RICE PADDY SCHEME AND WETLAND DEGRADATION TILDA , DISTRICT,

BY

ISAASI FRED BEMI10011/811DU

SUPERVISED BY: DR. SEKABIRA KASSIM

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF INGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF BACHELOR’S DEGREE IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

OCTOBER, 2011 DECLARATION I, Isaasi Fred declare that this dissertation on “Paddy schemes and wetland degradation” is my original work and has never been submitted to any university for any award. Where the works of others have been cited, acknowledgements have been made.

Signature..~ Date... ~ .7 ISAASI FRED APPROVAL I certify that the work of this candidate has been under my supervision and is now ready for submission, to be evaluated for the award of a Bachelor of Science in Environmental Management f Kampala International University.

Supervisor.. ~ Date ~ ( DR. SEKABIRA KASSIM DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my beloved mother Mrs. Luuka Sarah and my father Mr. Luuka Bethuel for their good love and care, may God bless them to live longer, and it is because of their devoted sacrifice, encouragement, and trust in me that I have been able to reach this far, then my lecturers most especially Mr. Orishaba Ammon and Tumushabe Annie, my beloved friends Torn, Joan and Winnie, Sharifa, Magie and Eugine Ayako. Lastly it goes to my beloved late niece Doreen that you will always remain a family member, and I will live to love you and may your soul rest in eternal life.

111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The researcher is very grateful to be availed this opportunity of thanking and hailing the different people who contributed in one way or the other in the completion of his research project successfully. My first gratitude goes to the Head of the Environment Science Department and lecturer Mrs. Tumushabe Annie for having continued with the promoting of research in the department, advocating for the students to the University Council about the financial and all other kinds of support to the students which is a benefit. More to that, I would like to send my sincere thanks to my research methods facilitator Mr. Tindyebwa Wiliberforce for the guidance he rendered to me during the research lectures in order to make it a success. Again, I would like to send my grateful thanks to my beloved lecturer Mr. Orishaba Ammon for his valid efforts rendered in the marking assistance and guidance during the time of lectures; and more thanks also go to all my lecturers who have done a great job in class work. Further still, I would like to extend my great thanks to my beloved mother Mrs. Luuka Sarah and my beloved brother Luuka Moses for the financial assistance and guidance in the hard life, then my niece Fancy and my best fiends Wabwire Thomas, Naaba Winnie, and Joan Mutoni for the comfort and courage they rendered in the completion of my research proposal.

iv ABSTRACT The purpose of the study was to establish the impact of paddy schemes on wetland degradation in Kibimba wetland Bugiri; and in this the major concern was the factors, activities and effects of rice paddy agriculture on wetlands. The study was conducted among surrounding outgrowers, labour workers at the scheme and extension officers of Tilda rice scheme. The literature review covered relevant literature from other previous writers, journals, documentary reviews where factors of rice paddy schemes activities of rice paddy scheme agriculture and effects of rice paddy schemes will be reflected in the Literature review.The study used a descriptive study design in which both qualitative and quantitative methods were adopted. In a cross-sectional survey, a total of 40 farmers will be interviewed using several data collection methods including interviews, informal discussions based on questionnaires and observation .The researcher was focused majorly on the activities involved in rice paddy agriculture and their effects on the wetland ecosystem and this was majorly on observation of these effects and practices.Data was analyzed, coded and presented using pie charts. Factors like continuos cultivation of the wetland leads to depletion of soil nutrients, lack of awareness about wetland conservation, political factors of the rich being given free access to wetland natural resources without follow ups and economic factors were all laeding to wetland degradation. After the study, the researcher found out that rice growing has no impact on the wetland but the problem was with the activities that are involved in rice growing for example during land preparation, the use of chemical to kill weeds was a common practice that changes the wetland ecosystem compostion through contaminating it and making it inhabitable to the different kinds of biodiversity; use of fertilizers that degrade the soil that without using them in a particular season would mean very poor yields, other pests and disease control using chemical for example kills birds and fish in the water; machinized harvesting leads to compaction of the soil particles reducing soil aeration. Therefore, there is wetland degradation taking place at Limited but most of the effects can not be easily observed by a lay man physically except a few effects, therby requiring the government to come up and fund environment conservation organizations to there and do scientific studies by for example testing soil samples in laboratories, or else the wetland of Kibimba will soon become a was±e land.

v LIST OF ACRONYMS NEMA National Environmental Management Authority NAADS National Agricultural Advisory Services WMD Wetland Management Division NGOS Non Governmental Organizations UWA Uganda Wildlife Authority NFA National Forest Authority NARO National Agricultural Research Organisation EIA Environmental Impact Assessment MDGs Millennium Development Goals GHGs Green House Gases

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION APPROVAL DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv ABSTRACT v LIST OF ACRONYMS vi CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION 1 I .Olntroduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.3 General objective 4 1.4 Specific objectives 4 1 .5 Research questions 4 1.6 Scope of the study 4 1 .6.1 Geographical Scope 4 1 .6.2 Content Scope 5 1.6.3 Time scope 5 1 .7 Significance of the study 5 LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.1 Definition of terms 7 2.2 The concept of paddy schemes 8 2.3The concept of wetland degradation 9 2.4 Paddy scheme factors that contribute to wetland degradation 9 2.5 Activities,involved in paddy scheme agriculture 13 2.6 Effects of paddy schemes on wetlands 15 METHODOLOGY 22 3.1 Descriptive Research design 22 3.2 Study area 22 3.2.1 Location of the study area 22 vii 3.2.2 Demographic and Population Profile .23 3.2.3 Climate 23 3.2.4 Soils 24 3.2.5 Wetlands 24 3.3 Study population/target population 24 3.4 Sample and sampling procedure 25 3.4.1 Sampling 25 3.5 Research instruments 25 3.5.1 Questionnaires 26 3.5.2 Interview Schedule 26 3.5.3 Observation 26 3.6 Data analysis 26 3.7 Research procedure 27 3.8 Ethical Considerations 27 3.9 Limitations of the study 27 RESEARCH FINDINGS 28 4.0 Introduction 28 4. 1 Distribution of respondents by sex 28 4.2 Distribution of respondents’ age in percentages 28 4.3 Extension and labour workers’ number of years in rice paddy scheme agriculture 29 4.4 Rice paddy scheme factors 30 4.5.0 Activities involved in rice paddy agriculture 32 4.5.1 Activities that impact negatively on the wetlands 35 4.5.2 Periods of the year when activities are done 36 4.6 Effects of rice paddy scheme agriculture on wetlands 37 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 42 5.0 Conclusions 42 5.1 Recommendations 42 REFERENCES 44 APPENDICES 48 Appendix I-Time schedule 48 viii APPENDIX II - Proposed budget .49 APPENDIX III- Instruments 50 APPENDIX TV-Map of showing Kibimba wetland 54 APPENDIX IV- Map of Uganda showing Bugiri district 55

ix LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 — Sample of respondents 25

Table 2 - Distribution of respondents by sex 28

Table 3 — Distribution of respondents by age 28 Table 4 Extension and labour workers’ number of years in rice paddy agriculture 29

Table 5 — Rice paddy scheme factors that contribute to wetland degradation 30 Table 6— Activities involved in rice paddy scheme agriculture 32 Table 7— Activities that impact negatively on wetlands 35

Table 8 — Periods of the year when activities are done 36

Table 9 — Effects of rice paddy scheme on wetlands 37

x LIST OF PLATES

Plate I — Continuous cultivation of rice leading to wetland soil exhaustion 31

Plate 2 Land clearing and weeding 33

Plate 3 — Canal irrigation which erodes the soil sediments 35

Plate 4 — Rice paddy scheme agriculture nursery bed 37

Plate 5 — Stagnant water where mosquitoes breed 39

Plate 6 — The effect of round up weed chemical on the soil 40

Plate 7 The effect of irrigation canals on wetlands 40

Plate 8 — Manual weeding of rice which reduces the use of chemicals in weed control 41

xi CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Back ground

Wetlands are found in all climatic zones ranging from tropics to the tundra (except Antarctica which has no wetlands). Occupying about 5% of the earth’s land area, wetlands are dynamic and natural ecosystems characterized by water logged or standing water conditions during at least part of the year. In most wetlands, water levels fluctuate seasonally instead of being stable, a property that accounts for making wetlands highly productive environments. Productivity among wetlands varies depending on the type of the wetland, climatic condition and vegetation communities. (Schlesinger 1997).

For the last 15 years, Uganda has lost about 4,000 square kilometers of wetlands to degradation, posing a risk of water shortage, experts from Water and Environment Ministry have said. (NEMA et a!, 2007). From 13 percent coverage of wetlands, the area has dropped to 11 percent coverage within the same period, experts from the Wetlands Department in the ministry reveal. Uganda covers a total land area of about 241,500 sq km, of which 30105sq km representing about 13% of the total area of Uganda, with permanent wetlands covering approximately 7,296 square kilometers, and seasonal wetlands covering about 2,809 sq. km. A total of 2,376.4 sq. km of wetlands have been encroached upon and reclaimed in Uganda today (Nape 2008) Continued deforestation of fragile wetlands, over cutting of vegetation, unbalanced fertilizer use and non- adoption of soil and wetland conservation management practices, over-pumping of ground water (in excess of capacity for recharge) and irrigation are some of the factors which conies under human intervention resulting in wetland degradation. The status of wetland degradation is an expression of the severity of the process. The severity of the processes is characterized by the degree in which the wetland is degraded and by the relative extent of the degraded area within a delineated physiographic unit (UNEP 1991).

