NPT

a publication of the Medical Association for Prevention of War (Australia)

Understanding the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty A publication of the Medical Association for Prevention of War (Australia)

September 2007 | Medical Association for Prevention of War (Australia) This book is dedicated to the memory of Mayor Iccho Itoh, Based on the 2005 MAPW publication “Australia and the NPT 2005, Getting serious about ridding the world of WMDs” Mayor of the Japanese city of Nagasaki Principal authors: Dr Sue Wareham, Dimity Hawkins and Loretta O’Brien. With assistance from Dr Marianne Hanson and members of the MAPW National Council and Vice-President of Mayors for Peace,

2007 edition: the updated edition and layout by Dimity Hawkins. Redrafting assistance from Dr Sue Wareham who was assassinated in April 2007 OAM, Associate Professor Tilman Ruff, Felicity Hill, Nancy Atkin, Jessica Morrison. Editing by Dr Cath Keaney. Artwork © Dimity Hawkins. “The time has come for those nations that rely on the force of nuclear armaments to respectfully heed the voices of peace-loving people, not the least the atomic bomb survivors, to strive in good faith for nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation, and to advance towards the complete About the Medical Association for Prevention of War abolishment of all such weapons.” The Medical Association for Prevention of War (MAPW) Australia is an organisation of health professionals dedicated Mayor Iccho Itoh, Nagasaki Peace Declaration, 9 August 2006 to the prevention of armed conflict and the abolition of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons. It is affiliated with International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW), recipient of the 1985 Nobel Peace Prize. Medical Association for Prevention of War Australia PO Box 1379 Carlton VIC 3053 Phone: +61 (03) 8344 1637 Fax: +61 (03) 8344 1638 [email protected] www.mapw.org.au

About ICAN CONTENTS ICAN is the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons, initiated by MAPW and IPPNW. ICAN focuses on the Summary and recommendations page 4 roots of the nuclear weapons problem - the continued possession of nuclear weapons by a small minority of countries, Where are the nuclear weapons? page 5 who risk their use by design, accident, miscalculation or by terrorists, and whose weapons are an incentive to others to also become nuclear armed. ICAN aims to achieve a Nuclear Weapons Convention to ban the development, Why we need to get rid of them page 6 possession and use of nuclear weapons. ICAN greatly benefits from the support in Australia of the Poola Foundation (Tom Kantor Fund). What is the NPT? page 8

ICAN The NPT in 2010 – the need for progress page 10 Phone: +61 (03) 9347 4795 [email protected] Australia and nuclear weapons page 14 www.icanw.org Nuclear disarmament and your role page 15

Putting the nuclear genie back in the bottle page 16

ICAN – take action! page 17 MAPW gratefully acknowledges the support of the Australian Ethical Investments Appendix 1. Text of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty page 18 in providing a grant that made this booklet possible. Appendix 2. 13 Point action plan as agreed at the 2000 NPT Review Conference page 21

Footnotes page 22

More information on nuclear weapons page 23

Abbreviations page 23

 | understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au |  Summary and recommendations Where are the nuclear weapons? According to the Weapons of Mass Destruction Nuclear Weapons Stockpiles THE NPT MUST NOT BE AN EMPTY PROMISE Commission (WMDC), which reported in June 2006, there are 27,000 nuclear weapons in the world, with Nation Stockpile Nuclear weapons are the most destructive weapons this there are three Preparatory Committee meetings, around 12,000 still actively deployed.3 The force of ever created. No other weapon has the same potential one held in Vienna in 2007, the next to be held in Russia 16, 000 these weapons is enormous; again, according to the to produce human and environmental catastrophe on early 2008 (in Geneva) and then 2009 (location yet to WMD Commission, “the nuclear weapons in one strategic United States 10, 000 such an unprecedented scale and with effects so far be confirmed). However the Treaty’s very survival is submarine have a combined explosive force several times into the future. Even biological and chemical weapons, threatened by increasing frustration on the part of China 130 greater than all the conventional bombs dropped in World while they are among the most inhumane and morally many nations that its promise of nuclear disarmament is War II.”4 France 350 repugnant of humankind’s creations, do not match the not only not being fulfilled, but that the nuclear weapon potential for devastation of nuclear weapons. States are walking away from their obligations under 96% of today’s nuclear weapons belong to United Kingdom 200 the Treaty. “Nuclear weapons have vastly different destructive two nations, the USA and Russia. Israel 75-200 properties. A single one can physically destroy an entire city Rather than giving a reduced role for nuclear weapons, Additional urgency is generated by the fact that the India 50 instantaneously, kill hundreds of thousands of people, and which has long been understood as a vital step towards United States and Russia each maintain approximately leave lingering delayed radioactivity that will deny access Pakistan 50 disarmament, Australia’s reliance on the US nuclear 2,500 nuclear weapons on hair-trigger alert, or to a very large area for many years. A nuclear weapon is weapons endorses nuclear terror by sending a message “launch-on-warning” status, for immediate launch in North Korea 1-10 truly a weapon of mass destruction – of both people and of that nuclear weapons have security utility and symbolic the case of a (real or perceived) nuclear attack. The Source: the facilities and services that would be needed to care for a power. Australia’s diplomatic efforts towards nuclear other major nuclear powers either have de-alerted All numbers are estimates from the Natural very large number of wounded and irradiated victims.” 1 disarmament have a dramatically reduced credibility or their forces (China) or maintain far lower levels of alert Resources Defense Council, hope of success while this remains our policy. (Britain and France). published in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, From the time of the first use of nuclear weapons www.thebulletin.org in war in 1945 on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, it was recognised both among senior The world cannot be put military leaders and in civil society that the new form of in a position where we can be blackmailed “The total destruction that had been unleashed was a grave threat by a nuclear weapon. of both deployed and non- to civilisation. President Truman’s Chief of Staff Admiral George W Bush, Kansas State University, January 2006 deployed weapons is estimated to be in the Leahy expressed his grave concerns: vicinity of 27,000. “The Japanese were already defeated and ready to The lack of precision in the number of these weapons (and surrender...My own feeling is that in being the first to use fissile material stocks) reflects the fragmentary nature of the it, we had adopted an ethical standard common to the The Medical Association for Prevention of War (MAPW) published information about existing nuclear arsenals. barbarians of the Dark Ages.” 2 has consistently highlighted the need to strengthen This limited transparency has many implications, including the the NPT, while also advocating new approaches to difficulties it creates for measuring progress in achieving Calls for the total abolition of nuclear weapons were the issue of nuclear disarmament. These approaches disarmament goals and ensuring accountability.” swift. The first resolution of the General Assembly of must include recognition of the very close links Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission, 2006 the newly formed United Nations in January 1946 between civilian and military nuclear facilities and the demanded the “elimination from national armaments of extraordinary difficulties this poses for the challenge of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable nuclear disarmament. Specifically, we continue to urge to mass destruction.” action on the part of our government to: • support the negotiation of a Nuclear Weapons Since then countless appeals and resolutions at the UN Convention; and elsewhere have repeated the call. Opinion polls in many countries have confirmed that the majority of the • maintain the integrity of the NPT, by supporting world’s people want to live in a nuclear weapons free UN resolutions that promote the dual purposes of world. Their aspiration has been repeatedly thwarted nuclear disarmament and nuclear non-proliferation; by a handful of nations that maintain between them • promote the implementation of the 13-step action approximately 27,000 nuclear weapons. These nations plan developed at the 2000 Review Conference; assume for themselves the right to threaten mass destruction and impose the obligation to live with that • strengthen non-government participation in threat on other nations. Australia’s role at the NPT Review Conference and all Preparatory Committee meetings; Recognition of the enormous dangers posed by nuclear • support the Mayors for Peace goal of nuclear weapons is evident by the nearly universal membership weapons abolition by 2020; of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The Treaty is not only an essential barrier to the spread of • end Australia’s participation in the nuclear fuel chain. nuclear weapons, but it is also the only legally binding and explicit commitment to nuclear disarmament by A particular issue of grave concern is the reported plans the major nuclear powers. These two goals cannot be to sell Australian uranium to India, one of only four separated. If nuclear disarmament does not occur, non- nations globally that are not party to the NPT. Such a proliferation will fail, and we will live in an increasingly move would greatly undermine the NPT, and must be nuclear-armed world. absolutely and strongly opposed. The abolition of all 27,000 nuclear weapons remains an The next NPT Review Conference will be held at the urgent global imperative. It is a goal that our nation must United Nations in New York in 2010. In the lead up to promote consistently, unequivocally and energetically.

 | understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au |  Why we need to get rid of them Why we need to get rid of them...continued

