a Protestant pastor, Martin Niemöller, Teacher 2 explained that the
Nazis first came for the socialists and that this pastor did not speak out since he was not a socialist. Then they came for the trade unionists and he did not speak out since he was not a trade unionist. Then they came for the Jews and he did not speak out since he was not Jewish. 82
Then they came for him and there was nobody left to speak out on his behalf. Teacher 2 added that, "If no one is empathetic or sympathetic and gets that ball rolling and no one is willing to take that risk or no one is willing to say something, to what extent are we going to effect meaningful change?" He concluded that "those are the biggest challenges. Getting people to realize that this is you . . . . We are definitely globally connected."
In addition, Teacher 1 discussed the reasons his students should care about global challenges. Teacher 1 tried to make the point that students can relate to the issues someone is facing in sub-Sahara Africa, Australia, or China through posing the following question: "Why should I care any less about the pain of someone on the polar opposite of the planet versus somebody down the street?" Student 2 noted that "a global citizen is someone who considers every human on Earth when making a decision . . . They are very selfless and . . . all they want is for the right thing to be done." Student 4 added that "a global citizen cares about helping others and the environment." As a consequence, Teacher 2 believed that completing a degree in one of the social sciences is helpful "because you are dealing with humans and human beings and empathy or sympathy where you are trying to walk a while in other people's shoes."
Cultural Diversity
As the high school embraces an IB curriculum, the administration and faculty have discussed ways to become more culturally responsive to their student population. Within the IB
Program, there are standard level and higher level students (International Baccalaureate, 2012).
In addition to fulfilling the requirements of the standard level students, higher level students also must exhibit critical thinking skills and be able to synthesize difficult concepts while fostering intercultural understanding and international-mindedness (International Baccalaureate, 2016). 83
For example, when Administrator selected higher level extension topics and case studies, some of the areas included Asia, Oceania, and the Americas. Administrator stated that the school would focus on the Middle East and Africa since their "students are not getting a serious dose of world history that focuses on the places that they are from." Administrator added that their goal is to "make the program as inclusive as possible. We have ELL (English-language learners) students as well. We . . . take pride in the diversity within the program because . . . it is better for all students."
Some students also commented on the importance of cultural diversity to being a global citizen. Certain students mentioned that learning about different cultures helped them confront challenges and become more interested in global issues. Upon learning about different cultural affairs, Student 3 explained how she has become more passionate about helping improve other societies. Student 4 and Student 6 also discussed their plans to assist other cultures around the world by volunteering in the community.
Social Justice
In order to groom justice-oriented citizens seeking to effect systemic change,
Administrator stressed that students should study human rights and learn about different case studies related to genocide. In Accelerated Global Studies I and II, the student participants were exposed to issues of equity, justice, and ethics. To teach social justice, Administrator mentioned
"it is just about being ethical. Understanding that ethics is a part of everything . . . It is about looking at the ethics and respecting that people have different views, different beliefs, and different perspectives." To drive that point home, Teacher 2 has asked students to write an essay that defines the characteristics of an ethical individual. 84
Both Administrator and Teacher 2 cited examples related to social justice and ethics. For instance, Administrator raised the following issue:
Because when you talk about water privatization and what is going on with Coca-Cola
around the world where they are privatizing water rights and the governments are selling
off water rights to Coca-Cola, students have to evaluate if that is ethical. Is it ethical that
we are getting Coca-Cola in the bottle and there are people in small villages in Bolivia
who do not have clean water and they are 25 feet from a Coca-Cola factory?
Teacher 2 also brought up an important point that social justice activists struggle with:
Unfortunately, child labor is used heavily in the cobalt industry . . . You could be mining
that cobalt and some other kid in another country is going to have it in his computer and
think nothing of it. And that kid might launch this great charity that is going to end up
helping kids in Africa or in developing countries. But . . . he is still using a product . . .
that was created by a child . . . The kids definitely struggle with a lot of the ethical
questions.
These topics and class discussions can serve to inspire future social activists and justice-oriented citizens.
Sustainability
Sustainability was another theme that emerged in the course of the study. In Accelerated
Global Studies I, Teacher 1 discusses ways to meet the needs of today without impairing the needs of the future. As part of the discussion, he identifies ways to conserve water and promote sustainability. For instance, he explained to his students how many gallons of water they can save each month by turning off the faucet when brushing their teeth or taking a shorter shower. 85
To elaborate, Teacher 1 assigns student groups to debate sustainability and vegetarianism. In this debate, students discuss the pros and cons of vegetarianism and examine the impact of eating meat on water, land, fertilizer, fuel, and other resources from earth.
Although not everyone accepted the premise that vegetarianism is better for the environment, students wrestled with these issues and considered their roles and responsibilities in promoting sustainable development. Teacher 1 emphasized:
The statistics are fairly stark as far as consuming different types of meat, vegetables, and
grains . . . Eating one pound of meat consumes much more water. We get into different
types of meat. Is it grass fed versus factory bought or grain fed? But all of that comes
back to what impact one person can have. What I try to harp on them a lot and I use
myself as an example is yeah it is one person making one choice. But people see you
making that choice and then they might ask you about it or they might just model your
behavior because they see you doing that.
This phenomenon is better known as the butterfly effect (i.e., the broader effects that seemingly small changes can have on our complex ecosystem).
Responsibility to Act
Responsibility to act was another common theme throughout the study. When defining the qualities of a global citizen, Teacher 2 emphasized being "willing to take action and make an improvement . . . Many people are afraid to act . . . Being a little bit of a risk taker would definitely help and be a skill that a lot of these global citizens definitely need to have."
Administrator added that a global citizen "has to be an active participant in the global community." In each one-on-one interview, Teacher 1, Teacher 2, and Administrator stressed 86
the need for their students to act within the community and beyond; what Teacher 1 called thinking globally and acting locally.
Nevertheless, Administrator, Teacher 1, and Teacher 2 spoke to the challenges of getting students to take action and make a difference. Teacher 2 pointed out that his students find the global studies topics interesting and are engaged in class. However, when asked if they would be willing to address certain issues, most students showed reluctance and even noted that these issues do not personally affect them or others whom they know. Teacher 2 expounded:
You see the broken bodies on the screen and they care for an instant. But when it comes
time to actually act or make a moral change, they find it very difficult to really want to
have that change. That is the most challenging thing I think I found so far.
Nonetheless, Student 4 and Student 6 stated their commitment to act and make a difference in the world as a result of the global studies courses. According to Student 4, global citizens work "towards giving back to the global community. They look beyond their surroundings and are driven by wanting to make a change in the world. They realize that they have a part to play in the grand scheme of things." Although Student 5 questioned her role in making change and solving global problems at the age of 15, she acknowledged that "to be a global citizen, a person must be active . . . whether it be through spreading awareness or participating in fundraisers . . . A global citizen must . . . make the right decisions to benefit the world rather than just one person." Student 5 stated her willingness to spread the word about certain global injustices, and to speak out on the exploitation of children and workers.
In Accelerated Global Studies II, students also grappled with the issue of fair trade versus free trade. One example included free trade banana companies such as Chiquita or Del Monte being accused of unethical labor practices, exploiting child laborers, and using pesticides that 87
impair the health of workers. Nevertheless, most students told Teacher 2 that they would likely still buy Chiquita bananas.
Impact of Global Citizenship Education
The one-on-one and focus group interviews described above served to demonstrate that global citizenship education can shape the perceptions and life experiences of teachers and students. Through these interviews, teachers and students reaffirmed the commonly accepted traits of global citizenship (global awareness, caring, cultural diversity, social justice, sustainability, and the responsibility to act), and the importance of experiential learning for career development.