In the 1600s, over 220 million acres of wetlands are thought to have existed in the lower 48 states. Since then, extensive losses have occurred, and over half of our original wetlands have been drained and converted to other uses (Dahl, 1990). With high food demands for the high population and urbanization, mechanized agriculture has been adopted which has impacted wetlands

1 negatively whereby most of the ecological habitats, plants and animals, soil texture and profile alteration by the plough discs have led to disturbance of the water table in wetlands, degrading the quality and quantity of water, reduced water recharge and decline in the water table as exemplified by the disappearance of springs.( www.ramsar.org/ wetland loss.htm 13:22 hours, Aug 2011).

In the 1970s, a joint venture between the Ugandan government and the people of China, with initially the construction of a small dam fed by Kibimba River started a rice irrigation scheme (Kibimba Irrig~ttion Scheme) which initially covered an area of 650 hectares and this marked the beginning of encroachment on the wetland as it currently covers 1400 acres of land. It was used as a rice technology development scheme. The scheme was later privatized later on and is currently run by Tilda Uganda Limited, a foreign company. (Ministry of Agriculture, Animal industry and Fisheries, and Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Republic of Uganda 2000). Other threats have included chemical contamination, increased nutrient inputs and eutrophication (accelerated succession from low to high primary productivity rates), hydrologic modification, and sediment from air and water. Changes to natural hydrological, chemical, and physical regimes have been documented as affecting the production and succession of a wetland’s ecology, and therefore its functions and values (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993; Booth and Reinelt 1993; Preston and Bedford, 1988).

1.2 Statement of the problem

Wetlands represent one of the vital natural resources Uganda is endowed. Wetlands provide ecological services like climate modification, water purification and filtration, waste water treatment by stripping any pollutants in it and making sure the water is cleaner when it leaves the wetland, flood control, and waste storage and distribution in space and time; direct uses like source of water for domestic purposes, livestock watering, source of fish, medicinal plants and animals, and provide various materials like papyrus which are harvested for construction and mats making which contributes US$200 per year per family’s income in Eastern Uganda (IUCN 2005); other vital attributes like biological diversity, gene pooi research material, cultural values and aesthetic values are vital importance of wetlands. . In urban areas, wetlands have played the tertiary role of retention of sediment from runoff, tertiary treatment of nutrients and sewage, and the extraction of toxic effluents and contaminants from industries and urban settlement effluents (NEMA 2001) Unfortunately, the importance of wetlands is largely associated with consumptive use values; a

2 total of 2,376.4 sq. km of wetlands have been encroached upon and reclaimed in Uganda to date (Nape 2008). This implies that almost all the seasonal wetlands in the country have been encroached upon and reclaimed for human settlements, industry and agriculture.This degradation of wetlands is driven by the fact that the existing laws governing wetlands in the country are not adhered to or are poorly executed caused by the Government institutions mandated to oversee and govern them. The failure to adequately enforce the policies and laws governing the environment and wetlands in particular is attributed to the duplication of roles and mandates across the many government ministries, departments and authorities. Wetland degradation in the country has been worsened by the government’s principle and practice of considering industrial and commercial development superior to preservation and conservation of wetlands and the environment. Current national policies and laws prohibit encroachment and reclamation of wetlands and lakeshores, but the rich and politically influential in Uganda have gone to the extent of flouting the existing laws under the helpless watch of the institutions mandated with enforcing the laws including National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Wetlands Management Division (WMD). The situation of wetland drainage has reached critical level in eastern Uganda, where the region ranks highest with about 20% of the wetlands destroyed, compared to 2.8%, 2.8%, and 3.6% in the central, northern and western regions respectively, with districts of /Bugiri, Jinja, and Pallisa are the most affected in terms of wetland reclamation (State of Environment Report for Uganda 2000/2001)

This selective enforcement of the laws can only be described as injustice and environmental politics of destruction. As a consequence of the poor development and management of wetlands, floods, waterborne diseases like dysentery, seepage of sewage, accumulation of domestic, commercial and industrial solid wastes and bad smells, and destruction of biodiversity are all observed (Nape 2008). In 1974 when Kibimba rice scheme had just started, it initially covered a land area of 6~0 hectares, but currently, it covers about 1600 hectares and this is a clear indicator of high encroachment. Other key environmental and occupational health and safety issues of the scheme that may exist include poor pesticide and herbicide use and handling, unsustainable irrigation water supply and distribution by mixing irrigation water with chemicals impacting Kibimba wetland. Although wetlands have the capacity to absorb pollutants in form of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation chemicals, human sewage, and heavy metals from mechanized agriculture, the absorption rate may reach full capacity as these are continuously input. (Bugiri district environment report 2004). Compaction of soil during land preparation and harvesting, and

3 then accumulation of salts in the wetland through irrigation degrade the wetland. Although Uganda’s wetlands are protected by National Environment Statute(1995), most of them are still being reclaimed degraded, especially those outside protected areas.(State of Environment Report for Uganda 2000/200 1) Therefore, there is need for concerted effort by every citizen poor and rich to ensure that, national laws on wetland conservation are not abused. Institutions like NEMA, National Forestry Authority (NFA), Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), and WMD mandated with environmental and in particular wetland protection, conservation and governance to enforce the laws without fear or favour, if environmental sanity and sanctity is going to be realized (Nape 2008).

1.3 General objective

The gencral objective of this study is to establish the impact of paddy schemes on wetland degradation in Kibimba wetland Bugiri.

1.4 Specific objectives

1. To identify the rice paddy scheme factors that contributes to wetland degradation. 2. To establish the activities involved in rice paddy growing by Tilda. 3. To find out the effects of rice growing on Kibimba wetland.

1.5 Research questions

1. What factors of rice paddy schemes contribute to wetland degradation? 2. What activities are involved in rice paddy growing by Tilda? 3. What are the effects of rice growing on Kibimba wetland?

1.6 Scope of the study 1.6.1 Geographical Scope

The study was conducted around Kibimba irrigation scheme which has a coverage of 1400 acres. It is located in Bugiri District which was curved off in the Eastern Region of Uganda’s l3usoga sub-region. Kibimba is located at 90 kilometers by road northeast of Jinja l3usoga’s largest city. It is inhabited by the Basoga who form the majority of the people; however there are other minor communities like the Samia, Japadhola, and others. The study was

4 conducted in communities around and within Kibimba and Tilda in particular where farmers practice their agriculture.(Bugiri district environment report 2008)

1.6.2 Content Scope

This study centered at paddy schemes and wetland degradation within and around Kibimba communities, identifying the effects of paddy schemes on water and soil quality, biodiversity and land management within the wetland.

1.6.3 Time scope

The study took a period of two weeks in the field carrying out data collection from different people around Kibimba, labour workers who have at least been there for three consecutive years, that is, 2008-20 10, and extension officers of Tilda Uganda Limited.

1.7 Significance of the study

The study helped farmers who extensively grow rice, crop scientists, programme officers for Alliance for Green Revolution and National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) to sustainably improve on the rice production in Uganda without impacting on the wetland through adopting other methods like a planned rice growing which makes rice growing much easier as opposed to traditional varieties that mainly grow in paddies and consume a lot of water, such that issues of food insecurity which have hit most parts of Uganda as mostly their neighbor Namutumba district; to be reduced or even wiped away as harvests per season would be increased. Through this ~tudy massive education and local campaigning to the people about the proper wetland utilization and management was put in place through government bodies like NARO, NEMA; which are all concerned with the conservation of the environment as the problem of food would be stepped down. Clubs like Uganda Wildlife will assist in the sensitization of the masses about conservation of both the flora and fauna in wetlands as this would allow swamps to regenerate. The final results of the study worked as an instrumental tool for the Ugandan government in achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in particular those concerned with environmental conservation.

Environmental Impact Assessment officers (ETA) will be motivated to carry out project monitoring especially Tilda Uganda more so Kibimba rice scheme. And through research about the current 5 programmes and activities of Tilda Uganda of expanding its cultivation coverage in Kibimba wetland, the adverse effects will be to a given level reversed as stronger and appropriate environmental terms and conditIons will be put on Tilda Uganda Limited. Academicians and researchers who wish to make discoveries in industrial agriculture will be provided with information, skills and knowledge in conservation in wetland areas that are highly cultivated. Practices like addition of organic fertilizers and manures, conservation tillage, irrigation will be discovered since they are to be studied and through this, adverse mechanized agricultural practices will be reduced.

6 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Definition of terms

A paddy field is a flood plain of arabic land used for growing rice and other semi aquatic crops. They can occur naturally along rivers or marshes, or can be constructed, even on hillsides, often with much lab~ur and materials. They require large quantities of water for irrigation, which can be quite complex for a highly developed system of paddy fields.(Hemaratna, H. A. 2000. Economics of crop diversification in paddy lands in low country wet zone in Sri Lanka)

A wetland

The Ramsar convention (1971); Articles 1.1 and 2.1, defines wetlands as areas of marsh, fen, peat

land or water whether natural or artificial , permanent or seasonal with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty , including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 meters.

Degradation refers to the destruction of a potentially renewable resource, such as a wetland, by consuming it at a rate faster than it is naturally renewable, so that, if such use continues, the resource becomes non-renewable or non-existent. The trend in Uganda today is continued loss of wetlands due to human encroachn-ient, and degradation of the remaining wetlands through various activities carried out within and outside the wetlands ( Profile 2003).

Wetland degradation

Degradation of a wetland is the alteration of an existing wetland to decrease its specific functions and values. Degradation can occur because of activities in the wetland itself, such as drainage or clearing, or because of activities around the wetland, such as soil erosion or hydrologic modifications.( Food Security Act,1985)

7 2.2 The concept of paddy schemes

Rice is the world’s most important wetland food crop, and pressure to grow more rice is accelerating. Rice is the only major grain crop that is grown almost exclusively as food. In 30 years, the earth may be home to 8 billion people, and the number expected to be rice consumers (the descendants of today’s rice consumers) may equal today’s total inhabitants of the earth. Feeding them will require a massive increase in global rice production. Making allowances for substitutions of other foods for rice in diets as incomes increase, the world’s annual rice production must increase from 5 18 million tons in 1990 to 760 million tons in 2020 (IRRI 1 989). That 47% increase would merely maintain current nutrition levels, which for hundreds of millions of people are already inadequate.