There are many reasons to rid the world of nuclear Miscalculation and human error can never be eliminated. The world has, however, moved far beyond nuclear nations, major environmental and safety violations and weapons. Here are some of the main ones: Bhopal, Exxon Valdez, Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and deterrence. The policies of nuclear weapons states widespread nuclear contamination occur.15 other accidents stand as grim reminders of this. envisage using their nuclear weapons for political and Nuclear weapons are unique in their military purposes to ‘prevail’ in armed conflict. The US, Over 2,000 nuclear tests were conducted by the five 16 capacity to cause human suffering... The accidental launch of a nuclear missile remains a UK, France and Russia have all made explicit threats nuclear weapon States between 1945 and 1996. It terrifying possibility, and is in fact even more likely now, is estimated that the fallout from testing that was The atomic bomb that destroyed Hiroshima killed in recent years to use their nuclear weapons first, pre- with the severe deterioration of command and control delivered to the world’s population by the year 2000 will approximately 90,000 people immediately and 145,000 emptively, and against particular countries, including structures in Russia, than during the Cold War. Russia cause 430,000 excess cancer deaths.17 by the end of 1945. The bomb that destroyed Nagasaki non-nuclear states. and the US retain thousands of nuclear weapons on killed approximately 40,000 people immediately and high alert, whereby a decision to launch could be made In all nations which have developed nuclear weapons, 75,000 by the end of 1945. These two bombs and their within minutes of an incoming missile threat being Disarmament is the first step in the enormous economic costs of these programs have destructive capacity are very small by today’s standards. perceived. In 1995, President Yeltsin was brought his controlling proliferation to terrorists diverted scarce funds away from health care and other essential services. The US program alone was estimated Deaths and injuries resulted from the intense flash of light nuclear command suitcase when Russia’s faulty radar Despite some established international safeguards to have cost US$5.5 - 6 trillion from 1940 to 1996.18 and heat, hurricane force winds, firestorms and irradiation. systems mistakenly identified a Norwegian weather on nuclear and fissile materials, there exists the real In late 2004, the Natural Resources Defense Council Injuries included burns, melting or vaporisation of body rocket as a US missile.8 possibility of terrorist groups obtaining these materials estimated, “Approximately US$40 billion, or about 10% parts, multiple fractures, blindness, and radiation sickness. through either poorly monitored nuclear weapons of the annual military budget is spent on US nuclear The survivors have elevated rates of cancers and other Nuclear deterrence is, and always has stockpiles or nuclear facilities in some of the 44 weapons.” (see box below) diseases. The rates of cancer among the survivors are still been, a myth. countries with nuclear reactors. The IAEA has recorded rising. Nuclear weapons create a radioactive wasteland in Nuclear deterrence theory dictates that nuclear over 650 cases of illicit trafficking of radioactive sources which no significant medical help is possible. weapons will help keep the peace because no nation and nuclear materials in the last 10 years10. Its Director- would risk retaliation from a nuclear-armed adversary. General, Mohamed ElBaradei, warned in 2003, How would you redirect All evidence contradicts the theory. Nuclear weapons Other nations will want them... “The present nuclear arms control regime is looking nuclear weapons funding? did not prevent the wars in Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan, battered. Any reform of that regime must begin by “So long as any state has such a weapon – especially or the Falklands, or Iraqi missile attacks on Israel in 1991, According to the Stockholm International conceiving a framework of collective security that does not nuclear arms – others will want them.” and the suspicion of their existence did not prevent Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), global military rely on nuclear deterrence. The rise of terrorist groups makes Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission, 2006 the invasion of Iraq. Nor have they prevented terrorist spending in 2006 reached US$1204 billion. this essential.” 11 Mohamed ElBaradei, Director-General of the International attacks in nuclear-armed and nuclear-allied states such Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), has repeatedly warned as the US, UK, Spain, Russia and India. The Millennium Development Goals, set by The Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission stated the United Nations in 2000, were endorsed by that non-proliferation is a lost cause unless the major that although it may be unlikely that terrorists could General George Lee Butler, Commander in Chief of the virtually all the worlds governments. These goals nuclear powers get rid of their weapons. He wrote in The develop and manage the substantial infrastructure US Strategic Command from 1992 to 1994, who had would require an additional donation of US$60 Economist (October 16, 2003): required to produce enriched uranium or plutonium responsibility for all US Air Force and Navy nuclear billion a year in international development for nuclear weapons, “nuclear weapons and weapons “The very existence of nuclear weapons gives rise to weapons, warned powerfully of the risks of nuclear assistance by 2015 to achieve: materials could be stolen by terrorists either from storage the pursuit of them. They are seen as a source of global deterrence: 12 ~ 500 million fewer people in poverty influence, and are valued for their perceived deterrent or during transportation.” “Nuclear weapons did not and will not, of themselves, ~ 300 million no longer hungry effect. And as long as some countries possess them (or Although access to fissile materials is the limiting factor are protected by them in alliances) and others do not, this prevent major wars, and their presence unnecessarily prolonged and intensified the Cold War. In today’s for construction of a terrorist nuclear weapon, were ~ 30 million fewer under-5 deaths asymmetry breeds chronic global insecurity.” terrorists able acquire fissile material, the manufacture of environment, the threat of use has been exposed as neither ~ 2 million fewer maternal deaths. Similarly, the Canberra Commission on the Elimination of credible nor of any military utility.” 9 a nuclear weapon with high reliability of exploding well Nuclear Weapons in 1996 reported that the possession in the kiloton range would be a relatively simple matter, To achieve this, the world would need to commit of nuclear weapons by a handful of states is “highly In delivering its 1996 advisory opinion on the general well within the capability, for example, of university to US$195 billion annually by 2015, equivalent discriminatory and thus unstable” and “a constant stimulus illegality of nuclear weapons, the International Court physics or engineering students using information to just 16% of the current annual global military 13 to other states to acquire them.” 5 of Justice treated the use and threat of use of nuclear available in the open literature. spending. weapons as a single indivisible concept. An illegal act Sources: At a time when the international community is striving to must be neither committed nor threatened. Mexico’s The quantities of fissile material – highly enriched Stålenheim P, Perdomo C, Sköns E. Chapter 8. Ambassador Sergio Gonzalez Galvez in addressing the uranium or plutonium – required to construct nuclear Military expenditure in: Stockholm International Peace Research prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, we should surely Institute. SIPRI Yearbook 2007. Oxford University Press, 2007:269 eliminate those factors that spur proliferation. Court stated, weapons are well within the uncertainty range of inventory measurement in various types of nuclear Sachs JD, McArthur JW. Lancet 2005;365:347-53 “Torture is not a permissible response to torture. Nor is 14 facilities, particularly reprocessing plants. Worldwatch Institute. Vital signs 2006-7. NY, Norton 2006:84 Nuclear weapons will be used again if mass rape acceptable retaliation to mass rape. Just as they are not eliminated... unacceptable is retaliatory deterrence – You burn my city, I Until nuclear weapons are eliminated, and all fissile will burn yours.” material brought under strict international control, “So long as any such weapons remain in any state’s arsenal, the risk of a nuclear-armed terrorist group will remain there is a high risk that they will one day be used, by design Nuclear deterrence threatens unimaginable suffering significant. or accident. Any such use would be catastrophic.” and destruction. To be credible, it is intrinsically Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission, 2006 unstable, fuelling a relentless dynamic of escalation and The arms race can kill, proliferation, high alert status, and risk of inadvertent Death before detonation though the weapons themselves Nuclear weapons have not been used in warfare since may never be used... 1945. But the world has come frighteningly close on or accidental launch. It is predicated on a willingness to The full extent of the effects of the development, testing many occasions, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. incinerate millions of civilians and cause indiscriminate and production of nuclear weapons are incalculable, by their cost alone, armaments kill the Robert McNamara, US Defense Secretary at the time, and persistent harm. By definition, this is immoral and both for the workers involved and for the communities poor by causing them to starve. reports that there were huge miscalculations on both incompatible with any civilised, humane, ethical or faith exposed through mining, weapons production, testing Vatican statement to the UN, 1976 sides6 and that the world came “a hair’s-breadth from underpinnings. It is anathema to peace. and nuclear waste. Even in the US, where safety standards nuclear catastrophe”. 7 may be more rigorously enforced than in some other