Impact of Global Citizenship Education on Teachers
Teacher 1, Teacher 2, and Administrator spoke to the impact that the global studies topics have on their own lives. Teacher 1 noted his own personal development:
As a student or myself as a random American, you see somebody on the other side of the
planet . . . and in a different situation, but then they are dealing with the exact same issues
and exact same dynamic. That is inevitably going to increase your sense that you have
something in common if you want to call it global citizenship.
Teacher 2 mentioned that he has become "more inclined to act and to help out." On the other hand, he admitted that he still buys free trade Chiquita bananas and will probably continue to do so in the future. As Teacher 2 revealed, "It is difficult. Sometimes you walk into ShopRite and it is what is on sale . . . When you just had a bad day or you are trying to watch the money in the account, it can get hard." Administrator also recognized the impact of teaching a class about
GMOs on herself and a faculty member: "I taught GMOs as a vegetarian . . . and I have become 88
more of a vegetarian since teaching it . . . Now we had a teacher . . . several years ago who lost
165 pounds while teaching that class."
Impact of Global Citizenship Education on Students
Over the course of two years, the students considered a number of global studies topics to be both meaningful and important. For Student 1, Student 3, Student 5, and Student 6, the discussion on child labor and the exploitation of workers stood out in particular. After learning about the practices of Chiquita and other free trade companies, Student 3 captured the attitude of her peers:
I am still a child and the only thing I have to worry about is coming to school or doing a
project. But other people have to work. We watched a documentary where mostly
immigrant families have to take their kids out of school for a large portion of the year so
they can work and feed the family. And then I just find that really hard to think about
working when all my parents want me to do is get an education. So I guess it makes me
appreciate the life I have.
Student 5 added that Walmart factory employees in China were forced to work in small areas for long hours and low wages. After learning about the conditions of factory workers in China,
Student 1 concluded that informing consumers about these unfair practices is the best way to improve their situation. Student 1 and Student 6 also brought up blood diamonds in Sierra Leone and companies exploiting workers in Zambia and elsewhere to extract resources like copper.
Student 2 highlighted the discussion on free trade and globalization, while Student 4 emphasized the water management crisis. Student 4 noted how some people have to walk miles to find a decent source of water, and that others cannot afford piping in their homes across 89
Bolivia: "It is literally an essential thing for you to be able to survive. And I just thought it was shocking to find out that people still do not have their resources available to them."
The students also noted their participation in various activities. The "fishbowl activity" seeks to create an environment where students form smaller groups and discuss certain topics among themselves. As the students in these groups pose questions and analyze course material, students in the "outer circle" listen and reflect on the conversation. The students then have an opportunity to debrief among their peers and write a reflection essay.
Some students preferred debates (e.g., water policy for farms and rivers, trade, etc.) and documentaries to the fishbowl activity. Student 6 explained her rationale:
Watching documentaries has really helped me not only to hear about the topic . . . But
you can actually see what is going on. Reporters might go to such countries facing all
these issues and then they even have footage of how people are treated . . . Being able to
see that and then further applying it in other papers . . . is helpful.
Teacher 2 and the students also mentioned the Random Life Project during the poverty unit, in which students had to create and maintain a budget based on varying degrees of income.
At the end of the course, the students submitted a final project where they compared the pros and cons of free trade and fair trade companies. Student 1 focused on Apple. Student 2 examined
Microsoft and Ben and Jerry's. Student 3 conducted research on Forever 21 and People Tree.
Student 4 looked at H&M and Ben and Jerry's. Student 5 analyzed Victoria's Secret and
Laughing Man Coffee. And Student 6 presented on H&M and People Tree. After researching the free trade and fair trade practices or policies of each company, students completed a final
PowerPoint or Prezi presentation. 90
By the end of the global studies courses, Administrator, Teacher 1, and Teacher 2 observed that their students had a greater understanding of global issues and how their views of the world changed. They recalled some students telling their parents and family members not to buy things from Walmart, Forever 21, or another store since they are free trade companies. They also mentioned that a number of students began to consider where products are made. For instance, Student 1, Student 3, and Student 6 have made a conscious effort to look for fair trade labels and spread awareness about the practices of free trade companies. Student 5 also noted that, while she buys products from certain free trade companies, she feels guilty about it in a small way.
During the focus group interview, all of the students discussed how global studies courses have encouraged them to solve issues. Student 6 noted:
It makes me question whenever I am making a decision . . . how ethical that is, how
impactful that is, and whether it is going to be a negative or positive or is it just not going
to make any change in the world . . . I think it allows us to . . . be more open-minded
about the different possibilities of the actions and how they may affect others and other
countries.
Student 3 has "learned to analyze what . . . is the truth behind the slogan" and to not accept the status quo. Some students noted that facts and figures could be skewed at the expense of the consumer.
As Administrator put it, global studies courses serve as "the first step in . . . transitioning from being a child to taking responsibility for their actions on earth." Teacher 1 and Teacher 2 stressed that, by graduation, students have honed their research skills through this coursework. 91
And as Teacher 2 stressed, "if you intend on going onto . . . college and beyond, it is so important that they have those skills."
When entering college, some students have majored in global studies. One of
Administrator's students who graduated a few years ago attended American University and studied in the International Studies program at the School of International Service.
Administrator did "not believe that would have happened if she had not taken four years of global studies . . . We sparked her interest." Student 2 suggested he would like to take a college class in global studies because of his interest in learning about different cultures and other parts of the world. Student 4 explained how the Random Life Project in Accelerated Global Studies II helped her decide on a potential major in biomedical engineering. Student 4 also noted:
I am from a . . . developing country. So I would like to go back and be able to help kids.
I have personally seen . . . the . . . homeless and little kids . . . selling things. If they are
able to get an education, it would make me feel better as a person.
Student 5 expressed interest in working at a non-profit organization in the future, such as Doctors
Without Borders. Student 3, Student 5, and Student 6 also have considered studying or working abroad. They expressed their intention to travel abroad to help those living without adequate healthcare or sufficient economic resources.
When considering the overall effect of the global studies program on students,
Administrator concluded: "I have always held the belief that those classes have been the most important and impactful." Teacher 2 added: "I just hope it is something that stays around and I hope more schools . . . will be encouraged to start an elective like ours."
Conclusion
The research questions of this study include: 92
1. How is the content of the global studies course structured and conveyed to the students?
How, if at all, does the course incorporate forms of experiential learning?
2. How, if at all, do the students' perspectives of global citizenship (including their roles and responsibilities in a global society) change after taking the course?
3. What, if any, plans do the students have to engage as global citizens after taking the course?
The findings of this study addressed the above questions in the following ways.
Regarding course content, structure, and delivery, the findings highlighted the importance of: developing and designing an interdisciplinary and interdependent curriculum; providing teachers with appropriate training and professional development opportunities; and teachers maintaining objectivity and flexibility in the classroom, providing students with choice, utilizing technology, fostering critical thinking, and offering experiential learning. Regarding perspectives on global citizenship, the findings affirmed the tenets of global awareness, caring, cultural diversity, social justice, sustainability, and the responsibility to act. And, regarding impact, students detailed the ways in which the global studies curriculum has influenced their future endeavors (e.g., volunteering, making ethical choices, and pursuing global studies related majors and/or careers). 93
Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications for Practice
The purpose of this study on global citizenship education was to understand and evaluate the perceptions and experiences of an administrator, two teachers, and six students of a global studies course. This qualitative, single instrumental case study employed the theoretical framework of experiential learning (Dewey, 1916, 1938; Lewin, 1951; Piaget, 1952), based on
Kolb's (1984) ELC model, and an interpretivist approach through open-ended dialogue and document analysis.