More than 90% of the world’s •rice is produced in Asia, 3.2% in Latin America (Brazil and Colombia account for 62% of that production), 2.1% in Africa (Egypt and Madagascar accounts for 48% of that production), and 2.5% in the rest of the world. Less than 5% of world rice production is traded on the international market. Rice provides between 35% and 59% of the calories consumed by 2.7 billion people in Asia. In Africa and Latin America, rice provides 8% of the food energy for almost 1 billion people. Approximately half the people in South Asia and sub Saharan Africa receive inadequate calories for an active working life (IBRD 1986). Some 470 million of these malnourished people live in South Asia, and 150 million of them live in sub Saharan Africa (IRRI 1989).

The world’s harvested rice area increased during the past 40 years by 41% and rough (still in the hull) rice production by 304%. Today, rice production in Asia is twice that of 25 years ago, whereas the land area planted to rice has increased only 17%. Average yields have increased 72%, which is only slightly more than the 67% growth in population (IRRI 1991). The harvested rice area increased mainly because double and triple rice cropping was made possible by the development of short-duration, photoperiod-insensitive rice cultivars and by expanded irrigation. The great production gains have been in the irrigated rice and favorable rain fed rice as_where modern high-yielding rice cultivars coupled with improved cultivation technologies are able to express their yield potential. In East Asia, almost all rice is grown on irrigated land; 40% of the rice-growing land in Southeast Asia is irrigated, but only 30% is rrigated in South Asia.

8 There is a need to diversify agricultural systems on wetland soils to improve daily diet and to meet socioeconomic and environmental necessities for sustainable production systems in different regions. Various rice-based cropping and farming systems have evolved, and production of other staples (vegetables, plantation crops, livestock, poultry and fish) are expanding into wetlands. Rice lands can be classified as irrigated, rain-fed, deepwater, or upland. In irrigated rice fields, the floodwater is fully controlled and kept shallow. In rain-fed rice fields, precipitation controls flooding of soils. At times in the growing season, soils of rain-fed rice fields may dry up or be flooded up to 50 cm. In deepwater rice fields, floodwater rises to more than 50 cm during the growing season, and it may reach several meters, Upland rice fields are neither flooded nor does the topsoil become water saturated at any significant period of time.

2.3 The concept of wetland degradation

Degradation of wetlands will affect the quality of water in some cases and this will affect the biodiversity, for example fisheries industry. Similarly, destruction of flood buffers implies more costs on government to construct drainage and install culverts to contain discharges, as is the case with Nakivubo wetland in Kampala. Increase of flooding leads to drainage of road infrastructure, buildings and even interference with business transactions for example flooding markets (state of the environment Report for Uganda 2002).

2.4 Paddy scheme factors that contribute to wetland degradation Demographic factors and settlement patterns

Population growth, nuclear families, unique settlement patterns and preference for independent houses exert pressure on wetlands. The richer sections find it convenient and economical to develop paddy fields near motorable roads and developing them as house plots. Extension of existing roads and opening of new roads, construction of buildings for commercial uses and improvement of infrastructural facilities necessitate conversion of more area for rice paddy fields. (IRRI 1991).

9 Economic reasons

Over the past three decades, rice growers have been experiencing a difficult situation in which cost of cultivation has been increasing without any commensurate increase in the price of rice. Farmers have been found to cultivate extensive land areas since at the present rates; rice paddy cultivation is not economically viable. Though there are public and institutional agency committed to the promotion of rice cultivation, majority of them have not succeeded in persuading land owners to sustainably retain rice cultivation.

Political factois

Laws and regulations restricting land use changes are in vogue in the State. The agencies and institution at the local level like Krishi Bhavan and Village office are not exercising their powers to prevent indiscriminate filling and leveling of paddy field, canal and springs. (IRRI 1991).

Lack of environmental awareness

The Environment is literally the entity on which all subsist and on which our entire agricultural and industrial developments depend. No organism is ever totally independent of the environment. Conversely, there is no environment which is unaffected by the organisms that it supports. In fact, many farmers are not aware of the environmental and ecological function of the wetlands. Most think only in terms of their short-term, individual, economic costs and benefits, not about societal loss (IRRI 1991).

Attitudinal changes

At present, all jobs seekers aspire to get government jobs. The land owing younger generations become absentee landlords. They prefer to keep land fallow to make investment in rice cultivation. Employment in the farm sectors is seasonal. Demand for labor peaks up during busy seasons to level far beyond supply. The wage share in the total cost has increase several folds since 1950. But in some activities harvesting which follow output sharing practice: workers income have not increased much (IRRI 1991).

10 Informal tenancy

The practice of informal tenancy is gaining momentum. Landless agricultural laborers interested in the cultivation of crops such as banana, tuber crops, vegetables and rice through an informal agreement take wetland on rent. Though the land is not filled, crops are cultivated on clay bunds prepared for easy drainage. Eventually the leased lands are converted to rice crops.

Conversion leading to further conversion

Midland ribbon valley wetlands are a continuous wetland ecosystem. Generally they began from uplands and end up with river basins or sides of other water bodies. Conversion of upland plots affects water supply in plots in the down land. Similarly filling and leveling of down land plots obstructs drainage of uplands. Filling and leveling of plots in any wetland would affect the water holding capacity of neibouring plots. Cultivation in holdings adjacent to converted plots becomes difficult and expensive (IRRI 1991).

Extensive growing of rice has led to wetland degradation which has impacted on the flora and fauna of the wetland habitat, resulting in a change in the composition of wildlife resources: fewer fish, more monkeys, and a total disappearance of certain wildlife species in wetlands. Changes in wetland resource use are also extensive; there is increased utilization of the resource, for example, increased gardening, and more frequent gathering of firewood and crafts materials (Jinja District Profile 2003).

The conversion of wetlands, deltas and floodplains of most rivers in India to rice paddy fields is rampant, following ‘Green revolution’ of the early 70s. It is an ecological irony that as a result of this, the gross spatial extent of wetlands in the Indian subcontinent is greater today than it was 3000 years ago (Lee Foote et al., 1996) owing to increased rice paddy fields established in wetlands. The rich Gangetic floodplains, with easy access to water, constitute one of the most intensively curtivated regions of the world and Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh has lost some 34,000 hectares of natural wetlands to agriculture (Anon, 1993). This was followed by profound changes in the irrigation pattern in India. The irrigated land increased from 3044 km2 (in 1970) to 4550 km2 (in 1990), showing 49% increase in the area (Anon, 1994). The demand for water to irrigate crops has increased dramatically over the last few decades resulting in the construction of a large number of reservoirs, canals and dams significantly altering the hydrology of the associated

11 wetlands. In India, currently there are more than 1,500 large reservoirs covering 1.45 million hectares and more than 100,000 small and medium reservoirs covering 1 .1 million hectares (Gopal, 1994).

The degradation of water quality is a direct consequence of population growth, urbanisation, agricultural development and industrialisation. Unrestricted dumping of sewage with toxic chemicals from settlements around paddy schemes has polluted many freshwater wetlands, making them unfit for drinking, fishing or bathing in most parts of India. According to the study conducted by Chopra (1985), more than 50,000 small and large lakes in India are polluted to the point of being considered dead. The natural coastal wetlands are also polluted to the extent that their fishery and recreational values are lost. The prime sources of pollution are domestic and industrial sewage as point source besides agricultural runoff and the more insidious atmospheric pollution contributing to the non-point source pollution. Studies suggest that 70% of the 3,100 cities and towns (population >100,000) in India have no sewage treatment facilities (Gopal, 1994).

Legal-policy failures on wetland exploitation where wetlands jurisdiction is diffused and falls under various departments like agriculture, fisheries, irrigation, revenue, tourism, water resources and local bodies. For instance, all mangroves in the country fall under the direct control of forest department. The lack of a comprehensive wetland policy, with each department having its own developmental priorities, works against the interests of conservation of wetlands resulting in intended or unintended ‘spill-over’ further aggravates the problem. For example, the various subsidies and cross-subsidies given to irrigation, fertilizers - pesticides, land use policies, etc., have negative impact on wetlands.

More than 50,000 small and large Indian lakes are polluted to the point of being considered dead (Chopra-1985). The primary sources of pollution are human sewage, industrial pollution and agricultural runoff that may contain pesticides, fertilisers and herbicides. Pollution of lakes makes the water unsuitable for drinking, fishing or bathing. Extreme organic pollution levels from paddy fertilizers can be put to unconstructive use in some situations. Demand for water to irrigate paddy crops mostly has increased dramatically in the last 20 years. Between 1980 and 1983 the rapid depletion of ground-water left over 60,000 villages in rural India ~vith no source of drinking water (Chopra 1985). Water pumping continues to reduce ground-water

12 level by 1.5 to 6 m per year in some areas, and the beds of rivers that once flowed continuously are

110W dry for much of the year.

Conversion/drainage due to shallow waters of wetlands for agricultural purposes can pose a threat to biodiversity in these areas because some of the plants may not be fire tolerant and also may trigger succession changes leading to replacement of natural wetland vegetation. Rice growing has claimed most of the degradation of wetlands. This is evident with the expansion of rice farms in the district

2.5 Activities involved in paddy scheme agriculture Land preparation

Land is first cleared and then divided into paddocks with bunds/embankments around them. Each of the paddocks has an inlet and an outlet which are made operational during land preparation. A portion of the paddocks whose size varies according to requirements is demarcated for nursery. A hectare of transplanted rice requires 350 sq meter nursery bed. Before sowing the bed is flooded to a depth of 10cm to enable puddling by dragging a board back and forth to produce a fine mud. Flooding of the main field then follows a tractor mounted rotary cultivator (rotavator) puddles the soils (hence the name paddy), followed by leveling. Often animals are used to make land level by dragging a board before draining to give a level seed bed for the seedlings. In some places puddling is done by animals.