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The nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is a landmark practical steps towards implementing the Treaty were a peaceful program may not be easy. The inherent international treaty whose objectives are to prevent the agreed to (see Appendix 2). All States party to the Treaty difficulties in Article IV are exemplified by the situation of spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology must adopt and implement them. Iran. As an NPT member, Iran can claim full justification and to achieve nuclear disarmament. in pursuing uranium enrichment for the production At the NPT Review Conference in 2005, the progress of nuclear energy. In asking Iran to cease uranium The NPT is essentially a bargain between those nations made in 2000 was undermined by a lack of cooperation enrichment, the IAEA is asking Iran to forgo a “benefit” with nuclear weapons, who undertake to get rid of them, and an inability to find consensus first on an agenda to which it is entitled as an NPT member – surely an and those without, who undertake never to acquire for the 4-week meeting, then on a final statement. indication that the purpose of this Article is incompatible them. The Treaty contains, in Article VI, the only existing The 13 practical steps agreed on in 2000 were “played with the non-proliferation objective of the NPT. legally binding and explicit commitment to nuclear down by the nuclear weapon States and not recognized as disarmament on the part of the nuclear weapon States. important commitments.”20 However, efforts to override It is time to re-think states’ “inalienable right” to access to those commitments failed and these 13 steps remain a nuclear technology. However, even with all its flaws, the NPT critical part of the efforts to maintain and reinvigorate is the only treaty by which the A brief history the NPT. WMDC Recommendation 1: leading nuclear powers are The Treaty had its origins in global concerns during explicitly committed to the 1960s at the spread of nuclear weapons. The US The next Review Conference will be in 2010, with “All parties to the Non-Proliferation Treaty need nuclear disarmament, had developed the first nuclear weapons by 1945. By Preparatory Committees in 2007, 2008 and 2009. to revert to the fundamental and balanced non- a step that is essential 1949, the USSR was nuclear armed, followed by the UK proliferation and disarmament commitments that if we are to halt in 1952 and France in 1960. China’s first nuclear test in The problems inherent in the Treaty were made under the treaty” proliferation. Therefore 1964 provided the major impetus to prevent the further Australia and other spread of these weapons and in 1965 the first draft of The NPT is by no means an ideal treaty. Some of its key parties to the Treaty must the NPT was in circulation. problems and deficiencies are worthy of note. act to maintain the integrity of the NPT, and build on it. For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapons State As outlined previously, the terminology that listed five (NWS) is defined as one which had “manufactured and NWS and leaves all other States termed as non-NWS We recall the words of US President John F. Kennedy, exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive renders the NPT discriminatory in the eyes of some referring not to the NPT but in calling for support for the device prior to 1 January 1967”.19 This means that only nations. Mohamed ElBaradei says that in the late 1960s Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in June of 1963: five nations are officially recognized as NWS – the USA, when the NPT negotiations took place, this asymmetrical Russia, China, France and the United Kingdom. These outcome was the best that could be achieved. In No treaty, however much it may be to the advantage five countries are also the Permanent Five members (P5) hindsight, he says, the premise that “the early bird gets of all, however tightly it may be worded, can provide of the Security Council of the United Nations. the nuke” was not optimal, but it was never intended to absolute security against the risks of deception and be permanent. evasion. But it can, if it is sufficiently effective in its The Treaty was finally open for signature in 1968, and enforcement and if it is sufficiently in the interests of its entered into force on 5 March 1970, having been ratified Furthermore, Article IV of the Treaty outlines the signers, offer far more security and far fewer risks than an by the US, USSR and the UK and 40 non-nuclear weapon “inalienable right” of all parties to research, produce unabated, uncontrolled, unpredictable arms race.22 States. France and China did not join the NPT until 1992. and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. It is There are currently 188 member states to the NPT. increasingly clear that unrestricted access to nuclear technology and nuclear power is incompatible with Only three nations – Israel, India and Pakistan – have the abolition of nuclear weapons. Enrichment and never become Parties to the Treaty. Each of them has reprocessing are the two most sensitive phases of the nuclear weapons. In 2003 North Korea announced nuclear fuel chain, as both can yield fissile material its intention to withdraw from the NPT and in 2006 directly usable in weapons. Uranium enrichment conducted its first nuclear weapons test. These four capacity can be readily used to enrich uranium beyond nations are the only ones currently outside the NPT. reactor grade to weapons grade; and reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel extracts the plutonium inevitably If the entire produced when uranium atoms absorb neutrons inside history of the [hu]mankind The Review Cycle of the NPT a reactor. were condensed into a single year, our Governments who are Parties to the Treaty meet every knowledge of how to destroy life on earth with five years at a Review Conference at the United Nations Countries with nuclear reactors could therefore develop weapons of mass destruction has been acquired in the in New York to assess the implementation of the Treaty. a nuclear weapons capability, though stopping just last thirty seconds. Never again will we lack the knowledge short of producing a weapon, without breaching the to eliminate the world in a single act of madness. Therefore, Originally intended as a temporary treaty, the NPT was NPT. As noted by nuclear physicist Dr Frank Barnaby in we are faced with a dilemma unique in our history. We must not indefinitely extended at the 5th Review Conference in the report “An Illusion of Protection” in 2006, only control the weapons that can kill us, we must bridge the great 1995. Since that time, Preparatory Committee meetings disparities of wealth and opportunity among the people of the are held in each of the three years leading up to the “Using existing and foreseeable safeguards technology, world, the vast majority of whom live in poverty without hope, Review Conferences to assist in the work of the Treaty. it is not possible for a safeguards agency to detect the opportunities of choices in life. These conditions are a breeding The Review Conferences aim to produce a consensus diversion of quantities of weapons-usable plutonium ground for division that can cause a desperate people to document. from a reprocessing plant that could be used to fabricate resort to nuclear weapons as a last resort. one or more, or even many, nuclear weapons.”21 Muhammad Ali The 6th Review Conference in 2000 affirmed the “unequivocal undertaking by the nuclear weapon States to The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is Former Heavyweight Boxing Champion accomplish the total elimination of their nuclear arsenals the authority set up to ensure that non-NWS’ nuclear and UN Ambassador for Peace leading to nuclear disarmament to which all States parties programs remain peaceful. But even with IAEA are committed under Article VI.” In addition, a set of 13 inspections, distinguishing a military program from

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Increasingly, the NPT is being seen as a ‘failing treaty’. The Dr Ron McCoy, former President of IPPNW, summarised 2. Maintaining the integrity of the lack of progress made at the 2005 Review conference the case for a Nuclear Weapons Convention in this way, Treaty was received with an almost fatalistic resignation by “Australia supports global non-proliferation and some commentators and analysts. Kevin Rudd, as then “A Nuclear Weapons Convention would help to break the disarmament objectives through practical and Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, stated in September deadlock in nuclear disarmament negotiations by bridging cooperative measures.” 2006, “the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty disintegrates the contentious divide between the nuclear weapon states Dr Brendan Nelson, Australian Minister for Defence 27 before our very eyes…the current non-proliferation regime which want non-proliferation first and the non-nuclear is fundamentally fracturing. The consequences of the weapons states which want disarmament first. The NPT must not be eroded. In the lead up to the Review collapse of this regime for Australia are acute.”23 …In a humanitarian sense, a Nuclear Weapons in 2010 it will be vital that the NPT is not undermined by Convention would stand for the universal condemnation threats to withdraw from it, or efforts to stall progress However, the NPT is still a vital treaty and it is imperative of weapons of mass destruction and the affirmation of on its core aims. International pressure can be brought that Australia helps to maintain, strengthen and build international humanitarian law and the universal code to bear on states whose actions threaten the Treaty, but on the treaty process. of morality and ethical behaviour. Such a treaty would such pressure must be applied impartially if it is to be erase the unconscionable legacy of nuclear weapons for Dr Ron McCoy speaking at the launch ICAN and the report, productive. As the failure of the NWS to disarm remains The 2010 NPT Review Conference will be critical in future generations and the threat of their annihilation in Securing our Survival: The Case for a Nuclear Weapons one of the primary threats to the Treaty, Australia could determining prospects for nuclear disarmament. a nuclear war.” Convention at the NPT Preparatory Committee meeting in play a key role in ensuring that the dual roles of nuclear Vienna, April 2007. Despite the unequivocal commitment to this end given disarmament and non-proliferation are given equal by the NWS at the 2000 Review Conference, there has A model Nuclear Weapons Convention26 has been weight in debate and programs of work at all relevant been very little action since to implement the 13 action developed. Its purpose is to prohibit the development, multilateral and bilateral fora in the lead up to the NPT points agreed to at that Review. testing, production, stockpiling, transfer, use and threat What Review. of use of nuclear weapons. It was accepted as a United is a Nuclear Nations discussion draft document in 1997. Australia’s role in 2010 Weapons 3. Implementing the 13-Step action As a middle power Australia is potentially in a strong In 2007, IPPNW and partner organizations launched Convention? plan position to play a positive role in advancing the nuclear a revised edition of the Model Nuclear Weapons The 13-Step action plan developed as part of the final disarmament agenda. While Australia’s position as an Convention in a publication titled Securing Our Survival: A Nuclear Weapons Convention: document at the 2000 Review Conference and adopted ally of some of the nuclear-weapon states might give it the Case for a Nuclear Weapons Convention. This updated by all states parties outlined ways forward to achieve some potential leverage with these states, the exercise document reflects the changed security environment • Defines terms in precise detail to establish the key aims of the NPT. These 13 steps outlined what of such influence appears largely to have been a lost since the events of 11 September 2001, and answers thresholds and limits is accepted as a road map for disarmament. The steps opportunity, particularly in recent years, A stronger critical questions relating to the process of nuclear include “an unequivocal undertaking by the nuclear- argument can be made that Australia’s position as a US disarmament. Securing Our Survival is available from the • Creates rules so that everybody understands what is prohibited and what is allowed weapon states to accomplish the total elimination of ally willing to participate in threats, preparations for, MAPW National Office or online (see: www.icanw.org/ their nuclear arsenals”. They include also a commitment and potential use of nuclear weapons has weakened securing-our-survival). • Establishes a schedule for sequenced steps to to speedy entry-into-force of the Comprehensive Australia’s credibility and influence. Australia’s rather Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), concrete measures to reduce Importantly, a Nuclear Weapons Convention would remove the threat of nuclear weapons by their lukewarm support for nuclear disarmament can be the operational status of nuclear weapons systems, strengthen, not undermine, the NPT. It takes the dismantlement substantially related to the difficulty of being convincing applying the principle of irreversibility to nuclear fundamental undertaking in Article VI of the NPT for and consistent while senior Australian officials argue • Outlines patterns of behaviour and disarmament, and developing verification capabilities nuclear weapon states to disarm their nuclear weapons that reliance on a nuclear-armed US ally is critical to cooperation that will enhance the to provide assurance of compliance with nuclear and lays out a systematic program for achieving this goal. Australia’s national security, communication and transparency in disarmament agreements. Although the 13-step plan The approach adopted in the Model Nuclear Weapons implementing the treaty and those that lacks a timeframe, it obliges all state parties to report Four key aspects for Australia to consider in approaching Convention does not suggest a time-bound framework will arouse suspicion and sanctions back on progress towards the implementation of Article the 2010 Review Conference will be: for conclusion of the negotiations or fixed dates for the VI. None of the NWS have yet reported. complete elimination of nuclear weapons. Rather it calls for • Establishes verification the immediate commencement of negotiations that ought measures to make sure Australia can play a role in strengthening commitment 1. Promote a Nuclear Weapons to be concluded in a quick but comprehensive manner. Convention that no one is to and progress on these practical steps. cheating The creation of a nuclear weapons convention is not only We have treaties to abolish chemical and biological achievable, it is imperative if civilisation is to survive. weapons and landmines. Australia supports all of these, 4. Strengthen non-government Judge Weeramantry, 2007 24 and played an important role in the achievement of participation in Australia’s role at The Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission the Chemical Weapons Convention. A comprehensive the NPT Review Conference and all chaired by Hans Blix regretted the “serious malaise” treaty to abolish the worst weapons of terror – nuclear Preparatory Committee meetings. weapons – is long overdue. in disarmament diplomacy in recent years, and Non-government organizations (NGOs) and experts recommended that nuclear weapons be outlawed, drawn from these groups play a critical role in many identifying the key as “dispel[ing] the perception international forums, from environmental to human that outlawing nuclear weapons is a utopian goal. A essential reading: rights and aid negotiations. Participation of NGOs in photo by Eric by Li photo nuclear disarmament treaty is achievable and can nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament forums can be reached through careful, sensible and practical Securing Our Survival: only enhance the legitimacy and transparency of the measures. Benchmarks should be set; definitions the case for a Nuclear Weapons Convention process. It is also in line with an additional mandate agreed; timetables drawn up and agreed upon; and MAPW launch of Securing Our Survival in Australian Federal Parliament, August 2007. Pictured: Senator Milne (Australian of the 1995 Review Conference to strengthen the transparency requirements agreed. Disarmament work Greens), Assoc Prof Ruff (MAPW President), Peter Garrett MP accountability process of the NPT. should be set in motion.”25 online here: (ALP, Shadow Minister for Environment), Robert McClelland www.icanw.org/securingoursurvival MP (ALP, Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs), Gavan NGOs bring perspectives sometimes not offered by their O’Connor MP (ALP). Also present were Maria Vamvakinou (ALP), Senator Lyn Allison (Australian Democrats), Dr Sue governments of the day but which reflect alternative Wareham (MAPW) and many others.