This study posed the following research questions:
1. How is the content of the global studies course structured and conveyed to the students?
How, if at all, does the course incorporate forms of experiential learning?
2. How, if at all, do the students' perspectives of global citizenship (including their roles and responsibilities in a global society) change after taking the course?
3. What, if any, plans do the students have to engage as global citizens after taking the course?
Data for this study included: observations at the research site; interviews with teachers and a focus group with students; and a review of relevant curricular documents. The participants in the study detailed their views and experiences in a global studies classroom. The responses were generally consistent but, in some instances, varied with regard to the content, structure, and impact of the global studies curriculum and coursework. Student work, the course syllabus, and the district curriculum provided additional data to triangulate and contextualize the experiences of teachers and students.
Upon analyzing the data, five superordinate themes and 15 sub-themes emerged: 1)
Developing and Designing Effective Curricula in Global Studies and Citizenship (1.1 Content and Pedagogy); 2) Preparing Effective Teachers of Global Citizenship; 3) Developing Global 94
Citizens through Effective Teaching (3.1 Maintaining Objectivity, 3.2 Flexibility, 3.3 Student
Choice, 3.4 Utilizing Technology, 3.5 Critical Thinking, 3.6 Experiential Learning); 4) Fostering
Global Citizenship Traits (4.1 Global Awareness, 4.2 Caring, 4.3 Cultural Diversity, 4.4 Social
Justice, 4.5 Sustainability, 4.6 Responsibility to Act); 5) Impact of Global Citizenship Education
(5.1 Impact of Global Citizenship Education on Teachers, 5.2 Impact of Global Citizenship
Education on Students).
This chapter will discuss the four main findings of this study: 1) the growing need to include topical and current global studies and citizenship related content in U.S. high school curricula; 2) the increasing importance of preparing U.S. high school teachers to teach global studies and citizenship related courses and content; 3) the significance of experiential learning and other forms of pedagogy to global studies and citizenship related education; and 4) the mounting imperative of global citizenship education for U.S. high school students. These findings were reviewed against the backdrop of existing literature and other studies. As a student and educator of history, I also have recognized the need to expand the commonly accepted traits of global citizenship to include liberal democratic governance and values. Based on this analysis, this study will provide recommendations for practice and ways to implement them, including through a proposed high school elective course and other changes to curriculum.
Lastly, this study will address the need for continued research on global citizenship education.
Curriculum and Course Design
Given that few high schools across the U.S. have incorporated current global studies related courses or content into their curricula, there is little literature on the subject (let alone on the topic of global citizenship education). As such, there was not much scholarship against which to compare the curriculum and course design of global studies at the research site. 95
Nevertheless, based on independent observation and analysis, the research site did offer students a clear and defined curriculum and course structure, in line with the objectives of global citizenship education. As described in the superordinate theme of Developing and Designing
Effective Curricula in Global Studies and Citizenship, the curriculum at the research site was both interdisciplinary and interdependent. Students could complete either two or four years of coursework on topics ranging from the water management crisis to genetically engineered foods, free trade and globalization, and human rights.
In the absence of literature on the topic, the research site can serve as an example for other high schools in the United States, as the administrator and teachers expressly noted in their interviews. Some other schools currently offer courses like World Studies and Contemporary
Global Issues or an AP seminar addressing global issues, among others (Myers, 2016). But notwithstanding Avenues in New York City and a few others like it, most U.S. high schools have not sufficiently infused their curricula with current global studies related content, not to mention global citizenship education (Reimers et al., 2016).
Despite there being little basis for comparison, the way that the research site structured the global studies course did differ from the models discussed in the literature. At the few schools that offer global citizenship education (or a variant thereof), students tend to take a half- year or full-year course on relevant subjects. By contrast, the multi-year curriculum at the research site is more ambitious. But the absence of a two-to-four year curriculum does not and should not prevent schools from at least trying to achieve the objectives of global citizenship education. As the proposed elective course demonstrates below, a half-year or full-year course can obtain desired student learning outcomes, and stress similar content knowledge and skills.
And, given that so few schools currently offer global studies courses, it is more likely than not 96
that, if they were to offer such a course, it would at least initially be part of a half-year or full- year sequence (and not span two to four years).
As discussed in the subtheme of Content and Pedagogy, there was both agreement and, in some instances, varying opinions among the administrator and two teachers regarding the content and structure of the curriculum. For example, there was consensus that a course on global studies should include such topics as global hunger, education, water and sanitation, and climate action. Yet, the two teachers also stressed that additional topics be included such as poverty, global health, and gender equality. The teachers were of the opinion that students would benefit from making global studies more of a survey course.
As further addressed below and as extensively documented in prior chapters, this study has confirmed what a small, but growing, number of scholars have already concluded: the importance of incorporating global citizenship education in K-12 curricula across the United
States (Burnside & Mackesy, 2015; Myers, 2016, 2010; Reimers et al., 2016). Recently, in
September 2017, the Vermont Agency of Education (2017) recognized this imperative by making global citizenship education the centerpiece of its K-12 social studies curriculum.
Indeed, the areas of civics, economics, geography, world language, cultural studies, and history now all fall under the umbrella of global citizenship (Vermont Agency of Education, 2017).
This commitment to global citizenship education can serve as an example for other state curricula across the country.
Yet, few private and charter schools, and even fewer public schools, have made global citizenship education a part of their curricula (Myers, 2016). As Myers (2016) points out, there is insufficient scholarship in this area, and that methodologies of this limited scholarship have varied depending on context (Alviar-Martin & Baildon, 2016; DiCicco, 2016; Tichnor-Wagner, 97
Parkhouse, Glazier, & Cain, 2016; Wang & Hoffman, 2016). This will be addressed further below.
Overall, the research findings of this study support the literature on global citizenship education curriculum development and design. Yet, the majority of courses noted in the literature were half-year or full-year courses, which stands in contrast to the scope, sequence, and pacing of the two-to-four year courses at the research site. Naturally, students in a multi-year curriculum have more opportunity than students in a half-year or full-year course to engage the material. But even in the absence of a multi-year global studies curriculum, there are certain fundamental topics that such a curriculum can and should address (as set forth below in the proposed elective course). This choice of topics is critical to advancing the objectives of global citizenship.
Teacher Preparation
There is also little literature on preparing educators to teach global studies related content, including global citizenship education (Yemini, Tibbitts, & Goren, 2019). Nevertheless, through in-depth interviews of the administrator and teachers at the research site, this study has confirmed the importance of receiving pre-service training in global issues (particularly related to the social sciences). Further, this study has concluded that there is insufficient focus on proficiency in global studies for prospective high school teachers. For instance, to receive a standard teaching certificate in social studies in New Jersey (the state in which this study was conducted), candidates must complete 30 credits in the subject field of social studies—but only one of those courses need be in world history (which, as a history course, would largely not address current global issues) (New Jersey Department of Education, 2018). Other states follow similar certification and licensing requirements. 98
One of the recurring themes of this study (addressed in the superordinate theme of
Preparing Effective Teachers of Global Citizenship) is the need for pre-service teachers to gain more exposure to global issues before entering the classroom (Ferguson-Patrick, Macqueen, &
Reynolds, 2014). However, too often teacher education programs in the United States fail to impart the relevant knowledge, skills, and values (e.g., lack of teacher capacity) needed to teach global citizenship education (Myers & Rivero, 2019; O'Meara, Huber, & Sanmiguel, 2018). As a result, too many teachers are ill-prepared to discuss basic multicultural or global concepts in the classroom (Gayle-Evans & Michael, 2006), while others feel ill-equipped to apply such content to their classroom lessons or unit plans (Brown & Kysilka, 1994).