Planting

Clean certified seed of more than two months are used to ensure there is no dormancy. Improved varieties that are widely grown include; BG 90-2 and JR 1561-228-3-3 (Anon, 1983-85). Others are local Sindano and Basmati 217 from Pakistan. Seeds are pre-germinated by putting in a bag and soaking in water for 24 hours before being removed, drained and covered with grass for 24-48 hours until pre-germination occurs. The nursery is drained to leave a thin film of water on which a nematicide/ insecticide (Furadan) and some nitrogen applied. The latter is applied at the rate of 80- 11 0kg/ha of Sulphate of Ammonia (SA). Seeds are then broadcasted evenly at a rate of 45kg/ha. This ensures fast growth of seedlings to be transplanted 3-4 weeks later at a height of l5-2Ocm. the seedlings are closely monitored for any symptoms of diseases but preventive measures are more often undertaken such as applying a fungicide at planting.

13 Transplanting

Seedlings are ready after 3-4 weeks depending on daylight and temperature. Rice growth, development and yield are greatly influenced by seed age, hence they should not be allowed to overgrow and neither should they be too tender to withstanding transplanting shock. The seedlings are feeble and should not be transplanted in waster depth of more than 10cm, otherwise they sub merge. The spacing is 10 bylO cm to give a population of about one million plants per hectare.

Fertilizers

Triple superphosphate is broadcasted at the rate of l2Ojg per hectare before transplanting (or 56kg per hectare of P205). Later the crop is top dressed with 250 kg of sulphate of ammonia in two portions the first half immediately after transplanting and other 40 days later. It is important to alternate the nitrogen fertilizer (sulphate of ammonia or urea) to avoid acidifying soils.

Water control

Water is controlled to a third of the height of the growing plant up to a maximum of 15cm. water should flow slowly through the field hence the need for a flat land. Stale water is drained off and fresh water allowed in every 2 to 3 weeks. Harvesting is made easy by draining three weeks before when 50% of the heads bend. Flooding has the effect of smoothing the weeds so it should be done properly. The few weeds that sprout particularly some aquatic ones are quite problematic, but they are pulled manually because of close spacing. (Yoshida, 1981).

Harvesting and yield

Rice takes between 130 to 150 days to mature depending on location and variety. A well grown crop can be harvested all at once. Cutting is done with a sickle. Stems are cut and bundled together and transported to the threshing place. Grains are dried while still attached to the crop up to a moisture content of 14% after which they can be stored or milled. Rice grain yields range from about 1 to 10 ~onnes per hectare. depending on variety, management and environment (Yoshida, 1981). The yield is a product of number of panicles, percentages of filled grain and the 1000 grain weight (Tanaka et al, 1964).

14 Pest and diseases control

The main pests of rice are birds and rats. Insect pests are not a serious issue like other crops. Birds are scared in sinall farms but poisoned by the large scale farmers. Rats are controlled by clearing and baiting. They include rice hispid, white rice borer, pink stalk borer, army worms and maize web worm, which are controlled by application of insecticides. (Tanaka et al, 1964) Rice blast is the most devastating and can easily complete crop failure so that no yields are realized. It is a fungal disease caused by Piricubria oryzae. It can attack the plant at all stages causing seed and leaf blight in the active growing phase and a neck rot slightly below the head. Early attach leads to failure of the grains to fill with pinnacles falling over and causing rotten neck. The best control method is by planting resistant varieties such as JR. Seed dressing maybe a satisfactory precautionary measure. Rice yellow mottle virus is endemic to Africa and was first discovered in Kenya in 1966. It is mechanically transmitted by insects and tools as it gains entry into rice through injuries and it is a major problem in paddy as well as low land rice fields. Control is by minimizing injury to seedlings during transplanting and weeding as well as controlling insect vectors. But the surest way is use of resistant varieties.

Post harvesting handling

Post harvesting handling operations includes threshing, drying, storage, milling and subsequent handling. There are a number of losses that arise from these operations which should be born in mind and correction measures undertaken.

2.6 Effects of paddy schemes on wetlands

Irrigation schemes or water diversions for irrigation have undoubtedly caused adverse effects to wetland ecosystems. At their most severe, these effects have included the submersion of wetlands, or their replacement by upland vegetation communities (or by essentially unvegetated land in the case of the Aral Sea), with consequent effects on the biota that depend on these wetlands and the services that humans hitherto derived from the systems. All of these resulted in major impacts to downstream wetland ecosystems, including dewatering and drying (Aral Sea, Logone River, and Colorado River), and submersion and replacement by aquatic communities, for example, the Nanni Swamp in Surinam (van Maren 1994). Degradation of wetlands and disturbance of their anaerobic environment lead to a higher rate of decomposition of the large amount of carbon stored in them and thus release green house gases (GHGs) to the atmosphere. Therefore, protecting wetlands is a 15 practical way of retaining the existing carbon reserves and thus avoiding emission of carbon dioxide and GHGs. (Maitby et al. 1993)

Groundwater contamination by agricultural chemicals is a major environmental pollution issue. In recent years, a number of organic contaminants have been detected in groundwater samples. ln the US, 17 different pesticides have been detected in groundwater in 23 different states; the concentrations typically ranged from trace amounts to several hundred parts per billion (Sun 1986). In California, rice herbicides residues have been found in well waters, agricultural drains, and rivers (Cornacchia et al 1,984). Water samples from 44 wells the Philippines situated near (6 to 200 m) the rice fields with depth ranging from 1 0-20m were analyzed for pesticides (Bhuiyan and Castaneda 1995). In this area well water is used as drinking water by most farmers Insecticides and herbicides commonly applied by farmers in the Laguna area (where pesticide use is average) were detected in most of the water samples, with highest frequencies of occurrence during the wet season (endosulfan 98%; butachlor 76%. methyl parathion 50%). Residue analysis also detected chemicals that were not reported to be applied by farmers during the year.

Drainage for agriculture and forestry Many wetlands have been modified into rice fields, cash crops cultivation e.g. oil palm, and fast- growing trees plantation, detrimentally affect natural flora and associated fauna. The fauna has also suffered from the application of pesticides, modification of habitats, and is correspondingly reduced in diversity. All stages of forestry have impacts on freshwater, sedimentation in streams and lakes, increased nutrients from leaching and fertilizers. Eucalyptus trees have been planted in marshy areas to produce a rapidly growing crop of timber and accelerated marsh drainage by transpiration. (Sansanee Choowaew 2007)

Dredging and stream channelization for navigation, flood protection, water storage, and reservoir maintenance. Straightening and canalization of wetland courses has degraded many wetlands and destroyed wetland forest habitats. Accelerating water flow velocity and deepening erosion of the main channel leads to continued lowering of the water table, with detrimental effects on wetlands. ~Sansanee Choowaew 2007)

Water abstraction effects of vary in extent, from year to year, and place to place. In standing ~vaters subject to rapid level fluctuations caused by pumping or flood-control projects, the

16 shorelines experiences similar changes to those in abstracted wetlands. There is a great reduction in macrophytes and invertebrates that cannot withstand desiccation. Consequently, the shallow littoral areas of abstracted lakes and rivers, normally the richest zones, have poor production. (Sansanee Choowaew 2007)

Burning of peat lands and herbaceous swamps and marshes reduces the vegetation diversity. In peat lands, burning leads to a solidified surface which is not suitable for plant establishment. In marshlands where reed cutting is carried out to provide material for thatching, roofing, fencing and other purposes, the reed beds are often burned during the dormant season to produce clean early growths, with consequent decline in both floristic and structural diversity. (Sansanee Choowaew 2007) Nutrient Enrichment and Eutrophication of Water Bodies Enrichment of major water bodies with nutrients especially Phosphorus and Nitrogen is facilitated by a number of factors including atmospheric deposition (the main source for Lake Victoria), poor farming and forestry practices, as well as untreated and partially treated municipal sewage and industrial effluents. Excessive eutrophication has been observed to result in oxygen deficits in bottom waters of major lakes and has contributed to the accumulation of toxic gases such as hydrogen sulphide in the lower water column. The cumulative negative impacts of these effects of eutrophication to biodiversity; to ecosystem ecology and trophic dynamics; and to overall productivity in the affected zones of the water bodies, especially Lake Victoria are serious, though the actual magnitude is not sufficiently understood mainly because of lack of adequate scientific information on the spatial magnitude, dynamics, and impacts of eutrophication in the lake.

Control of nu~trient enrichment from land use (through prudent agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and wise use of wetland buffers); and from municipal and industrial effluents, calls for close collaboration and co-ordination with many sectors including crop agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry, industry, local government and National Water and Sewage Corporation. Atmospheric loads of nutrients, the principal source of phosphorus and nitrogen into Lake Victoria, may be of national, regional and international origin. They are, therefore, even more ~hal1enging to control.

17 The impacts of eutrophication on the environment and resources of Lake Victoria is complex and many of their modalities, dynamics and extent are not fully understood. They require focused joint

and coordinated, regional research.( Uganda National Water Development Report — 2005) Agricultural systems and practices have exerted a wide range of mostly adverse impacts on inland and coastal wetlands globally. Both the extensive use of water for irrigation (some 70% of water use globally is for irrigation) and excessive nutrient loading associated with the use of nitrogen and phosphorus in fertilizers have resulted in a decline in the delivery of services such as fresh water and some fish species. On the other hand, the expansion of paddy rice cultivation has increased the area of human made wetlands in some regions. (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005.)