10 | understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au | 11 The NPT in 2010 ~ the need for progress The NPT in 2010 ~ the need for progress

thinking in their countries of the issues. They can In 2006, the Australian Conservation Foundation 6. Support the Mayors for Peace goal of provide expert opinion and can promote the outcomes (ACF) and MAPW released a report titled “An Illusion of nuclear weapons abolition by 2020 of the international fora in ways often not open to the Protection: the unavoidable limitations of safeguards on “We are letting our citizens know that, despite the end governments or United Nations. nuclear materials and the export of uranium to China”. In of the Cold War, they are still in danger from nuclear We cannot the foreword of this report, Frank Barnaby summarises weapons, and we mayors are trying to protect them from choose between non- Certain governments include NGO experts on their the problem in stark terms, proliferation and disarmament. We official delegations to the NPT conferences, recognising that danger.” Mayor Akiba, Mayor of Hiroshima and Coordinator of must tackle both tasks with the urgency the role they play. The Canadian delegation has in the “The fact is that the IAEA cannot ensure timely detection. If the Mayors for Peace, April 2007 they demand. past accepted NGO expertise, for example. To date, no a country decided to divert plutonium or highly enriched The Mayors for Peace, comprising more than 1,698 Kofi Annan, official Australian government NPT delegation has ever uranium from its civil nuclear program to fabricate nuclear United Nations Secretary General had an NGO expert included. However, in recent years weapons, it could assemble nuclear weapons very quickly.”28 member cities in 122 countries and regions around Lecture at Princeton University 28 there has been increasing interaction between NGO the world30, have called on States parties to the NPT to November 2006 representatives and Australian delegation members The report made numerous recommendations, including commence negotiations leading to the conclusion of an and relevant departments, in the lead up to and at the that: international treaty for the abolition of nuclear weapons conferences. by 2010 and the complete elimination of nuclear “Australia should withdraw uranium sales from all Nuclear weapons by 2020. Still, current NGO participation in the broader NPT Weapons States that have breached their non-proliferation process at the United Nations is mostly informal and obligations, or continue to fail to comply with their The Mayors for Peace campaign was instigated by Mayor depends on a recommendation from the Preparatory nuclear disarmament obligations under the nuclear Non- Takeshi Araki of Hiroshima in 1982, at the 2nd UN Special Committee and on the goodwill of the Conference Proliferation Treaty…” ; and Session on Disarmament held in New York. He proposed President. NGOs have continued to urge action to a new Program to Promote the Solidarity of Cities Toward “Australia should stop its contribution to the global nuclear formalise and extend that participation. the Total Abolition of Nuclear Weapons, a way for cities chain by phasing out mining and export of uranium.”29 to transcend national borders and work together for In particular, MAPW strongly recommends that nuclear weapons abolition. Subsequently, the mayors The NPT has been a cornerstone of the non-proliferation engagement with NGOs both in Australia and by of Hiroshima and Nagasaki called on mayors around the regime for decades, but other treaties carry extremely Australian delegations be undertaken more consistently, world to support this program. important obligations also. For example, the Treaty pro-actively and seriously, and non-government of Rarotonga (the South Pacific Nuclear Weapons Free Felicity Hill, ICAN international coordinator representation be included on Australia’s delegation to In April 2007 Hiroshima’s Mayor Akiba spoke at the Zone Treaty) obliges Australia under Article 3: and Mayor Akiba, Mayors for Peace, at the all forthcoming NPT conferences and other important launch of the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear launch of ICAN, Vienna April 2007. UN and other international events. (c) not to take any action to assist or encourage the Weapons, stating, manufacture or acquisition of any nuclear explosive device “If IPPNW doctors around the world became determined by any State. 5. End Australia’s participation in the to mobilize and inspire their mayors to take this campaign nuclear fuel chain Article IV of the Treaty of Rarotonga states that: seriously, and if the mayors were inspired to communicate the campaign to their people, this would be one of the Australia has over one third of the world’s known most rapid and effective ways to generate a groundswell of uranium reserves. We currently export uranium to “Each Party undertakes: grassroots support for the elimination of the obscene and France, the United States and the United Kingdom, all of (a) not to provide source or special fissionable material, obsolete nuclear threat.” whom are nuclear weapons states. or equipment or material especially designed or prepared for the processing, use or production of special fissionable A number of Australian local governments have joined In 2006, Australia signed nuclear safeguards agreements material for peaceful purposes to: the campaign, but many more need encouragement paving the way for uranium exports to China, a nuclear to do so. Much more action is required at a federal weapons state with an appalling record of transfer of (i) any non-nuclear-weapon State unless subject to the parliamentary level to support the goal of nuclear The IPPNW delegation to the 2007 Preparatory proliferation-sensitive nuclear expertise, equipment safeguards required by Article III.1 of the NPT, or Committee meeting of the nuclear Non- weapons elimination by 2020. For more information, and materials to other countries, notably Pakistan. In Proliferation Treaty, Vienna, April 2007. (ii) any nuclear-weapon State unless subject to applicable see: www.mayorsforpeace.org. China the same organisation manages both military safeguards agreements with the International Atomic and civilian nuclear facilities, and Chinese leaders have Energy Agency (IAEA). Any such provisions shall be in stated that uranium imports are needed to satisfy accordance with strict non-proliferation measures to their combined military and power generation needs. provide assurance of exclusively peaceful non-explosive use; The Australian government allows blanket approval for reprocessing of spent fuel derived from ‘Australian (b) to support the continued effectiveness of the Nuclear weapons obligated nuclear material’ (the term used because international non-proliferation system based on the NPT are Illegal Australian uranium cannot be differentiated or kept and the IAEA safeguards system. In 1996, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) determined that: separate from other uranium). In July 2007 the Australian government signalled its intent to sell uranium to India, It would seem inescapable that Australia is legally The threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of reversing its previous position that Australia would obliged not to export uranium to countries that have international law applicable in armed conflict, and in particular the principles and only export uranium to compliant NPT signatory states. not signed the NPT. These obligations are made under rules of humanitarian law; The government has also indicated interest in selling international law and must not be undermined by the uranium to Russia. government of the day. There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under A strong and unavoidable connection exists between strict and effective international control. the use of uranium for civil and military purposes in all nuclear weapon states. In addition, the existing international safeguards system is inadequate at best and deeply flawed in the opinion of many.