And while there are some colleges and universities that offer majors, concentrations, or certificate programs in global studies or global citizenship education related content (Kopish,
2017), there are not enough opportunities. Colleges and universities need to offer more of these programs and courses to create the conditions for global citizenship education to succeed.
Currently, there are certificate programs in global education that can serve as examples. For instance, Teachers College at Columbia University has partnered with World Savvy and the Asia
Society to offer a 15-month online GCC program. Furthermore, New York University offers a year-long Advanced Certificate Program in international education. At Seton Hall University in
New Jersey, teachers can complete 15 credits to obtain a Graduate Certificate in Global Studies.
Through courses at the Seton Hall College of Education and Human Services, as well as the
School of Diplomacy and International Relations, teachers can connect global education to health, economics, and a variety of other subjects. These teacher training opportunities are a necessary predicate to offering effective global studies related instruction in high school curricula. 99
Certain states have recognized this need and created professional development programs in global education. A few years ago, for instance, North Carolina started a Global Educator
Digital Badge (GEDB) for Teachers, which requires a number of professional development hours in global education and a capstone project within two years (Singmaster, 2018). This example serves as a blueprint for other state initiatives across the country.
Finally, the IB focus on pre-service and in-service training can serve as a model for other organizations and local or statewide initiatives to prepare teachers of global citizenship education. As noted above, IB educators receive training and ongoing professional support on a regular basis and, as a consequence, are generally better prepared to discuss difficult and controversial global issues (Jamal, 2016). As the administrator discussed in her interview, prospective and current teachers have used and can use this type of training and experience to engage students in global studies related content.
Overall, the findings of this study support the existing literature on teacher preparation.
As the administrator and teachers stressed in their interviews, both pre-service and in-service training are necessary for global studies educators. To achieve these ends, the literature and findings of this study also confirm the need for more courses and professional development programs offered at colleges, universities, and other organizations across the United States.
Global Citizenship Education through Experiential Learning
This study is grounded in the theory of experiential learning (Dewey, 1916, 1938; Kolb,
1984, 2009; Lewin, 1951; Piaget, 1952) based on Kolb's (1984) ELC model. As detailed below, the findings of this study are consistent with the four stages of the ELC model. These stages include concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. 100
First, the participants at the research site emphasized their experiences as new and different. In the focus group, students spoke to the various activities inside and outside the classroom in which they participated for the first time. The administrator and teachers also stressed that, given the current and topical nature of the course, the instructional content and outside activities change from year to year.
Second, the participants shared reflections of their experiences. The administrator and teachers explained how they deliver course content, and how the course has shaped the lives of students. The students reflected on the impact of these courses and their changing perspectives.
Third, the participants explained how they conceptualized their experiences. The administrator and teachers reflected on how pedagogical techniques and practices (e.g., maintaining objectivity, flexibility, student choice, utilizing technology, critical thinking) affected students. And the students themselves reflected on key concepts in global citizenship education, including as to cultures, values, and viewpoints.
Fourth, the participants applied what they had learned from these experiences to impact their local and global community. The administrator and teachers provided examples of how students became more ethical consumers and conscious of their food choices. Students also noted their decisions not to buy certain products after learning about the working conditions in other areas of the world. Other students have started a high school club to confront global challenges and plan to partner with humanitarian organizations.
Cultivating Student and Civic Engagement
Perhaps the most important lesson from this study is the need to further cultivate student interest in global studies and citizenship. The research site has tried to accomplish this objective through the adoption of the IB DP and the international seminar series (Accelerated Global 101
Studies I and II). For IB students at the research site and elsewhere (as discussed in the literature), developing an international mindset is a precondition to furthering the objectives of global studies and citizenship (Brunold-Conesa, 2011; Culross & Tarver, 2011). That is, learning about "the cultures of different people, finding commonalities and differences and accepting difference in the world are key points for the IB in relation to becoming a global citizen" (Castro, Lundgren, & Woodin, 2015, p. 193). As Culross and Tarver (2011) explain, IB
"students become situated culturally, geographically, historically and personally within the context of being a global citizen" (p. 233).
On the other hand, despite its advantages, some of the literature has shown that the IB has sometimes failed to sufficiently address important political and social issues, and equip students with the skills needed to advocate for social justice or promote cultural awareness (Castro,
Lundgren, & Woodin, 2015). While the literature is limited, in a recent study, Belal (2017) demonstrates that the IB DP, by itself, does not groom global citizens. Instead, "the diversity of the student body" (Belal, 2017, p. 30) may play a greater role in promoting international mindedness and global citizenship. In addition, some scholars have questioned whether the IB
DP and other related curricula focus too much on Western values (Andreotti, 2006; Haywood,
2015). As Haywood (2015) concludes, the IB, among other organizations, is "a product of
Western, largely Anglophone, philosophy and practice" (p. 53).
Aside from the IB DP, there are other ways that schools can promote and have promoted the objectives of global citizenship education. Certain states have provided students with the opportunity to obtain a global certificate (Singmaster, 2018). In Wisconsin, students can receive a Global Education Achievement Certificate (GEAC) by, among other things, taking a world language course (four credits) and a course on global issues (four credits); writing book 102
reflections on global content; participating in cultural events; and completing 20 hours of global service-learning (Fischer, 2013). Furthermore, in Illinois, students can earn the Illinois Global
Scholar Certificate through demonstrating global competence in coursework; service-learning; collaboration and dialogue; student activities; and a capstone project on a global issue (Illinois
State Board of Education, 2016).
At the local level, certain school districts also have supported global competency and citizenship programs for the student body (Singmaster, 2018). In Massachusetts, for example, various schools currently grant global certificates to their students, including Hingham High
School and Needham High School (Shea, 2013; Singmaster, 2018). In addition to taking global studies courses, students may pursue study abroad or international service-learning activities
(Shea, 2013; Singmaster, 2018). At Hingham High School, for instance, students may become part of the Global Citizenship Program (GCP) by participating in the GCP Club and applying for the GCP Certificate (Singmaster, 2018).
Overall, the research findings of this study regarding student interest and civic engagement align with much of the prevailing literature. As an IB World School, the research site embraces the type of curriculum and experiential learning activities found in the literature, and this serves to further the objectives of global citizenship education. Nevertheless, as discussed above, other approaches can effectively engage student interest in global studies and citizenship.
Reflection on Global Citizenship and Liberal Democratic Values
While the participants in this study collectively associated global citizenship with a number of common traits (e.g., global awareness, caring, cultural diversity, social justice, sustainability, responsibility to act), none of them expressly identified liberal democratic values. 103
Organizations such as UNESCO (2015), UNICEF (2013), and Oxfam (2006) also have failed to focus on liberal democratic values when defining global citizenship. As outlined in this study, there is only so much that can be achieved in the area of human rights and social justice without individuals, companies, countries, and multilateral institutions embracing liberal democratic ideals. As history has shown, to advance a number of the freedoms that global citizens so desire
(e.g., open exchange of information, free movement of goods and people) requires the success of liberal democratic principles such as:
an independent judiciary;
freedom of the press;
the rule of law;
protected space for civil associations (secular and religious) (Galston, 2018, p. 15).