Over 1,000 species of predators and parasites have been identified in the traditional rice culture, including nitrogen-fixing algae, humus building agents, and natural enemies of rice-attacking pests. Repeated use of fertilizers, insecticides, molluscicides, herbicides and rodenticides has indiscriminately decimated the number and type of rice paddy inhabitants. (NEMA 2008). One of the principal techniques in modern rice culture is soil puddling. This method enables the planting of as many as three crops per year instead of a single annual harvest. It has, however, the effect of excluding the traditional practice of crop rotation whereby soil was naturally refurbished with nitrogen and other organic nutrients from other plants. Synthetic fertilizers, especially nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, have to be applied in increasingly bigger doses to offset the rapidly deteriorating condition of the soil. Repeated agrochemical applications in turn lead to the disappearance of another important natural source of nutrients, the nitrogen-fixing algae in the soil. The disappearance of nutrient-manufacturing algae and vegetation deprive rice plants of naturally fertile ground, while the loss or contamination of water reptiles, fish, frogs and snails deprives people of an important food source. (NEMA 2008)

Wetland rice soils have free water at the surface for at least the major part of the crop growing season. Water may be retained by leveling and building levees or dikes. Flooding drastically reduces the diffusion of atmospheric oxygen into the soil, and facultative and anaerobic microorganisms sequentially reduce soil substrates. The redox potential is a quantitative indicator measuring the tendencies of different oxidations and reductions (net flow of electrons) to occur. Redox potential, measured as electric potential in volts, characterizes the processes that bring about a given chemical and biochemical milieu in a soil. The higher the value of the redox

18 potential, the greater the presence of strong oxidizing agents in a soil. ( Bachelet, D., and H.-U. Neue. 1987)

Wetland rice fields and irrigation schemes ecological have conditions favorable to the propagation of aquatic invertebrates that are vectors of human and animal diseases, mostly mosquitoes and snails. The most important vector borne diseases associated with the rice environment are malaria, schistosomiasis, and Japanese encephalitis.

Misuse of pesticides has been one of the major problems associated with the adoption of new rice technology resulting in on-field problems such as increases in pest and plant disease out break, development of pesticides resistant strains of rice pests (Oka 1988), and significant direct or indirect effects on microorganisms, primary producers and flood water invertebrates important to soil fertility (Roger 1996). Pesticides also have significant off-field environmental impacts through their effects on non-target rice field fauna, the accumulation in components of the food chain, runoff from the fields, transportation to the water table and detrimental effects on farmer’s health. Flooding creates anaerobic conditions a few millimeters beneath the soil surface and leads to the production of methane (CH4) a major GHG. Rice fields are a major anthropic source of methane; crop intensification will lead to increased methane emission if mitigation techniques adoptable by farmers are not developed. (Bauchop, T. 1967).

Drifts where in most rice growing countries, pesticides are applied by backpack and drifts are limited to the vicinity of the field. When pesticides are applied by plane on a large scale, drifts are likely to occur. Damage to other sensitive crops due to drifts of phenoxy herbicides and propanil have occurred in US rice areas. As a result, regulatory agencies in the US rice state restrict the use of aerial and ground application of herbicides. In Arkansas, phenoxy herbicides cannot be applied in 6kilometres of cotton (Hill and Hawkins 1996)

Pesticides applied on rice fields enter surface water bodies mainly through runoff. Accumulation of pesticide residues in surface bodies can have far reaching consequences for domestic water supply and aquatic organisms. Pesticide contamination of water bodies can be assessed by monitoring residue in aquatic food webs. In the 1970s, fish kills were attributed to pesticides applied in rice fields in the US. Aldrin applied with seed rice entered the aquatic ecosystem hrough drainage of flooded rice fields- marsh fields. Residue analysis of representative species of

19 the aquatic biota indicated significant biological accumulation; rapid concentration of pesticides in living organisms resulted in massive kills of aquatic organisms (Ginn and Fisher 1974)

Spread of invasive alien species: Introduction of several exotic aquatic animal and plant species that have eventually escaped into wild habitats are posing a serious threat to native aquatic biodiversity. Observations made during the past five years have enabled to document 10 species of invasive alien fauna (8 species of fish, one turtle and one aquatic mollusc) and 12 species of invasive alien flora spreading in different wetland ecosystems throughout Sri Lanka

(Bambaradeniya, 2002). Among them, 4 species of fauna (Tilapia - Oreochroinis mossambicus,

Walking catfish — Clarias batrachus, Rainbow Trout - Oncorhynchus mykiss and Mosquito fish -

Gambusia a/fin is) and two species of flora (Water Hyacinth - Eichhornia crassipes and Giant

Mimosa - Mimosa pigra) are included in the list of the world’s 100 worst invasive alien species. The drainage of wetlands is carried out by simple excavation of channels by rice growers. Some times there is blockage of the normal flow of water to create space for agriculture expansion. These wetlands have started loosing their water holding capacities and their ability to act as buffers. Wetland drainage has destroyed habitats, which is leading to the loss of species. The wetland fish stocks which used to be a good delicacy for many rural residents have reduced. Many people have also been depending on the natural products of wetlands for their basic needs including household items and building materials. Cottage industries like brick and handcraft making have been depending on wetlands as a source of raw materials. (State of the Environment Report for Uganda 2008)

20 23 Conceptual framework INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

L VARIABLE VARIABLE

WETLAND PADDY SCHEMES 1 DEGRADATION

—1 Paddy scheme factors Biodiversity loss

Submersion of wetlands

_____ Activities in paddy [~chemes Water pollution

Drainage for agriculture Effects of paddy schemes Water abstraction

Eutrophication T Figure 1

21 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Descriptive Research design

In conducting the research, the researcher used descriptive research design with the aim of getting a systematic description that is factual and as accurate as possible that was aimed at the complete enumeration of the characteristics of the population that is; the farmers, labour workers and the extension officers of Tilda Uganda Limited and the item being studied i.e. the impact of paddy schemes on wetland. The researcher also used cross sectional method where he gathered data from a sample of Tilda Kibimba workers that is out of a population of 40 respondents, 38 respondents were selected to form the sample for the study.

There are 2 types of descriptive research designs: Qualitative Research Design which is devoid of numerical values and Quantitative Research Design which are plans for carrying out research oriented towards quantification and are applied in order to describe current conditions or to investigate relationships, including cause-and-effect relationships.

3.2 Study area

3.2.1 Location of the study area

The study took place in Buwuni parish in Bugiri district 90 kilometres north east of Jinja near the Kenyan border. Bugiri district is located in eastern region of Uganda’s Busoga sub-region and it is bordered by Namutumba and Butaleja Districts to the north, District to the north east, to the east, District to the south east, to the south west and Iganga District to the west.(Bugiri district environmental Report 2008)

Bugiri is one of the districts in Busoga sub-region, with a total area of approximately 5700.93 Sq.Km2 of which 1492.74 sq km is dry land and 4207.19 sq km is covered by water bodies. It extends between longitude 00 33N, 33 45E (latitude: 0.5500; longitude: 33.7500) (Bugiri district environmental Report 2008) Bugiri town is the biggest commercial centre in the district and it is where the district Headquarters are located. The town is 172km away from Kampala, Uganda’s capital city. Kibimba the study

22 area is an irrigation scheme with 1400 acres! 1600 hectares coverage which lies at a latitude 0 °N

and longitude 33 ° E

3.2.2 Demographic and Population Profile

According to the 2002 national population census Bugiri District was estimated to have a population of 426,527 people with a population density of 278 as compared to 165 persons per sq km in 1991. This population is constituted of 51% (221,487) females and 49% (205,040) males, with an annual population growth rate estimated at 2.8% p.a. This is therefore an indication that the district needs to expand substantially its entire infrastructure especially for Education, health, and water supply services in order to enhance the welfare of its growing population. In terms of the structure, women are proportionately higher than men. For every 100 women, there are 96 men. Bugiri is part of Busoga sub-region is conterminous with Busoga kingdom one of the constitutionally recognized kingdoms in Uganda is majorly inhabited by the Basoga and other tribes like Banyole, Samia, and Japadhola. A very high proportion of the district population is in the young age group. 23% of the total population is children aged between 0-5 years; 22% are aged between 6-13 years (primary school going age); 54% are aged between 0-17 years. Secondary school population (14-17 years) constitutes 9% of the total population. The productive age group (15-64 years) is 51% of the total population. Only 2.5% are aged 65% and above. A young persons dominated population like that of Bugiri District requires considerable investment in the services for children. For instance, immunization services, pre-primary and primary education, among other things. The age structure also implies that a significant proportion of the population is dependant. This exerts a heavy burden on the few productive members of the population because they have to look after a number of other people, a fact that hampers the rate of investment in the productive sectors. (Bugiri district Environmental Report 2008)

3,2.3 Climate l3ugiri district has a mean annual rainfall of 1200 mm in the wetter south and 900 mm in the drier northwest. Within the wetter south precipitation varies. The southern parts of the district receive between 1,000 mm to 1,500 mm of rainfall per year. The northern part is relatively drier with an average of 650mm while the northwest is drier with a precipitation between 500 mm and 450 mm. In general there are two peak rainfall seasons in a year, that is, from April to June and from August Lo November. The two are punctuated by a dry season from December to March. The temperatures

23 range of 16.7 to 28.1 with the month of being the hottest. The average wind speed is 4.4 km/hr, mainly blowing towards the north during March. (Bugiri district Environmental Report 2008)

3.2.4 Soils

The soils covering most of the district are mainly loamy and sand barns. These soils have fine texture with rather loose structure, which are easily eroded and leached. Most soils are acidic. Soil types in the dis’trict include:

Yellow - red sandy, clay barns soils varying from dark grey to dark which are slightly acidic and

mainly derived from granite, gneissic and sedimentary rocks. They occur on gently undulating - hilly topography.