12 | understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au | 13 Australia and nuclear weapons Nuclear disarmament and your role

Cabinet papers released in recent years confirm While the Australian government pays lip service to The important role of parliamentarians from non-governmental organizations alongside the Australian Governments’ interest in acquiring nuclear the responsibilities of the existing nuclear powers to official reports from Governments. In some cases, non- weapons in the post-war period and indeed Australia’s disarm, our strongest words and actions – including the “One of the advantages of our technological age governmental organizations have addressed plenary initial reluctance to sign the NPT. strongest action a nation can take, invasion of another - is that people can make their political voice heard sessions of conferences and participated in formal, round- have been reserved for those who challenge the nuclear and governments have no choice but to listen or fall. table discussions with governmental delegates. Many Prime Minister Menzies favoured the acquisition apartheid. Significant expressions of public concern both in quality Governments now include civil society representatives in of nuclear weapons from our allies the US or the and quantity can spur governments to increase funding their delegations to international conferences and special UK but negotiations to this end were unsuccessful. Successive Australian governments have maintained and take action in response.” sessions, and sometimes also to the General Assembly.”35 Prime Minister John Gorton, who succeeded him in the rather confused policy that nuclear weapons Senator Roméo Dallaire, Canada, 200733 1968, wished instead for Australia to develop its own elimination is necessary – eventually – but in the The issue of nuclear weapons transcends party Many professions and sectors have particular nuclear weapons. A nuclear reactor at Jervis Bay in meantime US nuclear weapons help keep the peace. political boundaries. No security issue is of more far- contributions to make to the achievement of nuclear NSW (on Commonwealth land) for power production We remain a willing accomplice to the nuclear weapons reaching significance than the elimination of these weapons abolition. They include diverse fields such as was announced, and work began at the site, but an policies of the world’s military superpower. Australia is instruments of terror. the law, education, economics, behavioural and social Australian nuclear weapons capacity was clearly on thereby willing to countenance use of nuclear weapons, sciences, physics, atmospheric and environmental the agenda. However with pressure from within his be party to their use, and potentially contribute to the The Hon. Douglas Roche, in an address at the UN in science, engineering, philosophy and ethics. Other Cabinet for Australia to preserve its international image radioactive incineration of millions of people. Australia October 2004 sponsored by the Inter-Parliamentary sectors such as faith-based organisations, peace, by supporting the NPT, Gorton did eventually and could instead lead the way in diminishing the role of Union, said, social justice and environmental organisations, and reluctantly sign the Treaty in 1971, while making it clear nuclear weapons by rejecting the US nuclear umbrella many others also play a vital role. We consider as one that Australia’s signature without ratification was not rather than supporting or relying on it. “My experience, having followed the NPT closely for 20 of many possible example, the contribution of health binding. years……tells me that the only way to stop the erosion of the professionals. The measure of Australia’s contribution to the 2010 NPT NPT is for a new burst of energy to be shown by middle power Subsequent economic analyses rendered the reactor Review will be the degree to which we demand and states…..to shore up and influence the centre position in the project unachievable, and Gorton’s successor William work for major concrete, verifiable, transparent and nuclear weapons debate. The important role of health McMahon shelved the Jervis Bay project and with it irreversible progress by the nuclear weapon states to Speaking up takes courage and leadership. Parliamentarians professionals possess both these attributes. You also have access to the the plans for nuclear power and a nuclear weapons reduce their nuclear arsenals to zero. “I am a retired obstetrician. For 40 years, I nurtured each decision-making processes of your governments. I appeal to capability. Australia’s ratification of the NPT did not come unique pregnancy so that a healthy baby would be born you to make your voices heard… until 23 January 1973 under Prime Minister Whitlam. at the end of nine months. It was such a privilege and a ...Is your loyalty to your nuclear weapons friends greater than life-affirming experience to be present at the beginning of Australia’s role as an NPT member has been a mixed your loyalty to sparing humanity from a nuclear catastrophe?” bag, undoubtedly coloured by our alliance with the so many lives. I believe those babies, all babies and their world’s superpower, and almost certainly by our desire The Parliamentary Network for Nuclear Disarmament34 fathers and mothers, and babies yet unborn, deserve to to maximise our uranium sales. There is little doubt that is a global network of more than 500 parliamentarians live in a safer world, without nuclear weapons.” 36 the latter have fuelled nuclear weapons proliferation.31 in 70 countries (including Australia) which provides Dr Ron McCoy, Former President of IPPNW Australia’s speech to the 2003 NPT Preparatory invaluable information (www.pnnd.org). Health care workers have professional, ethical Committee was seen by some as focusing too heavily obligations established and affirmed over millennia. on facilitating the development and transfer of nuclear Australian parliamentarians can help ensure that the These are not only to do their utmost to care for the technology for ‘peaceful purposes’ through safeguards, abolition of nuclear weapons is promoted with vigour sick, relieve suffering, treat and where possible cure rather than on the abolition of nuclear weapons. in international forums such as at the NPT Preparatory illness for individual patients, but also to work to prevent Committees and Review conferences. illness, suffering and death by addressing their causes. Despite the pressure to export, Australia has made Eric by Li photo They are obliged to engage with their societies to create valuable contributions, which must not be overlooked. The important role of civil society the optimal conditions for the health of individuals and The report of the Canberra Commission on the Elimination In 1994, while considering the question of the legal status communities, to remove barriers to health and promote of Nuclear Weapons was a landmark contribution to of nuclear weapons, the International Court of Justice, conditions which enhance health, without fear or favour. global efforts towards nuclear disarmament. Successive for the first time in its history, accepted material from a MAPW and Australian Federal parliamentarians launching the Physicians first confronted the horrors of nuclear war in governments have worked hard to implement the Securing Our Survival report in Parliament House, August 2007. citizens’ delegation, in the form of millions of “declarations Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) (which Foreign of public conscience”. This was in acknowledgement of the 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Minister Alexander Downer brought to the UN General strength of public condemnation of nuclear weapons, Nagasaki. In the late 1950’s and early 1960s physicians Assembly in 1996)32, and we have promoted steps such and in recognition of the 1907 Hague Convention, the played a key role in the debate over atmospheric tests as the strengthening of the IAEA safeguards system and preamble of which refers to “the dictates of the public of nuclear weapons and the health effects of radioactive negotiations for a Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT) conscience” as a factor providing protection in times of war. fallout. In the 1970s physicians began to discuss ideas to ban the production of fissile material for nuclear On the issue of nuclear weapons, the public conscience to foster medical cooperation between physicians of weapons. “We cannot demands abolition. the two superpowers in order to spearhead a worldwide allow weapons movement away from nuclear disaster. For their efforts Important though these steps are, we could implement of mass destruction to There is increasing recognition and appreciation of the during the early 1980s, the International Physicians for all of them and still live in a heavily nuclear-armed remain in the hands of a important role representatives of civil society play in the Prevention of Nuclear War was awarded the Nobel world. A key element has been missing. That element country which in the past has major forums. For example a UN report in 2002 stated: Peace Price in 1985. is the commitment to advance both non-proliferation demonstrated a willingness “The extensive interaction of civil society actors… has and disarmament by abolishing nuclear weapons. to use those weapons.” Health professionals can speak with authority on the Those nations with the weapons must get rid of them. really blossomed with the world conferences of the past health effects of nuclear war and are experts and persuasive Prime Minister John Howard, decade. The formal deliberations and decisions of many Those nations without must remain without. Stocks of 9 November 2002 advocates on issues related to public health. Physicians and fissile materials should be subject to the most stringent such meetings are now often enriched by the debates health workers can play a leading role in building broad international security in the meantime. carried out in non-governmental forums and events held public support for the abolition of nuclear weapons. in parallel with official conferences. Many United Nations treaty bodies now routinely consider alternate reports