The cosmopolitan idea behind global citizenship is to find a common identity and to solve common problems (Nussbaum, 1994; Osler & Starkey, 2005). A common identity requires the acceptance of different backgrounds and viewpoints, including along lines of race, religion, gender, and sexual orientation (Bell, 2007; Bhugra, 2016; Garcia & Van Soest, 2006; Greene,
1998). The acceptance of such distinguishing characteristics, and the respect for dissent, are core liberal democratic ideas.
At this moment in time and in this geopolitical climate, global studies should consider the connection between liberal democratic values and global citizenship. Across the United States and the rest of the world, a growing number of leaders, including the American president, have criticized the tenets of global citizenship. Too often, they have viewed national and global interests as mutually exclusive and through the prism of a zero-sum game. As recently as
September 25, 2018, President Trump declared that "America is governed by Americans. We 104
reject the ideology of globalism, and we embrace the doctrine of patriotism" (Trump, 2018). In the following month, Trump (2018) added that, "A globalist is a person that wants the globe to do well, frankly, not caring about our country so much." These are but a few of the many statements that Trump has made, both while campaigning for the presidency and governing since, on his preference for "nationalism" over "globalism."
As the United States looks inward and increasingly retreats from the world, support for democratic institutions and values continues to wane around the world. This trend, which has taken root over the past few decades, has seen more and more democratically elected leaders move away from liberal democratic principles and embrace authoritarianism (Széll, 2018).
Revealingly, in the most recent publication of The Economist Intelligence Unit's (2018) index of democracy, only 19 of 167 countries were considered "full democracies" (as opposed to "flawed democracies," "hybrid regimes," or "authoritarian regimes") that welcome civil liberties and fundamental political freedoms.
According to the report, this move away from democracy has resulted in the following:
declining popular participation in elections and politics;
weaknesses in the functioning of government;
declining trust in institutions;
dwindling appeal of mainstream representative parties;
growing influence of unelected, unaccountable institutions and expert bodies;
widening gap between political elites and electorates;
decline in media freedoms;
erosion of civil liberties, including curbs on free speech (The Economist Intelligence
Unit, 2018, p. 3). 105
Some scholars also have referred to this trend as the rise of "illiberal democracy" (Zakaria,
1997), "post-democracy" (Crouch, 2004), and "counter-democracy" (Rosanvallon, 2008) or simply a "democratic recession" (Diamond, 2015). What is even more alarming, faith in liberal democracy is decreasing especially among younger generations. A recent study published by
Foa and Mounk (2016) in the Journal of Democracy indicates that millennials hold a less favorable opinion of democracy and are becoming more receptive to non-democratic ideas.
In response to this anti-globalist and anti-democratic movement, U.N. Secretary-General
António Guterres (2018) warned that, "Trust in global governance is . . . fragile, as 21st-century challenges outpace 20th-century institutions and mindsets . . . Universal values are being eroded.
Democratic principles are under siege, and the rule of law is being undermined . . .
Multilateralism is under fire precisely when we need it most." French President Emmanuel
Macron (2018) added that with "attacks on democracies through the rise of illiberalism . . . [and] isolationism, withdrawal, and nationalism . . . the international institutions, including the United
Nations and NATO, will no longer be able to exercise their mandate and stabilizing influence."
That is not to say that undemocratic countries have not helped tackle global problems.
Despite the challenges to global democracy, global governance, and multilateralism, the UN and international community are making strides in addressing certain SDGs (e.g., new environmental, health, and other initiatives) (United Nations, 2018). Since the turn of the 21st century, democratic and non-democratic countries have made increasing efforts to work together to address issues of hunger, poverty, and climate change, to name a few (Brainard, Jones, &
Purvis, 2009). In 2001, for instance, members of the international community signed the
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) to promote food security and nutrition (Halewood, 2013). More recently, 196 nations representing 106
the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) entered into the Paris Agreement
(PA) on December 12, 2015 to confront climate change (Streck, Keenlyside, & von Unger,
2016).
And that is also not to say that liberal democratic governance is without its flaws, or that the merits of democracy should be free from scrutiny or debate. Indeed, as chronicled above, liberal democracies have had their failings, which include the excesses and consequences of unfettered capitalism (e.g., income gap, climate change). It is to say, however, that, with human history and experience as our guide, to realize all of the goals of global citizenship requires a commitment to liberal democratic governance and values—be they freedom of expression, the rights of women and minorities, and other basic human rights. As such, it is my contention that high schools across the United States should design and implement a new elective course on global citizenship education, and that course should explore the connection between liberal democratic governance and global citizenship.
Recommendations for Practice
Based on the findings and literature above, this study is proposing that high school students have the opportunity to take an elective course on global citizenship. This course should be, at minimum, a half-year course that includes the following ten units (five units per marking period), with a focus on student-centered learning.
Elective Course
First Unit. Based on superordinate theme 3, the first unit should define the meaning of
"global citizenship." Students should discuss the attributes of a global citizen and the objectives of global citizenship. As part of this exercise, students should read and analyze UN SDG #4.7.1. 107
Students also should write an essay on what it means to be a global citizen (similar to an assignment at the research site).
Second Unit. Based on subtheme 4.5, the second unit should cover sustainable development (a common trait in definitions of global citizenship). Students should work in groups and examine key environmental (or ecological), economic, and social issues affecting the well-being of the global community.
Third Unit. Based on subtheme 5.2, the third unit should explore poverty and world hunger (also common traits in definitions of global citizenship). Students should identify the underlying causes of these problems, as well as offer prescriptions (through international partnerships and agreements) to improve food security and reduce poverty and hunger worldwide. Students should conduct independent research via online resources and databases
(e.g., WebQuest), and also should complete the Random Life Project (similar to an assignment at the research site).
Fourth Unit. Based on subtheme 4.2, the fourth unit should cover global health issues, namely epidemics, as well as examine the various types of prevention and treatment programs
(caring is a key trait in definitions of global citizenship). Students should explore ways that the global community can confront health issues in underdeveloped nations, as well as increase sources of funding to combat disease. Students should design an action plan to combat a health epidemic and present their findings to the class.
Fifth Unit. Based on subtheme 4.2, the fifth unit should examine the issue of child mortality, particularly in the developing world (again caring is a key component of global citizenship). Students should consider solutions and ways that children under the age of five can 108
have better access to health care. Students should conduct research and simulate a mass media campaign to educate their peers.
Sixth Unit. Based on subtheme 4.4, the sixth unit should examine issues of peace and conflict on a global scale (also common traits in definitions of global citizenship), considering theories and practices of peace-building, conflict resolution, and conflict transformation.
Students should learn about the role of local, national, and global institutions in shaping peace and security worldwide through a series of role playing scenarios and simulations.
Seventh Unit. Based on subtheme 4.4, the seventh unit should address "human rights" and "gender equality" (e.g., Bring Back Our Girls Campaign in Nigeria). As part of this unit, students should consider the international human rights system and the evolving definition of gender equality, as well as related principles set forth by the United Nations Evaluation Group.
Students should design a social media campaign, and should explore the connection between liberal democracy and human rights or gender equality.
Eighth Unit. The eighth unit should examine universal education (SDG #4). Students should investigate recent efforts by international groups and organizations to expand educational opportunity. Students should propose recommendations to overcome educational inequities and, as part of this pursuit, collaborate through a problem-based learning project (e.g., UN Global
Education First Initiative or UN Academic Impact) on a local, national, or global initiative.