Brown - yellow clay loams with laterite horizon with a variety of dark brown to dark greyish brown, which are slightly acidic. These occur on flat ridge tops or as of undulating topography.

Light - grey- white mottled loamy soils with laterite horizon ground, structure-less loamy sands.

They are acidic - allocative and mainly found on the lower and bottom slopes. (Bugiri district Environmental Report 2008)

3.2.5 Wetlands

Wetlands cover approximately 15% of the total land area of the district. This allows water to stay in one place long enough to maximize infiltration and thus access to water supplies for plants. There has however been a lot of encroachment on the wetlands for crop cultivation and unless the trend is reversed, the district’s wetlands will be completely destroyed in the near future. (Bugiri district Environmental Report 2008)

3.3 Study population/target population

This study will target out grower farmers, labour workers within the scheme and extension officers of the scheme totaling to 50, the sample size will be derived at by using of a sampling technique that ensures that each out farmer, labour worker and extension officer gets a chance of participating in the study.

24 3.4 Sample and sampling procedure

The sample size will be 38 respondents who will be randomly selected; of whom 14 will be out grower farmers, 19 will be labour workers within the scheme and 5 will be extension officers. The sample will be arrived at using the Yamane’s formula (1967) of sampling. n~ N 1+Ne2 N: Population of the study n: Sample size e: degree of confidence level at 95% which equals to 5% (n~N/1 +N(e2)

Where n simple size, N = Constant, e2 = level of significance = 0.05. TABLE 1- How a sample of respondents was arrived at.

Category Target Population Sample Out grower farmers 15 14 Labour workers 20 19 Extension officers os 05 Total 40 38

3.4.1 Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting elements from a population in such a way that the sample elements selected represent the population. It’s the process of extracting a portion of the population from which generalization to the population can be made. Random sampling in this case will be used where subjects in the population are sampled by a random process, using either a random number generator or a random number table, so that each person remaining in the population has the same probability of being selected for the sample

3.5 Research instruments These are the instruments that the researcher used to collect the necessary data for the study. These nstruments are discussed below:

25 3.5.1 Questionnaires The term questionnaire can be used as a general term that includes all techniques of data collection in which each person is asked to respond to the same set of questions in a predetermined order. The researcher used structured questionnaires to gather the necessary information. The questionnaire contained short and clear questions that seek to establish the rice growing and wetland degradation and associated problems.

3.5.2 Interview Schedule

This is a set of questions that were prepared by the researcher to guide him when conducting interviews that is it involved verbal administration of the interview guide especially the labour workers and this schedule was used to get some information not captured by the self administered questionnaire and also clarify on unclear issues.

3.5.3 Observation

The researcher watched the activities and systems in practice such as land preparation, trench digging, irrigation methods, transplanting, and the effects that paddy schemes have posed to the wetlands for example; vegetation damage and soil erosion.

3.6 Data analysis

Data was analyzed in line with research objectivities in order to realize a harmonious plan during the study and this will depend on the response from fields study. Thus the researcher organized and extracted meanings from the data collected during the study. The researcher used both qualitative and qualitative methodologies in order to collect detailed and more accurate data successfully from different sources because none of the methods when used exclusively analyzed data successfully. Data obtained was edited, coded, arranged and thereby analyzed by using percentage, bar graphs, pie charts and tables. The data was analyzed according to objectives in such a way that each Dbjective was analyzed separately.

R~esearch objectives and conceptual framework guided the study. This was realized through ~areful segmentation of data in thematic order as follows: paddy schemes and wetland degradation.

26 Data was analyzed con-currently to avoid duplication and this was guided by the entire aspect for balanced and critical analysis. Data collected was edited with the view of checking the completeness and accuracy. The raw data collected was transformed to statistical data. Thus the researcher used tables, and graphs to interpret data. The researcher used hypothesis based on each category of the questionnaires and for other items, tabulation pie-charts and percentage methods were used for data presentation, analysis and qualification.

3.7 Research procedure

Permission to conduct research was obtained from the university and then the school of Engineering And Applied Sciences was requested to write a research letter to accept the researcher to conduct the study at Tilda Kibimba Rice Scheme. Information from farmers, labour workers and extension officers was collected through schedules.

3.8 Ethical Considerations

The researcher carriedout with full knowledge and authority of the management of Tilda Uganda Limited. Assurance of the confidentiality was exhibited in the critical process of collecting and coding data, better still objectivity as principle of research was paramount to control of bias and distortion. The researcher required an introductory letter from the university, introducing him to the field so that he may not be doubted by the respondents

3.9 Limitatioi~s of the study

The most limiting issue to the study was that some of the top officials were not easily letting the researcher to access the required data and information and this had to take the researcher a lot of time to conceive them. Access to the factory laboratory to get some of the information was prohibited as the official claimed it was against the laws, and taking some of the photographs for other activities like harvesting with combine harvesters was highly prohibited.

27 RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.0 Introduction In this chapter, the researcher tabulated and analysed data collected during the study and had it presented in tables and pie charts. The chapter presents the findings of the study; contains demographic background of the respondents, the rice paddy scheme factors that contribute to wetland degradation; the activities involved in rice paddy scheme and the effects of rice paddy scheme agriculture on wetlands. It also tries to present the relationship between rice paddy scheme and wetland degradation, different periods of the year when which activity is carried out; and the possible solutions that can minimise wetland degradation due to rice paddy scheme agriculture. Therefore, the chapter is to be presented in accordance with the research objectives in chapter one.

4.1 Distribution of respondents by sex Table 2: Distribution of respondents by sex Sex Frequency Percentage (

Most of the clients involved in this study were males because 74% of the 38 respondents were males and 26% were females. And this in general meant that more men in the population of Kibimba are involved in rice cultivation, the a few women as compared to the men, so women are majorly involved in other food crops cultivation which is mostly maize as one out grower respondent claimed. 4.2 Distribution of respondents’ age in percentages Table 3: Distribution of respondents’ age in percentages Age category Frequency Percentages Below2O 1 20—29 11 29

30 — 39 19 40—49 5 50—59 1 60+ 1 r 03~

28 From the table, most respondents involved in rice paddy scheme agriculture are between 30 — 39

years which is represented by 50%, then 20 — 29 age group follows by 29%, 40 — 49 follows with

13%; age groups below 20, 50 — 59 and 60+ were represented by the same percentage of 03 %.

The age group with the highest percentage literally means that people within this age are in the family setting ,with fully responsibilities of children to handle since they showed to at least be

having 3 — 5 children each, the wife and relatives. At the same time respondents between the age

group of 20 — 29 also showed high percentage of 29%, and this is probably also because it is an age of responsibility of children caring and family at large; all respondents within this age group at least had a child each. The respondent who was below 2Oyears of age have less responsibility to handle, he had no child to take care of, no family and so he only works to support himself in form of clothing, food and other income needs.

But the respondents of ages 50 — 59 and 60+ were few because most of them were promoted to higher levels in the factory so they could not be easily, take an example be found in the fields. They were majorly in store keeping, record taking and laboratory attendance and this means they earn higher and at the same time they have less responsibility because most of their children are now mature that even others are married, so this can be a reason for the low number of respondents recorded here; ,these only make money to care for themselves, wife and a few relatives.

In general, most of the labour workers, out grower and extension officers were less educated meaning they could mainly do blue collar jobs that is why they are many between the age groups

20 — 29 and 30 — 39 due to the many responsibilities they have about their families.

4.3 Extension and labour workers’ number of years in rice paddy scheme agriculture. Table 4: Extension and labour workers’ number of years in rice paddy scheme agriculture.

Number of years Population Population percentage frequency (%) 1-3 2 13 3—5 4 27 5— 10 7 Above 10 2 13

29 Amongst the labour workers and extension officers, the number of years each has spent in the field of rice paddy agriculture varies; but most of the workers have spent between 5 and 10 years in the activity as represented by the percentage of 47 %, probably due to the currently revised payment after the workers’ strike in 2008. This kind of percentage could be attributed to rice growing being one of the prominent economic activities around Kibimba with Tilda Uganda Limited having existed for over 30 years since the 1970s.

When it came to 1 — 3 years, only two respondents were found here with a percentage of 13 % and this is because of the Tilda Uganda’s policy of retaining their worker for long periods of time without recruiting new ones. The same percentage of 13 % was recorded for those who have stayed for over 10 years, because most of the workers who stay for long periods are promoted to higher levels so they were not easily approached.

Looking at a periods between 3 and 5 years, four respondents were recorded here with a percentage of 27% meaning that as the number of years one stays at the factory increases, the same labour and extension workers are retained. Therefore, respondents who had stayed between 3 — 10 years were 11, and this could generally be attributed to Tilda’s retaining of its workers for long periods of time.

In conclusion, Tilda Uganda Limited has supported the livelihoods of citizens around Kibimba by providing consistent employment opportunities.

4.4 Rice paddy scheme factors Table 5: Rice paddy scheme factors that contributes to wetland degradation. Factors Frequency I.Relative frequency Percentages (%) Demographic factors and 30 0.79 27 settlement patterns Economic reasons 32 0.84 28 Political factors 5 0.13 04 Attitudinal changes 10 0.26 09 Repetitive cultivation 15 0.39 13 Un restricted disposal of wastes 3 0.08 3 Drainage 18 0.47 16

30 According to the table above, the most noticed factor that contributes to wetland degradation by respondents was economic reasons as evidenced by 28% score of the factor. Most of the people in the area get their income from agriculture and this is coupled by the existence of Tilda which employs a great number of people in its farms from the surrounding communities. The other one was demographic factors and settlement patterns where most of the people tend to settle around such areas like Kibimba due to presence of Tilda Uganda Limited where they can get employment opportunities, open up business and cultivate rice due to the presence of ideal conditions and the wetland for the rice to ow, as represented by 27%. As the demand for food has been increasing day after day, the demand for more land to grow rice also increases leading to large scale drainage of the wetland to expand the gardens as it is 16% from the factors. Continuous cultivation of the wetland as shown in plate I due to Tilda’s policy of rice growing throughout the year makes the nutrients from the soil to et exhausted requiring the application of fertilizers to improve on the yields which destroys the soil of the wetland and this is represented by 13%. And in general the other problems are there but on a minimal scale as represented by lower percentages.