14 | understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au | 15 ICAN take action! The failure to work for nuclear weapons The International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear weapons abolition shreds the fabric of (ICAN) was launched in 2007 by MAPW and IPPNW in cooperative security. A world with nuclear response to the disastrous outcome of the 2005 NPT haves and have-nots is fragmented and Review Conference. At the launch of the campaign, unstable, a fact underscored by the current former President of IPPNW, Dr Ron McCoy explained, threats of proliferation. In such an environment, cooperation fails. Thus, nations are unable to “When we gathered in New York in May 2005 for the address effectively the real threats of poverty, NPT Review Conference, we witnessed the shredding of environmental degradation and nuclear “We stand past agreements on nuclear disarmament and the NPT catastrophe. Nuclear weapons are more of a at the brink of a floundered in a sea of bad faith. That travesty of diplomacy problem than any problem they seek to second nuclear age. Not stimulated IPPNW to re-examine the NPT process and solve. since the first atomic bombs conclude that it was time to think outside the NPT box were dropped on Hiroshima Nobel Peace Laureates, and explore other avenues to abolition, parallel to and and Nagasaki has the world 39 Rome, Nov 2006 complementing the NPT process.” faced such perilous choices.” Former Australian Prime Minister Bulletin of Atomic Scientists ICAN focuses on the roots of the nuclear weapons Malcolm Fraser, launching ICAN in January 2007 problem - the continued possession of nuclear weapons Melbourne, March 2007. by a small minority of countries, who risk their use by design, accident, miscalculation or by terrorists, and whose weapons are an incentive to others to also ICAN asks you to: become nuclear armed. Educate yourself Putting the genie back in the bottle The campaign aims to achieve a Nuclear Weapons Convention to ban the development, possession and Our website provides up-to-date compelling information If nuclear weapons are abolished, a risk will remain that terrorists will develop use of nuclear weapons. about nuclear problems and solutions, with news, maps, a nuclear weapon, or that a nation might cheat on its non-proliferation country profiles, testimony from survivors of the nuclear commitments. However the maintenance of nuclear weapons by a handful ICAN will work to generate the required political will age, poll results and a history of the anti-nuclear peace of countries is useless in preventing either of these possibilities. In fact, a through education, research and advocacy, by working movement. www.ICANw.org nuclear armed world is worse than useless against terrorists. It increases the with mayors, parliamentarians, lawyers, the public and risk of terrorists getting hold of a nuclear weapon or the technology and decision-makers, to convince them that nuclear abolition, Involve your networks raw materials with which to make one. And, no matter how many nuclear through a Nuclear Weapons Convention, is feasible, weapons exist, terrorists will not be deterred by them. practical, verifiable, enforceable and achievable. Doctors and other health professionals will increase their collaboration with other key sectors, such as Similarly the risk that a nation might secretly “break-out” by developing a mayors, lawyers, parliamentarians and environmental nuclear arsenal is much greater now than it would be if nuclear weapons and human rights advocates. Together we can build a abolition were negotiated and implemented. In a Can you imagine a world without truly global, coordinated strong, credible and united nuclear weapons free world, the power and nuclear weapons? ICAN! nuclear disarmament network. Your organisation can political status currently enjoyed by the The nuclear ICAN invites you to join us in working towards a world become an ICAN partner. nuclear weapons states would be bomb is the most free of nuclear weapons. replaced by pariah status, and the anti-democratic, anti-human, Help to motivate the community incentives for nations to acquire outright evil thing that man has A broad citizen’s movement is needed to challenge nuclear weapons would be far less. ever made. those countries that possess the world’s most suicidal, The horror of nuclear weapons can make us feel In addition, intensive inspection genocidal and ecocidal weapons and to put nuclear helpless. However the task of abolishing them is not If you are religious, then remember that only imperative but also achievable. History is littered The human and verification regimes and this bomb is Man’s challenge to God. It’s abolition back at the top of the international political race cannot other measures would go a long agenda. with examples of well-entrenched and monumental worded quite simply: We have the power to challenges that have been overcome, such as slavery, coexist with way to maintaining a nuclear destroy everything that You have created. nuclear weapons. weapons free world.37 They It is vital that our work for disarmament remains positive and South Africa’s apartheid and the stand off of the Cold Mayor Iccho Itoh would dramatically reduce the If you’re not [religious], then look at it this solutions focused rather than alarmist and fear-generating. War. Mayor of Nagasaki, incentives for break-out and way. This world of ours is 4,600 million While this is a gravely serious issue, we must retain hope, Japan the chances of it succeeding. , years old. It could end in an afternoon. and even laughter, to overcome desensitisation or psychic The goal of abolishing nuclear weapons is not naïve. It is Preventing the development of one Arundati Roy, numbing and to motivate action. in fact naïve to believe that these weapons can make us nuclear weapon will be tremendously The End of Imagination, 1998. secure, or that they can be retained without ever being easier in a world which has achieved used again. zero nuclear weapons status. There is nothing pre-ordained about our future. Jonathan The relevant question for us to ask is whether we Schell reminds us that whether nuclear weapons are would be safer in a world that proceeds to nuclear weapons abolition than “merely a monstrous leftover from a frightful era that we are now.38 The answer is decisively yes. has ended” or “seeds of a new, more virulent era” is not a matter of prediction, but a matter of choice. While nuclear weapons cannot be “dis-invented”, neither can biological and chemical weapons. Yet the world has outlawed these weapons. Similarly, Raise your voice slavery was not un-invented but it was outlawed. Humanity must choose Join us in the campaign to abolish nuclear weapons what sort of world we wish to live in and leave for our descendants. through a binding, comprehensive international treaty - a Nuclear Weapons Convention.

16 | understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au | 17 Appendix 1: treaty text Appendix 1: treaty text continued