Ninth Unit. The ninth unit should teach students about the liberal democratic ideas expressed in both the English and U.S. Bill of Rights, among other seminal documents. Students then should create their own bill of rights for the community of global citizens, incorporating the ideas and topics discussed in previous units. Students also should discuss and consider the 109
relationship between global citizenship and liberal democratic governance and rights (e.g., freedom of the press, speech, assembly, association, and other forms of expression).
Tenth Unit. Based on subtheme 4.6, students should work on a prior or current global initiative (e.g., GICNT or UN.GICT). This final project (e.g., draft a research paper or create a website) should be presented to the class. The purpose of this project should be to design and implement a plan of action on a pressing global issue.
Action Plan
In the course of their interviews at the research site, the teachers and administrator stressed the importance of incorporating a course on global citizenship (which would be similar in content to the one proposed above) into curricula at other schools. Such a course can be offered at different types of schools (e.g., public, private, charter school). While an IB World
School is more likely to embrace such a course, it does not preclude a non-IB World School from offering this course.
For IB World Schools. To propose that a course on global citizenship become part of the curriculum at an IB World School requires contacting the IB Board of Governors and
Diploma Review Committee (International Baccalaureate, 2014). The IB stakeholders that participate in the curriculum review and development process include teachers, consultants, staff, and examiners/moderators (International Baccalaureate, 2014). The findings of this study show that the proposed elective course above is consistent with the IB mission statement, which seeks to groom active global citizens and provide knowledge, skills, and values on global issues
(International Baccalaureate, 2012). This course also would provide students the opportunity to participate in experiential learning or service-learning activities. As one of the teachers at the 110
research site noted, the CAS component of the IB DP could be fulfilled through a service- learning project in a global studies course.
For All Schools. Given the range of subjects covered by an elective course on global citizenship, schools will need input from curriculum writers across departments. As the administrator in this study noted, when drafting the global studies curriculum at the research site, she covered areas ranging from ELA to art, science (chemistry, geology, climatology, etc.), mathematics, technology, digital arts, world languages, music, personal finance, economics, and geography. Other stakeholders at the local level will include those with the authority to approve the curriculum, such as department chairs, directors of curriculum and instruction, and/or school board members. To develop the expertise for such a curriculum, teachers and administrators in high schools across the United States should be provided with opportunities and incentives to attend IB-related workshops and conferences in professional development and obtain IB certificates in teaching and learning (e.g., curriculum development, pedagogy, assessment).
At the state level, policymakers may need to craft and adopt additional global studies and citizenship related state standards. State departments or agencies of education should consider modifications or additions to state standards (e.g., Common Core State Standards), as necessary and appropriate. Approval may require ratification from members of the state school board or, in some cases, the state superintendent of education, state legislature, and/or governor.
While change is more likely to begin at the local and/or state levels, there also is a role for the federal government to advance the agenda of global studies and citizenship. The United
States Department of Education should build on its earlier efforts (e.g., International Strategy
2012-2016), and renew its commitment to preparing students to become more globally competent citizens. Such efforts should include publishing an updated strategy and continuing to 111
engage through task forces, international student assessments and surveys, partnerships with multilateral institutions (e.g., Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,
Educational International) and other ministries of education.
Whole-School Approach. Notwithstanding the above elective course, high schools can and should find other ways to incorporate global citizenship education into existing curricula. A
"whole-school approach" can bring global citizenship education to "governance, policies and procedures, teaching practices, curriculum, physical and social environment, extracurricular activities, teacher training, [and] community engagement" (Henck, 2018, p. 75). Other examples of a whole-school approach include "the integration of global citizenship education learning outcomes into existing subjects at all levels, use of participatory learning methods across subjects, activities to mark international days, awareness raising, activist-oriented clubs, community engagement and linking of schools in different places" (UNESCO, 2015, p. 48).
According to Oxfam (2015), "embedding global citizenship across all areas of school life results in the greatest impacts and benefits for learners" (p. 14).
As such, high schools should consider incorporating global citizenship education into one or more of the five following areas:
School leadership;
Teaching and learning across curriculum;
Extracurricular activities;
School and community relationships;
School culture (Henck, 2018).
To achieve these goals, stakeholders across the school community, including students, faculty members, staff, school leaders, and parents, need to "buy in." 112
First and based on superordinate theme 2, school leaders should set the tone and serve as an example for teachers and students (Henck, 2018). The principal, assistant principals, and department chairs can help teachers grow as global educators through teacher observations and recommended readings on global issues. Such leaders also should attend workshops and conferences on global citizenship education and encourage teachers to do the same. The administrator in this study stressed the importance of global studies educators continuing their professional development (e.g., Princeton University East Asia Program, UNIS), in light of the topical and changing nature of the material.
Second and based on superordinate theme 1, teachers can advance global citizenship education through working with colleagues and creating interdisciplinary lesson plans (Henck,
2018). As the administrator in this study stressed, designing lessons across the school curriculum on a range of subjects can help to bind departments together (Oxfam, 2015). A multi-disciplinary globalized curriculum will afford well-rounded students the opportunity to explore global issues in not only the social sciences, but English, science, and mathematics as well.
Third and based on subtheme 3.6, schools should encourage students to participate in extracurricular activities to foster global citizenship (Henck, 2018). To acquire the requisite knowledge, skills, and values, students can join an after school club or participate in a service- learning project. Indeed, a few of the student participants in this study expressed interest in starting their own humanitarian club to address important global issues. Other student participants spoke to the value of volunteering and tutoring within their community.
Fourth and based on subtheme 3.6, the goal of student activism outside the classroom should be to build an inclusive school and community (Henck, 2018). When students are 113
involved in the "local community using global citizenship, and invite community members to related events" (Oxfam, 2015, p. 14), they begin to identify their civic roles and responsibilities in society. In line with Henck (2018), students should partner with high schools, community colleges, universities, businesses, government agencies, or international institutions to become change agents within their community and beyond. For example, some of the student participants in this study noted their plans to work with local and global organizations (e.g.,
UNICEF, Red Cross), and organize school fundraisers to address global challenges.
Fifth and based on subtheme 4.1, schools should promote global awareness and create a democratic community that values different ideas and opinions (Henck, 2018). To fulfill this objective, school leaders should add global citizenship education to the "school vision, ethos and development plans, with learners playing a key role in decision-making" (Oxfam, 2015, p. 14).
For instance, the administrator in this study repeatedly stressed the need for all students to be exposed to topics related to global studies. Many of the student participants spoke to their increased sense of global awareness upon completing the coursework and/or experiential learning activities. As students, teachers, and staff members collaborate on global issues, the school will help create an environment and culture for global citizenship education to succeed.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study highlights the need for more research within the field of global citizenship education. First, more researchers should conduct studies related to the development and design of global studies curricula and courses. This would help practitioners enhance curricular standards to better reflect current and topical global content. In addition, administrators would benefit from more literature when making the case to education committees or local district boards of education to offer global studies related courses. 114
Second, more studies should focus on global studies teacher training programs across
American institutions of higher education and other organizations. While undergraduate and graduate programs exist, there is not enough literature that examines their benefits and ways to improve. Moreover, other studies should examine the teacher certification and licensing requirements in states across the country and prescribe ways to incorporate global citizenship education into these requirements. While a growing number of organizations in the public and private sector offer professional development workshops and conferences on global citizenship education, there needs to be greater focus on increasing these opportunities for research and collaboration.