Plate 1- continuous cultivation of rice leading to wetland II exha n

When new varieties of rice are introduced, they are first developed from this garden so that it multiplies to produce enough seeds which can then be transferred to the main gardens for large scale production and here land is cultivated repetitively.

31 4.5.0 Activities involved in rice paddy agriculture Table 6: Rice paddy scheme activities involved in rice paddy agriculture at Kibimba. Activity Number of respondents Relative frequency ~ Land preparation 36 0.95 12 Planting 38 1 13 Transplanting 32 0.84 1 1 Fertilizers application 26 0.68 09

Water control 7 0.18 02 Harvesting the yields 37 0.97 12 Pests and diseases 36 0.95 12 control Post harvesting handling 4 0.11 01 Weeding 30 0.78 10 Spraying(pre and post 24 0.63 08 emergency) Irrigation 15 0.39 05

Scaring birds 20 0.53 07

There were different types of activities that were found to be taking place in the rice paddy scheme agriculture as represented in the table above which included;

Land preparation which is carried out in four phases where there was the first tillage for clearing of the land which involves slashing and digging; then the second tillage where the different agricultural residues, grasses and soft sticks are buried in the soil with disc ploughs such that they can decompose to easily be converted to soil; the third tillage is to turn those decomposing residues, grasses and other components to the soil such that they are completely covered and Domplete decomposition occurs. In the fourth round of tillage, when all those different components ~re decomposed, a hand hoe is used to level the soil by cutting the soil lumps more, soften them, md this makes the soil ready to receive the seeds in case of direct seeding or transplants for the ~ase of transplanting.

32 A B

Plate 2 (A and B) - Land clearing and weeding

Sometimes chemical like ‘round up, 2-ford and botanil are used to clear the grasses in the process of land preparation and that is if the grasses are a lot and too hard to plough or else if they want to clear quickly due to time.

The other activities are planting and transplanting where in planting, the rice seeds are applied directly to the soil in the final garden, while transplanting has seeds first pre-germinated in nursery beds before being taken to the main garden; are used, but as claimed by Mr. Okurut Robert the research officer, transplanting is more advantageous compared to direct seeding. And sometimes before planting or transplanting, pre-emergency hetbicides are applied to control the germination or growth of weeds since Tilda U farm fields have a high weed seed bank. These herbicides also kill the weeds in case they are present by burning the seeds.

Fertilizer application is another activity after planting or transplanting where the soils are ven nutrients in form of fertilizers to help the transplanted rice plants to easily establish themselves in the soil, or after germination of directly seeded rice, the fertilizers can also be applied and here the commonly used fertilizers include; urea and Double Ammonium Phosphorus; and these are usually first dose fertilizers. The transplanted rice seedlings or germinated rice plants are not provided with water such that they can develop roots very first as they try to look for water and other soil nutrients.

33 Irrigation is another one which is done when the transplanted seedlings have fully established themselves well and here, it was found out that Tilda uses canal irrigation where the water is released from the dam to the canals in the scheme such that water can flood the field on the force of the gradient. Water is controlled by abstracting it, when soil is heaped on the sides of the plots of land as divided according to their farm establishment plan.

Post emergency herbicide application is after a month when the water is drained from the fields such that all the weeds that were together growing with the rice are killed and the rice will continue to grow.

The second dose of fertilizers can then be applied for the rice to grow quickly but this is done in case the Research Officer realises that there is need, due to say stunted growth in some crops, then soil samples around that area are tested in the laboratory to assess the missing nutrients which are then applied.

The other activity is pest and disease control which is done by spraying, poisoning the waters for the case of leaches using carboferan, or even other biological control measures like slashing around the rice paddocks to chase away rats and other pests. Pesticides like 2-ford, cyper mill, dudu killer, thiobencarb, rocket and carboferan are used to kill the pests. There were sighted examples of diseases and pests that attach the rice crop include; stem borers, blast and neck blast which dries the leaves of rice and puts brown spots on others, then the seed grains become blackish. These mostly attack the crop at the butting stage when rice panicles start to come. In case there are weeds existing at this stage, they are manually uprooted.

Irrigation is again done in the third month when rice begins to develop panicles and this water stays in the rice fields until three weeks to harvesting when all the water is drained away. During this period, birds scaring is done concurrently with weed uprooting; this is the stage when panicles start to develop milk substance which are birds’ favourite food.

34 •1

;: ‘~

Plate 3- Canal irrigation which erodes the il sediments.

Harvesting starts after all the water has dried out from the garden almost to cracking of the soils. It is done using combine harvesters if the fields are vely extensive but sometimes manually using sickles. The yields are then taken to the factory for drying and then ready to process into finished rice ready for consumption.

Therefore, land preparation takes four phases, pests and disease control is done regularly whenever symptoms of infection are detected in the fields, irrigation is done 2 — 3 times throughout the whole crop life. Birds scarin is done manually or sometimes sprayed and this has had devastating effects to the birds whereby the die in thousands, and also loss of other biota with in the wetland ecosystem which include fish, plants, leaches and many other sorts ofbiodiversity.

Looking at the different activities, many farmers, labour workers and extension workers concluded that some of them impact negatively on the wetland ecosystem and others positively. Taking examples, farmers said that excessive use of chemicals to control weeds leads to drying up of the rice implying decreased yields.

4.5.1 Activities that impact negatively on the wetlands Table 7: Rice pa dy cheme activities that impact negatively on the wetlands Activity Frequency Percentage (%) Fertilizer application 16 42 Irrigation 6 16 Weeding by chemicals 12 32 ploughing 4 11

35 The most disastrous activity according to the field study was fertilizer application as represented by 42%; use of chemicals to weed 32%; then irrigation with 16% and the least effective was ploughing with 11%.

4.5.2 Periods of the year when activities are done Table 8: Periods of the year when different rice paddy scheme activities are done. Period(months) Activity Frequency ~

frequency

January - February Land preparation 36 0.95 20

March - April Planting, transplanting, 38 1 21 fertilizers application, Spraying,water control, weeding

May - June fertilizers application, 37 0.97 21 Spraying, water control, weeding

July - August Harvesting and scaring 38 1 21 birds

September — Harvesting 30 079 17 October

November - 0 00 December Total 4.71 100

These different activities are done at different periods of the year; land preparation takes place in January, February to March; planting and transplanting starts in March and April, fertilizers application, chemicals to control pests and diseases and weeding, water control and irrigation are all done in the months of April and May. Bird scaring, second irrigation all start in June when the ~ice panicles develop and harvesting starts in July to October depending on the season and when ne planted, for the case of local farmers; but for Tilda Uganda Limited, these activities can be lone at any time of the year because of the possibilities to irrigate the crops and use of appropriate riachinery.

36 ..~ ~.- -..r~’

Plate 4- Rice paddy heme agriculture nursery bed

4.6 Eff of rice paddy heme ag culture on wetlands Table 9: The eff of rice paddy scheme agriculture on wetlands Effect Frequency Relative frequency percentages Biodiversity loss 6 0.16 06 Water, air and soil contamination 21 0.6 23 Erosion of sediments by canals 5 0.13 06 Water abstraction 0 0 00 Deforestation 9 0.24 09 Eutrophication 3 0.08 03 Pests and disease increase 16 0.42 16 Loss oftraditional methods 10 0.26 10 Poor soil aeration 5 0.13 05 Breeding piaces for mosquitoes 18 0.47 18 Production of methane 1 0.03 01 Soil compaction 2 0.05 02 As a result of repetitive rice cultivation, there were different effects that were realised durrng the field study;

The fertilizers that are used in rice paddy scheme agriculture in Kibimba have caused devastative effects on the water in the wetland. For example Mr. Okurut Robert the Research officer of Tilda commented about the use of urea to loosen the soils leading to lose of soil sediments when heavily rains and rice plots are not protected with big fanya chinis and fanya juus which reduce the speed

37 of running water and hence he added that local farmers who are not able to use the modern techniques not to use urea.

The use of chemical like round up, 2-ford kill weeds and other pests gets to contaminate the water and soil that make the wetland ecosystem inhabitable to the different kinds of biodiversity. Another hazard of chemicals like round up is that it deteriorate the soils severely in that after one year, there is no more productivity of the soil except when fertilizers are applied. Round up loosens up the soil texture which leads to soil erosion.

The use of machines in the rice paddy activities for example tractors and combine harvesters have had the soils compacted which reduces soil aeration and water penetration claimed Mr. Odokonyero the chemical officer at Tilda Uganda Limited. As a result, most of the soil organisms like earthworms can not easily enter the soil to make holes for aeration. This reduces greatly soil productivity which will require more use of fertilizers to enhance soil productivity.

Erosion of sediments by the water in canals used in irrigation was observed by the researcher as one of the effects of rice paddy scheme agriculture on wetlands. This was evidenced by the wide canals that had, physical signs of erosion.

Kibimba is an area that seemed to be a highly vegetated area due to the observation environmental features around which is no longer in place after all the trees were cut to provide space for rice cultivation and because rice as a crop does not grow in tree shades. This has then affected local farmers as they claimed that they currently experience one growing season as compared to the two seasons they used to receive. This is probably because the trees were cut, which together with the water in the swamp used to contribute to rain formation, and because these are all part of the hydrological cycle through evapotranspiration and evaporation. [ncrease in invasive pests and diseases to the rice are a common phenomenon as it was observed ~y the adverse effects of blast, rats and birds. The development of new resistant strains of pests and iisease has occurred after those that were the having accommodated the effects of the herbicides md pesticides. This is evidenced in the table of effects as 16 respondents noted this to be a )roblem.