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 2. Each State Party to the Treaty undertakes not to be made available to non-nuclear-weapon States Party Signed in Washington, London, and Moscow July 1, 1968 DESIRING to further the easing of international tension provide: (a) source or special fissionable material, to the Treaty on a nondiscriminatory basis and that the and the strengthening of trust between States in order or (b) equipment or material especially designed or charge to such Parties for the explosive devices used will Entry into force generally: 5 March 1970 to facilitate the cessation of the manufacture of nuclear prepared for the processing, use or production of be as low as possible and exclude an charge for research weapons, the liquidation of all their existing stockpiles, special fissionable material to any non- nuclear-weapon and development. Non-nuclear- weapon States Party to Entry into force for Australia: 23 January 1973 and the elimination from national arsenals of nuclear State for peaceful purposes, unless the source or special the Treaty shall be able to obtain such benefits, pursuant weapons and the means of their delivery pursuant to fissionable material shall be subject to the safeguards to a special international agreement or agreements, The States concluding this Treaty, hereinafter referred to required by this article. through an appropriate international body with as the “Parties to the Treaty”, a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control, adequate representation of non-nuclear-weapon States. 3. The safeguards required by this article shall be CONSIDERING the devastation that would be visited Negotiations on this subject shall commence as soon as RECALLING that, in accordance with the Charter of the implemented in a manner designed to comply with possible after the Treaty enters into force. Non-nuclear- upon all mankind by a nuclear war and the consequent the article IV of this Treaty, and to avoid hampering the need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a United Nations, States must refrain in their international weapon States Party to the Treaty so desiring may also relations from the threat or use of force against the economic or technological development of the Parties obtain such benefits pursuant to bilateral agreements. war and to take measures to safeguard the security of or international cooperation in the field of peaceful peoples, territorial integrity or political independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes nuclear activities, including the international exchange Article VI of nuclear material for the processing use or production BELIEVING that the proliferation of nuclear weapons of the United Nations, and that the establishment and Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue of nuclear material for peaceful purposes in accordance would seriously enhance the danger of nuclear war, maintenance of international peace and security are to negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating with the provisions of this article and the principle of be promoted with the least diversion for armaments of to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date safeguarding set forth in the Preamble of the Treaty. IN CONFORMITY with resolutions of the United Nations the world’s human and economic resources, and to nuclear disarmament and on a treaty on general General Assembly calling for the conclusion of an and complete disarmament under strict and effective Have agreed as follows: 4. Non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty shall agreement on the prevention of wider dissemination of international control. nuclear weapons, conclude agreements with the International Atomic Article I Energy Agency to meet the requirements of this article Article VII UNDERTAKING to co-operate in facilitating the Each nuclear-weapon State Party to the Treaty either individually or together with other States in application of International Atomic Energy Agency undertakes not to transfer to any recipient whatsoever accordance with the Statute of the International Atomic Nothing in this Treaty affects the right of any group of safeguards on peaceful nuclear activities, nuclear weapons or other explosive devices directly, Energy Agency. Negotiation of such agreements shall States to conclude regional treaties in order to assure or indirectly; and not in any way assist, encourage or commence within 180 days from the original entry the total absence of nuclear weapons in their EXPRESSING their support for research, development induce any non-nuclear- weapon State to manufacture into force of this Treaty. For States depositing respective territories. and other efforts to further the application, within the or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons or other nuclear their instruments of ratification or framework of the International Atomic Energy Agency accession after the 180-day period, Each of the Parties Article VIII explosive devices, or control over such weapons or to the Treaty undertakes to safeguards system, of the principle of safeguarding explosive devices. negotiation of such agreements shall l. Any Party to the Treaty may effectively the flow of source and special fissionable commence not later than the date pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures...to nuclear propose amendments to this materials by use of instruments and other techniques at Article II of such deposit. Such agreements Treaty. The text of any proposed certain strategic points, shall enter into force not later than disarmament and on a treaty Each non-nuclear-weapon State Party to the Treaty on general and complete amendment shall be submitted eighteen months after the date of to the Depositary Governments AFFIRMING the principle that the benefits of peaceful undertakes not to receive the transfer from any transfer initiation of negotiations. disarmament... applications of nuclear technology, including any or whatsoever of nuclear weapons or other explosive which shall circulate it to all Parties to the Treaty. Thereupon, if requested technological by-products which may be derived by devices or of control over such weapons or explosive Article IV nuclear-weapon States from the development of nuclear devices directly, or indirectly; not to manufacture or to do so by one- third or more of the Parties 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as explosive devices, should be available for peaceful otherwise acquire nuclear weapons or other nuclear to the Treaty, the Depositary Governments shall convene affecting the inalienable right of all Parties to the Treaty purposes to all Parties to the Treaty, whether nuclear- explosive devices; and not to seek or receive any a conference, to which they shall invite all Parties to the to develop research, production and use of nuclear weapon or non-nuclear-weapon States, assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons or Treaty, to consider such an amendment. other nuclear explosive devices. energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination CONVINCED that, in furtherance of this principle, all and in conformity with articles I and II of this Treaty. 2. Any amendment to this Treaty must be approved Parties to the Treaty are entitled to participate in the Article III by a majority of the votes of all the Parties to the Treaty, 2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, fullest possible exchange of scientific information for, including the votes of all non-nuclear- weapon States 1. Each non-nuclear-weapon State Party to the Treaty and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible and to contribute alone or in co-operation with other Party to the Treaty and all other Parties which, on the undertakes to accept safeguards, as set forth in an exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and States to, the further development of the applications of date the amendment is circulated, are members of the agreement to be negotiated and concluded with the technological information for the peaceful uses of atomic energy for peaceful purposes, Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy International Atomic Energy Agency in accordance with nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do Agency. The amendment shall enter into force for each DECLARING their intention to achieve at the earliest the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency so shall also cooperate in contributing alone or together Party that deposits its instrument of ratification of the possible date the cessation of the nuclear arms race and the Agency’s safeguards system for the exclusive with other States or in international organizations to amendment upon the deposit of such instruments of and to undertake effective measures in the direction of purpose of verification of the fulfilment of its obligations the further development of the applications of nuclear ratification by a majority of all the Parties, including the nuclear disarmament, assumed under this Treaty with a view to preventing energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories instruments of ratification of all nuclear-weapon States diversion of nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with Party to the Treaty and all other Parties which, on the URGING the co-operation of all States in the attainment weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Procedures due consideration for the needs of the developing areas date the amendment is circulated, are members of the of this objective, for the safeguards required by this article shall be followed of the world. Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy with respect to source or special fissionable material Agency. Thereafter, it shall enter into force for any Party RECALLING the determination expressed by the Parties whether it is being produced, processed or used in any Article V upon deposit of its instrument of ratification of the to the 1963 Treaty banning nuclear weapon tests in principal nuclear facility or is outside any such facility. Each Party to the Treaty undertakes to take appropriate amendment. the atmosphere, in outer space and under water in its The safeguards required by this article shall be applied measures to ensure that, in accordance with this Treaty Preamble to seek to achieve the discontinuance of all to all source or special fissionable material in all peaceful 3. Five years after the entry into force of this Treaty, under appropriate international observation and through test explosions of nuclear weapons for all time and to nuclear activities within the territory of such State, under a conference of Parties to the Treaty shall be held in appropriate international procedures, potential benefits continue negotiations to this end, its jurisdiction, or carried out under its control any here. Geneva, Switzerland, in order to review the operation of from any peaceful applications of nuclear explosions will

18 | understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au | 19 Appendix 1: treaty text continued Appendix 2: 13 point action plan

this Treaty with a view to assuring that the purposes of l. Each Party shall in exercising its national sovereignty At the 2000 Review Conference of the NPT, all governments signed to the the Preamble and the provisions of the Treaty are being have the right to withdraw from the Treaty if it decides Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty agreed to the following practical steps realized. At intervals of five years thereafter, a majority that extraordinary events, related to the subject matter for the systematic and progressive achievement of nuclear disarmament. of the Parties to the Treaty may obtain, by submitting a of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests proposal to this effect to the Depositary Governments, of its country. It shall give notice of such withdrawal to 1. The importance and urgency of signatures and 9. Steps by all the nuclear-weapon States leading the convening of further conferences with the same all other Parties to the Treaty and to the United Nations ratifications, without delay and without conditions and to nuclear disarmament in a way that promotes objective of reviewing the operation of the Treaty. Security Council three months in advance. Such notice in accordance with constitutional processes, to achieve international stability, and based on the principle of shall include a statement of the extraordinary events it the early entry into force of the Comprehensive Nuclear- undiminished security for all:· Article IX regards as having jeopardized it supreme interests. Test-Ban Treaty. Further efforts by the nuclear-weapon States to reduce their nuclear arsenals unilaterally. 1. This Treaty shall be open to all States for signature. 2. Twenty-five years after the entry into force of the 2. A moratorium on nuclear-weapon-test explosions or Any State which does not sign the Treaty before its entry Treaty, a conference shall be convened to decide any other nuclear explosions pending entry into force Increased transparency by the nuclear-weapon States into force in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article whether the Treaty shall continue in force indefinitely, of that Treaty. with regard to the nuclear weapons capabilities and may accede to it at any time. or shall be extended for an additional fixed period or the implementation of agreements pursuant to Article 3. The necessity of negotiations in the Conference on VI and as a voluntary confidence-building measure to 2. This Treaty shall be subject to ratification by signatory periods. This decision shall be taken by a majority of the Parties to the Treaty. Disarmament on a non-discriminatory, multilateral and support further progress on nuclear disarmament. States. Instruments of ratification and instruments of internationally and effectively verifiable treaty banning accession shall be deposited with the Governments of Article XI the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons or The further reduction of non-strategic nuclear weapons, the United States of America, the United Kingdom of other nuclear explosive devices in accordance with the based on unilateral initiatives and as an integral part of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Union of This Treaty, the English, Russian, French, Spanish, and statement of the Special Coordinator in 1995 and the the nuclear arms reduction and disarmament process. Soviet Socialist Republics, which are hereby designated Chinese texts of which are equally authentic, shall be mandate contained therein, taking into consideration the Depositary Governments. deposited in the archives of the Depositary Governments. both nuclear disarmament and nuclear non-proliferation Concrete agreed measures to further reduce the Duly certified copies of this Treaty shall be transmitted objectives. The Conference on Disarmament is urged operational status of nuclear weapons systems. 3. This Treaty shall enter into force after its ratification by the Depositary Governments to the Governments of to agree on a programme of work which includes the by the States, the Governments of which are designated A diminishing role for nuclear weapons in security the signatory and acceding States. immediate commencement of negotiations on such a Depositaries of the Treaty, and forty other States signatory policies to minimize the risk that these weapons ever treaty with a view to their conclusion within five years. to this Treaty and the deposit of their instruments of IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, duly be used and to facilitate the process of their total ratification. For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear- authorized, have signed this Treaty, DONE in triplicate, at 4. The necessity of establishing in the Conference on elimination. weapon State is one which has manufactured and the cities of Washington, London and Moscow, this first Disarmament an appropriate subsidiary body with The engagement as soon as appropriate of all the exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive day of July one thousand nine hundred sixty-eight. a mandate to deal with nuclear disarmament. The nuclear-weapon States in the process leading to the device prior to January 1, 1967. Conference on Disarmament is urged to agree on a total elimination of their nuclear weapons. programme of work which includes the immediate 4. For States whose instruments of ratification or of establishment of such a body. accession are deposited subsequent to the entry into 10. Arrangements by all nuclear-weapon States to place, as soon as practicable, fissile material designated by force of this Treaty, it shall enter into force on the date 5. The principle of irreversibility to apply to nuclear each of them as no longer required for military purposes of the deposit of their instruments of ratification or The second disarmament, nuclear and other related arms control under IAEA or other relevant international verification accession. nuclear era, unlike the and reduction measures. dawn of the first nuclear age and arrangements for the disposition of such material 5. The Depositary Governments shall promptly inform in 1945, is characterized by a 6. An unequivocal undertaking by the nuclear-weapon for peaceful purposes, to ensure that such material all signatory and acceding States of the date of each world of porous national borders, States to accomplish the total elimination of their nuclear remains permanently outside of military programmes. signature, the date of deposit of each instrument of rapid communications that facilitate arsenals leading to nuclear disarmament to which all 11. Reaffirmation that the ultimate objective of the ratification or of accession, the date of the entry into force the spread of technical knowledge, and States parties are committed under Article VI. of this Treaty, and the date of receipt of any requests for expanded commerce in potentially efforts of States in the disarmament process is general convening a conference or other notices. dangerous dual-use technologies 7. The early entry into force and full implementation and complete disarmament under effective international and materials. of START II and the conclusion of START III as soon as control. 6. This Treaty shall be registered by the Depositary possible while preserving and strengthening the ABM Bulletin of Atomic Scientists 12. Regular reports, within the framework of the NPT Governments pursuant to article 102 of the Charter of Treaty as a cornerstone of strategic stability and as a basis January 2007 strengthened review process, by all States parties on the the United Nations. for further reductions of strategic offensive weapons, in implementation of Article VI and paragraph 4 (c) of the accordance with its provisions. Article X 1995 Decision on “Principles and Objectives for Nuclear 8. The completion and implementation of the Trilateral Non-Proliferation and Disarmament”, and recalling the Initiative between the United States of America, the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice of Russian Federation and the International Atomic Energy 8 July 1996. Agency. 13. The further development of the verification capabilities that will be required to provide assurance of compliance with nuclear disarmament agreements for the achievement and maintenance of a nuclear- weapon-free world.