Third, more researchers should conduct studies on the ways that schools and other organizations promote global citizenship education outside the classroom to cultivate student interest and foster civic engagement. This includes examining how experiential learning and service-learning activities can assist high school students in becoming global citizens. One way to accomplish this objective is to look to the IB DP and consider how students through the CAS and other community projects become more active and responsible global citizens. Another way to build on the existing literature is to conduct more studies about statewide initiatives that offer students certificates and recognize global competency.
Fourth, more attention should be given to global citizenship education within American public high schools (as many of the current studies on this topic focus on private and charter schools). Fifth, more studies should further explore the ideals and values of global citizenship.
While many studies consider and evaluate the traits of a global citizen, these studies generally do not examine the parallel goals of liberal democratic governance and global citizenship. This 115
study sheds light on what is missing in the existing literature, ways to address the current limits of global citizenship education, and how to better solve the problems facing the world today.
Finally, to further disseminate the findings and conclusions of this study, I will seek to publish journal articles; present at conferences (for educators and administrators), workshops, or schools board committees; and design and develop K-12 global citizenship and studies related curricula. Through these endeavors, I will focus on international education for K-12 schools, global citizenship theory and practice, service-learning, civic engagement, and/or experiential learning. As a high school educator and curriculum writer, I am committed to infusing global citizenship and studies related content into the social studies curriculum.
Conclusion
Four main conclusions derived from the qualitative data of this study. First, the need for continued curriculum development and design of global studies related courses and content.
Second, the need for pre-service and in-service training for teachers of global studies related courses, including teacher education and professional development programs. Third, the importance of experiential learning, among other forms of pedagogy and instructional practices, in furthering the goals of global citizenship education. Fourth, the need for class projects, international education programs, and other experiential learning opportunities (such as fieldwork, service-learning, or community programs) to cultivate student interest in global citizenship education. In addition, upon reflection, global studies related courses should consider the connection between liberal democratic values and the goals of global citizenship.
Through the above findings and literature, this study has proposed an elective course with ten units: 1) Introduction to Global Citizenship; 2) Sustainable Development; 3) Poverty and
World Hunger; 4) Global Health Issues; 5) Child Mortality; 6) Peace and Conflict; 7) Human 116
Rights and Gender Equality; 8) Universal Education; 9) Liberal Democratic Governance and
Rights; 10) Global Citizenship Action Plan. This study also has underscored the need for more research on global citizenship, global citizenship education in the United States, global studies training and certification programs, experiential learning, and the connection between global citizenship and liberal democratic governance.
117
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Appendix A
Student Recruitment Letter
To whom it may concern,
I am a graduate student at Northeastern University's College of Professional Studies. I am currently working on my dissertation entitled, Perceptions and Experiences of Global Citizenship Education. I recently received permission from the Northeastern University Institutional Review Board and ______to conduct my research study at ______.
As you are currently enrolled in a global studies course at ______, I am writing this letter to ask you to participate in this study. The purpose of the study is to understand perceptions and experiences of students who engage with high school global studies curriculum. The information gleaned from the study may help other high schools implement global studies courses and add to existing knowledge about global citizenship education.
As part of the study, I intend to conduct focus group interviews and a survey with students enrolled in a global studies course. Each interview will last about 45 minutes to an hour and take place after school at a convenient location.
If you are interested in participating in this study, please sign the enclosed informed consent form and return it to [email protected]. If you are under the age of 18, your parent or guardian also will need to sign the form.
Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You are not required to answer all questions and you may withdraw your participation at any time. As a participant in the study, your responses will be kept confidential and your identity will be kept anonymous.
You will receive a $15 gift certificate to Dunkin Donuts for participation in this study.
Please do not hesitate to contact me at [email protected] if you need additional information or have any questions. Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely, Evan Saperstein 162
Appendix B
Teacher Recruitment Letter
To whom it may concern,
I am a graduate student at Northeastern University's College of Professional Studies. I am currently working on my dissertation entitled Perceptions and Experiences of Global Citizenship Education. I recently received permission from the Northeastern University Institutional Review Board and ______to conduct my research study at ______.
As you are currently teaching a global studies course at ______, I am writing this letter to ask you to participate in this study. The purpose of the study is to understand the perceptions and experiences of teachers who teach high school global studies curriculum. The information gleaned from the study may help other high schools implement global studies courses and add to the existing knowledge about global citizenship education.
As part of the study, I intend to conduct one-on-one interviews with educators who teach a global studies course. Each interview will last about 45 minutes to an hour and take place after school at a convenient location.
If you are interested in participating in this study, please sign the enclosed informed consent form and return it to [email protected].
Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You are not required to answer all questions and you may withdraw your participation at any time. As a participant in the study, your responses will be kept confidential and your identity will be kept anonymous.
Please do not hesitate to contact me at [email protected] if you need additional information or have any questions. Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely, Evan Saperstein 163
Appendix C
Signed Informed Consent Document
Northeastern University, College of Professional Studies Investigator Name: Principal Investigator - Dr. Afi Wiggins Student Researcher - Evan Saperstein Title of Project: Perceptions and Experiences of Global Citizenship Education
Informed Consent to Participate in a Research Study
We are inviting you [or your child] to partake in a research study. This form will review the main aspects of the study. The researcher also will talk about the study with you. If you have any questions, you may contact the researcher. If you would like to participate in this study, please inform the researcher. However, you are not required to be a participant. If you choose to participate, the researcher will ask you to sign this statement and provide you a copy after.
Why am I being asked to take part in this research study?
You have been asked to take part in this research study since you are currently teaching or enrolled in a global studies course. You also have been identified as someone who has a great deal to share about global citizenship education.
Why is this research being done?
The purpose of this research study is to understand and evaluate student and teacher perceptions and experiences from a high school global studies curriculum.
What will I be asked to do?
You will be asked to participate in focus group or one-on-one interviews. You will answer open- ended questions about your perceptions and experiences in a global studies course. The interview will be recorded to ensure your responses are accurately reflected in the study.
Where will this take place and how much of my time will it take?
If you are a student, these focus group interviews and survey will take place after school at a location of your choice and will last approximately 45 minutes to an hour. If you are a teacher, these one-on-one interviews will take place after school at a location of your choice and will last approximately 45 minutes to an hour.
Will there be any risk or discomfort to me?
There are no significant foreseeable risks or discomforts to the participants in this study. The researcher has endeavored to create an environment that protects the participants from undue 164
influence or conduct. If the participant in any way feels any discomfort while participating in the study, the participant may withdraw at any time.
Will I benefit by being in this research?
There will be no direct benefit for participating in this research study. The information gleaned from this study may help other high schools implement global studies courses and add to the existing body of literature in global citizenship education.
Who will see the information about me?
To protect your identity, a pseudonym will be used. All responses will be kept confidential to the greatest extent possible and to the maximum extent permitted by law. Each computer file and document will be password-protected and encrypted to maintain confidentiality. The researcher will maintain any hard copies of such documents or recordings in a locked filing cabinet. Once the applicable retention periods have expired, the researcher will destroy the aforementioned documents and recordings.
If I do not want to take part in the study, what choices do I have?
You are not required to take part in the study. Since participation is voluntary, you may choose to not sign this form. Even if your parent provided signed consent, you may leave the focus group at any time with no questions asked. The student researcher will not tell anyone, including your parent, whether or not you completed the study.
What will happen if I suffer any harm from this research?
There are no anticipated risks or discomforts associated with this study.
Can I stop my participation in this study?
You will have the choice to refrain from answering a question or to opt out of the study at any point.
Who can I contact if I have questions or problems?