20 | understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au | 21 Footnotes: More information on nuclear weapons

1. Morrison, P and Tsipis, K, And another thing…Rightful names. Trade and International Security, Leading not following, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists May/June 2003. renewal of Australian middle power diplomacy. Sydney Institute, Medical Association for Prevention of War www.mapw.org.au 19 September 2006. 2. Quoted in Alperovitz, G., The Hiroshima Decision. Sojourners International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons www.icanw.org August/September 1985 pg16. 24. Weeramantry, Judge C., The world must unite to eliminate the 3. Blix, H. et al, Weapons of Terror, Freeing the World of Nuclear growing nuclear threat, The Age Opinion, April 23, 2007, http:// International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War www.ippnw.org Biological and Chemical Arms, Weapons of Mass Destruction www.theage.com.au/news/opinion/the-world-must-unite-to- Commission, Stockholm, 2006, pg17. eliminate-the-growing-nuclear-threat/2007/04/22/117718047 Physicians for Social Responsibility (USA) www.psr.org 4. Ibid, pg32. 6368.html?page=2. Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission www.wmdcommission.org 5. Report of the Canberra Commission on the Elimination of 25. Blix, H. et al, Weapons of Terror, Freeing the World of Nuclear Nuclear Weapons, August 1996, pg7. Biological and Chemical Arms, Weapons of Mass Destruction Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists www.thebulletin.org Commission, Stockholm, 2006, pg109. 6. Green, R, The Naked Nuclear Emperor; Debunking Nuclear Deterrence, The Disarmament and Security Centre, 26. Datan, M et al, Securing Our Survival, the Case for a Reaching Critical Will www.reachingcriticalwill.org Christchurch, New Zealand, 2000, pg36. Nuclear Weapons Convention, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War et al, 2007, www.icanw.org/ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace www.carnegieendowment.org 7. McNamara, R, Reducing the Risk of Conflict, Killing and securing-our-survival. Catastrophe in the 21st Century, speech to Commonwealth Club Parliamentary Network for Nuclear Disarmament www.pnnd.org of California, June 2001. 27. Nelson, The Hon Dr B., Australian Minister for Defence, Nuclear Challenges, speech to the 6th IISS Asian Security 8. Hoffman, D,Shattered Shield: Cold War Doctrines Refuse to Die. Acronym Institute www.acronym.org.uk Summit, Singapore, 2 June 2007. Washington Post Foreign Service, 15 March, 1998. http:// Abolition 2000 www.abolition2000.org www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/coldwar/ 28. Barnaby, F., from the foreword of the report, An Illusion of Protection, the unavoidable limitations of safeguards on nuclear shatter031598a.htm. EnergyScience Coalition www.energyscience.org.au materials and the export of uranium to China, ACF and MAPW 9. Butler, L, Zero Tolerance. The Bulletin of the Atomic report, 2006, page foreword ii. Scientists, January/February 2000 pg72. Federation of American Scientists www.fas.org 29. Beljac, M, et al, An Illusion of Protection, the unavoidable 10. ElBaradei, M, ABC TV Interview with Mohamed ElBaradei, limitations of safeguards on nuclear materials and the export of November 11, 2004. http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/ Natural Resources Defense Council www.nrdc.org uranium to China, ACF and MAPW report, 2006, pg11 content/2004/s1240725.htm. 30. as at 30 July 2007, according to the website www. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute www.sipri.org 11. ElBaradei, M, Towards a safer world. The Economist, October mayorsforpeace.org. 16, 2003. 31. Australia has sold uranium to nuclear-armed France, to 12. Blix, H. et al, Weapons of Terror, Freeing the World of Nuclear Finland (in full knowledge that plutonium could be extracted Biological and Chemical Arms, Weapons of Mass Destruction I know not with from the spent fuel in Soviet military facilities), to South Korea Abbreviations Commission, Stockholm, 2006, pg40. what weapons World when it appeared likely that that country would embark on 13. Ruff T.,Nuclear terrorism. EnergyScience Background Paper War III will be fought, but a nuclear weapons program, and to European Economic ACF Australian Conservation Foundation 10, Nov 2006. Available at : www.energyscience.org.au World War IV will be fought Community members who were at liberty to transfer the with sticks and stones. 14. Barnaby, F, Security and Nuclear Power, Oxford Research uranium to other buyers without Australia’s consent. CTBT Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Group, 2005 http://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk. Albert Einstein 32. The CTBT has not yet entered into force. It will do so when FMCT Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty 15. Physicians for Social Responsibility, Dead Reckoning, 44 named states which are engaged in nuclear research or A Critical Review of the Department of Energy’s Epidemiologic nuclear power ratify the Treaty. IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency Research. Physicians Task Force on the Health Risks of Nuclear 33. Senator Roméo Dallaire, Canada, ‘There are Inherent Links Weapons Production. 1992. pg22. Between the Environment and Nuclear Arms’ Embassy, April 18th, ICAN International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons 16. Natural Defences Resource Council, Table of Known Nuclear 2007. Tests Worldwide, 2007 http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/ ICJ International Court of Justice 34. Parliamentarian Network for Nuclear Disarmament, www. datainx.asp. pnnd.org. IPPNW International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War 17. International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear 35. UN document, Strengthening of the United Nations: an War (IPPNW) and the Institute for Energy and Environmental agenda for further change, Report of the Secretary-General MAPW Medical Association for Prevention of War Research (IEER), Radioactive Heaven and Earth: The health and (United Nations, General Assembly, September 9, 2002, environmental effects of nuclear weapons testing in, on and above NGO Non-Government Organisation A/57/387, para 136. the earth. Apex Press/Zed Books, 1991. pg42. 36. McCoy, Dr R., Vision of a Nuclear Weapons-Free World, 18. Schwartz, S (editor), Atomic Audit: The costs and NPT nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty speech given at the International Launch of the International consequences of US nuclear weapons since 1940. Released by The Campaign to Abolish Nuclear weapons, (ICAN), Vienna, 30 NWS nuclear weapon State/s Brookings Institution, June 30, 1998. April 2007. 19. Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty, Article IX, see appendix 1 37. These measures are extensively addressed in the report Non-NWS non-nuclear weapon State/s 20. Blix, H. et al, Weapons of Terror, Freeing the World of Nuclear of The Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear NWC Nuclear Weapons Convention Biological and Chemical Arms, Weapons of Mass Destruction Weapons. Commission, Stockholm, 2006, pg65. 38. Mccgwire. M., The elimination of nuclear weapons. Chapter P5 Permanent Five (of the UN Security Council) 21. Barnaby, F, from foreword in the report, An Illusion of 9 in Alternative Nuclear Futures: the role of nuclear weapons in the Protection, the unavoidable limitations of safeguards on nuclear post cold war world. Eds J Baylis and R O’Neill, OUP, 2000. SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute materials and the export of uranium to China, ACF and MAPW 39. McCoy, Dr R., Vision of a Nuclear Weapons-Free World, report, 2006, page foreword iii. WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction speech given at the International Launch of the International 22. Kennedy, President John F., Commencement Address at Campaign to Abolish Nuclear weapons, (ICAN), Vienna, 30 WMDC Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission American University, Washington, USA, 10 June 1963. April 2007. 23. Rudd, K, Australian Shadow Minister for Foreign Affairs, UN United Nations

22 | understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au understanding the NPT ~ a resource from MAPW www.mapw.org.au | 23 Nuclear war is inevitable, say the pessimists;

Nuclear war is impossible, say the optimists;

Nuclear war is inevitable unless we make it impossible, say the realists. Sydney J. Harris

Medical Association for Prevention of War (Australia) www.mapw.org.au