If you have any questions about this study, please do not hesitate to contact the researcher, Evan Saperstein (Email: [email protected]). You also may contact the Principal Investigator, Dr. Afi Wiggins (Email: [email protected]).
Who can I contact about my rights as a participant?
If you have any questions about your rights as a participant, you may contact Nan C. Regina, Director, Human Subject Research Protection, Mail Stop: 560-177, 360 Huntington Avenue, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115. Tel: 617.373.4588, Email: [email protected]. You may call anonymously if you wish. 165
Will I be paid for my participation?
You will receive a $15 gift certificate to Dunkin Donuts at the end of the student focus group for participation in this research study.
Will it cost me anything to participate?
There will be no cost for participation in this research study.
Is there anything else I need to know?
You must be at least 18 years old to participate in this study unless your parent or guardian provide written permission.
I agree to take part in this research and, if I am a student under the age of 18, I understand that my parent also must provide consent.
______Signature of person agreeing to take part Date
______Printed name of person above
______Signature of parent (if student is under the age of 18) Date
______Printed name of person above
______Signature of person who explained the study to the Date participant above and obtained consent
______Printed name of person above 166
Appendix D
Student Interview Protocol Form
Part I: Introductory Question Objectives
Introductory Protocol
Thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule. You have been selected to speak with me today because you have taken a global studies course. The goal of this research study is to understand and evaluate your perceptions and experiences in this course and their implications on curriculum.
Since I need to transcribe this interview and review what was discussed today, I would like to record this session with your permission. Do I have your permission to record this interview? Please keep in mind that your participation is voluntary and that I will not share your identity with anyone. I also will take every necessary precaution to maintain confidentiality throughout this process.
This interview should last approximately 45 minutes to an hour. I would like to ask you several questions about global citizenship and experiential learning. Do you have any questions before we start this interview?
If you have decided that you do not want to participate, you may leave now.
Part II: Interviewee Background
1. To begin, can you please state the number assigned to you for this study and the grade you are currently in?
2. Which global studies courses have you taken as part of the Acceleration Cohort (Water Crisis Management, Genetically Engineered Organisms, Free Trade & Globalization, Human Rights)?
Part III: Objectives
3. How do you define a global citizen? Please include specific character traits that a global citizen should possess.
4. Upon completing the Accelerated Global Studies seminars, how did your perceptions and opinions change, if any, on what it means to be a global citizen? Which specific character traits (awareness, caring, empathy, responsibility to act), if any, have you acquired in these courses?
5. Which topics that you studied in the Accelerated Global Studies seminars did you find most meaningful and useful for preparing you as a global citizen? Could you please list a few reasons to support your answer? 167
6. Experiential learning refers to the process of learning through experience. Have classroom discussions, debates, projects, and research assignments played a role in helping you become more of a global citizen? If yes, how so? If not, why not? Which of these activities did you find most helpful when learning about these issues and why? Could you please describe specific activities you participated in?
7. What knowledge, skills (communication, technology, creativity, critical thinking), and values have been imparted to you in these global studies courses? Have these courses shaped and/or changed the way you view your role in the world as a responsible and contributing citizen? If yes, how so? If not, why not?
8. How do you plan to incorporate what you learned in these global studies courses to become a catalyst for social change outside your school and in your community? How do you think these courses may influence your college major and/or career choice?
Part IV: Conclusion
Thank you for sharing your unique perspective. Before we conclude this interview, I would like to know whether you have anything else you would like to add to this discussion. Once again, thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule to share insight on these important topics. 168
Appendix E
Teacher Interview Protocol Form
Part I: Introductory Question Objectives
Introductory Protocol
Thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule. You have been selected to speak with me today because you are currently teaching a global studies course. The goal of this research study is to understand and evaluate your perceptions and experiences in this course and their implications on curriculum.
Since I need to transcribe this interview and review what was discussed today, I would like to record this session with your permission. Do I have your permission to record this interview? Please keep in mind that your participation is voluntary and that I will not share your identity with anyone. I also will take every necessary precaution to maintain confidentiality throughout this process.
This interview should last approximately 45 minutes to an hour. I would like to ask you several questions about global citizenship and experiential learning. Do you have any questions before we start this interview?
Part II: Interviewee Background
1. To begin, can you please describe your academic background? Tell me about your major/concentration (for each degree). Describe what the program entailed (for each degree). Have you taken any undergraduate or graduate level courses in global studies? If so, what were they?
2. Can you please describe your professional background? Tell me about your position/title (for each job). Describe the main responsibilities (for each job).
Part III: Objectives
3. Can you please describe any previous experiences that prepared you to teach a global studies course? What professional development opportunities (e.g., seminars, workshops) have you attended inside or outside this school that assisted you in implementing the curriculum and teaching the course? What pre-service (teacher education programs) or in-service opportunities (professional development workshops) in global citizenship education (content knowledge and pedagogical training) should be offered to prepare prospective or current high school teachers for teaching global studies? 169
4. How is the content of the global studies course structured and conveyed to the students? Did you play a role in writing the global studies curriculum? If so, please explain your role. How effective did you find using an interdisciplinary approach when teaching this global studies course? Which topics in global studies did you find most engaged students? What are the challenges or difficulties in teaching this global studies course?
5. As part of an international seminar series, the students will have taken specialized, in-depth courses on the water management crisis, genetically engineered foods, free trade and globalization, and human rights over the course of a few years. Do you prefer providing more in-depth instruction on fewer topics or covering more topics in less detail? Could you please explain your rationale? If you were designing a year-long global studies course, how would you structure it and which of the 17 UN sustainable development goals (list provided) would you include?
6. Has experiential learning played a role in developing what you defined as a global citizen? If yes, how so? If no, why not? What types of experiential learning activities (formative and summative assessments) have students engaged in? Could you please provide a few examples?
7. How do you define global citizenship in your course? What specific character traits do you need to possess to be a global citizen? What are the challenges or difficulties associated with being a global citizen? How has your definition of global citizenship changed as a result of teaching a global studies course? How have your students' definition of global citizenship changed as a result of taking a global studies course?
8. What knowledge, skills, and values have been imparted to your students in this global studies course? What roles and responsibilities do global citizens have in society? Can you describe specific conversations you have had with your colleagues or students about these areas?
9. Have your students expressed plans to take courses in global studies in college? If yes, have they stated which courses? Have your students expressed plans to pursue careers involving global issues? If yes, have they stated which professions?
Part IV: Conclusion
Thank you for sharing your unique perspective. Before we conclude this interview, I would like to know whether you have anything else you would like to add to this discussion. Once again, 170
thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule to share insight on these important topics. 171
Appendix F
Student Survey
Instructions: Please answer the questions provided below. Your participation in this survey is voluntary and you may refrain from answering any of these questions.
1. Gender (check one):
Male
Female
Other
2. Race/Ethnic Identification (check one):
Hispanic or Latino
White
Black or African American
Asian
Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
American Indian or Alaska Native
Two or More Races
3. Please put a check mark in ten boxes that you believe to be the most important topics from the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs) (check ten):
No Poverty Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
Zero Hunger Reduced Inequality
Good Health and Well-being Sustainable Cities and Communities
Quality Education Responsible Consumption and Production
Gender Equality Climate Action
Clean Water and Sanitation Life Below Water
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Affordable and Clean Energy Life on Land
Decent Work and Economic Growth Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions
4. Please define what it means to be a global citizen in a few sentences.
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5. What lessons did you learn in the global studies seminars regarding the following topics?
Water Management Crisis
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Genetically Engineered Foods
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Free Trade and Globalization
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Human Rights for All
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