38 With the introduction of puddling in the rice scheme, systems used like paddocking different blocks where rice is grown season after season had local systems like crop rotation which were not destructive to the wetland ecosystem as compared to the current situation where fertilizers for example have to be used to increase on the soil fertility.

Stagnated irrigation water in the rice paddocks act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes that cause malaria to the people in the surrounding communities as evidenced by the 18 respondents in the table of effects who noted it as a problem.

4

PIate5— antwaterwherem u breed

Also Mr. Odokonyero the chemical officer ofTilda noted that rice paddy scheme produce methane which contaminates the wetland soils and water.

Therefore, as more cultivation takes place in Kibimba on larger scales, there will be more effects on the wetland. However, some respondents and Tilda labour workers suggested some solutions to these effects such as, the use of green manure, compost and animal wastes manure to increase on soil fertility, instead of urea. These organic manures have no ecological effects on the soils; the weeds can be uprooted manually such that effects of chemical like round up for weeds are reduced, at the same time these weeds can be used as manure to the soil.

39 -~-

A B

Plate 6(A and B) - The effect of round up weed chemical on the ii

Round up makes the weeds to dry up very first and then the effects are transferred to the soils which loosens making it to be easily eroded in case if strong storms

‘4_S - 1,’

• • ,2~.. •~A

• 4

4 . 2

• •-i 4 ‘4 • • .‘: ~

•.•:~•~• ,‘.“.

‘4.. • --

/ -~ ~-- -•. • ‘4 .-:~ ~ A B

Plate 7 (A and B) - The e ect o irrigation canal on wetlands

Canal irrigation leads to sediment erosion as evidenced by the widened canals due to the force of water that passes the canal daily, resulting to soil loss.

40 PlateS - Manual weeding of rice which redu the use of chemicals in weed controL

Sometimes when then rice has matured as they can not use chemical to spray them, people are employed to manually uproot the weeds. When new varieties of rice are introduced, they are first developed from the research garden so that it multiplies to produce enough seeds which can then be transfeffed to the main gardens for large scale production.

41 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Conclusions

According to the study, there is a very strong relationship between rice paddy schemes and wetland degradation which relationship is both direct and indirect. The mere fact that most of the effects of rice paddy scheme on wetland are long term and require scientific studies to access the effect, there is need for the government of Uganda to come up with strong stands to invest in organisations like NEMA, NARO and others concerned about the environment to carry out monitoring of the state of the project and try to further realise some of the short comings as far as wetland degradation is concerned. Rice growing as an activity has no great impact to the wetland but the problem is from the different activities that are used in the whole process for example use of chemical to weed, fertilizers to enhance soil fertility, but organic fertilizer use like green manure, and clearing of land and weeding should be done manually.

As Tilda Uganda continues to expand its agricultural investments in Kibimba wetland, the digging of canals for irrigation will have the soil erosion rates increased as the water flows through them on a daily basis washes away sediments, yet there is no pronounced human induced sediment formation for replacement. This in turn degrades the soils leading to reduced agricultural productivity and continued food insecurity and rural poverty in communities that share Kibimba wetland, since at the same time inorganic components from the farms of the factory will have to reach other place through point source type of pollution and surface run off.

5.1 Recommendations

In order to conserve the environment and promote environmental sustainability, the government environmental bodies like NEMA, UWA, NARO should sensitize and encourage developers, investors and local people to protect the function and value of wetlands in the watershed and avoid wetland alteration during any projectTs commencement or even carryout regular Environmental [mpact Assessments and environmental monitoring such that in case of any short comings and impacts can be quickly resolved before they turn out to adversely impact the environment for ~xample the use of poisons to get rid of some pests greatly affects some other biodiversity within he wetland ecosystem such as birds as it is at Tilda Uganda.

42 Tilda Uganda Limited should ensure that the amount of used fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides in lawns and gardens is reduced. The government should also support local wetlands and watershed protection initiatives by donating materials, time, or money, and laws and ordinances that protect and restore the wetlands should be developed.

43 REFERENCES A global overview of wetland loss and degradation —www.ramsar.org wetland loss.htm

Adams, W.M. (1993). The wetlands and conservation. In: The Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands: environment, economy and sustainable development of a Sahelian floodplain wetland, G.E. Hollis,; W.M. Adams: M. Aminu-Kano (eds). Glanz, Switzerland. IUCN.

Anon (2005) Uganda districts information handbook, expanded edition 2005-2006. Fountain Publishers, Uganda.

Bachelet, D., and H.-U. Neue (1987) Methane emissions from wetland rice areas of Asia.

Bambaradeniya CNB (2002) the Status and Implications of Invasive Alien Species in Sri Lanka, Zoos’ Print Journal, 17 (11): 930-935.

Bambaradeniya CNB (2004) Freshwater Wetlands in Sri Lanka: Their Conservation Significance and Current Status In: IUCN Sri Lanka 2004, Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetland Conservation and Management, Pages 19-24.

Bauchop, T. 1967. Inhibition of rumen methanogensis by methane analogues. J. Bacteriol. 94: 17 Cameroon. In: Acreman, M.C. & Lahmann, E. (Eds) Managing Water Resources.

Choowaew, 5. 2010. Integrated Rice Paddy Farming in Thailand : A Best Practice for Maintaining Ecosystem Services.

Drijver, C.A.; Marchand, M. 1985. Taming of the floods: Environmental aspects of floodplain development in Africa. Leiden: Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Leiden..

FAQ (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1995. Irrigation in Africa in Figures. Report No. 7. [taly: FAQ.

~aulkner, R.D.; Lambert, R.A. (1991). The effect of irrigation on Dambo hydrology: A case study.

44 Journal of Hydrology 123:147161. Faulkner, R.D.; Lambert, R.A. (1991). The effect of irrigation on Dambo hydrology: A case study. Journal of Hydrology 123:147161.

Food Security Act,(1985) GoU (1995) National Environment Management Authority, Ministry of Natural Resources/Government of Uganda http://www.nemaug.org

GoU (2003) Guidelines for Mainstreaming Environment and Natural Resources Issues into the Poverty Eradication Action Plan ENR sub-comittee, Ministry of Water Lands and Environment, August (2003)

Hernaratna, H., A. (2000). Economics of crop diversification in paddy lands in low country wet zone in Sri Lanka

Impacts of darn construction on the floodplain of the Longone and Benue Rivers in Carneroon (Scholte et al. (2000)

Impacts on the Hadejia-Nguru wetland complex, Nigeria (Lemly et al. 2000).

IRRI.( 1984) Terminology for rice growing environment.

Maltby E, CP Immirzi. (1993) Carbon dynamics in peatlands and the other wetlands soils: regional and global perspectives. Chemosphere, 27: 999-1023.

Management i~uthority (NEMA), http://www.nemaug.org

Ministry of Agriculture, Animal industry and Fisheries, and Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Republic of Uganda (2000)

Ministiy of Lands and Urban Development (2008) National Land Use Policy: mordenisation :hrough planned land use, urbanisation, industrialisation and developed service sector

NIEAP commission on wetlands (1990)

45 NEMA (2007) Mainstreaming environmental issues into budget framework papers, national environment management authority, Kampala, Uganda, October (2007)

NEMA (2007) National State of Environment Report 2006/07, http ://www.nemaug. org

NEMA (2007) National State of Environment Report 2006/07, National Environment

NEMA (2007) National State of Environment Report 2006/07, National Environment

NEMA (2007) Training manual on application of national environmental laws and policies implementing real measures to poverty alleviation

NEMA (2008) Integrated Ecosystem Assessment of the Lake Kyoga Catchrnent, National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), http://www.nemaug.org

NEMA (2008) Integrated Ecosystem Assessment of the Lake Kyoga Catchment NEMA news letter ( 2001);

Parks Special Issue 5, 2, 6-14 IUCN Sri Lanka and the Central Environmental Authority (2006) National Wetland Directory of SriLanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Ramsar Convention Bureau (1997) The Ramsar Convention Manual: a Guide to the Convention on Wetlands (Ranisar, Iran, 1971), 2nd Edition, Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland Switzerland.

Ramsar Convention, (1971)

Senegal Delta (Drijver and Marchand 1985; Vinke 1996),

State of the environment Report for Uganda (2002)

Tanaka, A., Navasero, S.A., Gardia, C.V., Parao,F.T. and Ramirez, E. 1964. Growth habit of the rice plant in the tropics and its effects on nitrogen responses IRRI, Manila,Phillipines. 8Opp.

46 Tchamba, M.N.; Drijver, CA; Njiforti, H. 1995. The impact of flood reduction in and around the Wan National Parlq

The impacts of water diversions on wetlands in the Colorado River delta in Mexico Glenn et al. (2001)

Uganda National Water Development Report - 2005)

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Van Maren, M.J. 1994. Effects of hydrological changes on the vegetation in the Nanni Swamp. Land and Water International, 79:1820.

Wesselin& J.W.; Drijver~ CA. 1993. Wan Logone Flood Restoration Study. Identification of Options for Re-flooding. Report to IUCN, Delft Hydraulics/University of Lieden.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia at 8 pm 29 Sept 2011

Yoshinda, S. 1981. Fundamentals ofrice crop science. IRRI, Manila, Phillipiin 269pp.

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47 APPENDICES

Appendix I-Time schedule

ACTIVITY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER

Instruments design xx

Piloting xx

Data collection xx

Data analysis and xx interpretation

Writing draft of the xx dissertation

Writing of the final xx dissertation, binding and submission

48 APPENDIX II - Proposed budget

Item Cost (UgShs) Stationary 45,000 Communication 20,000 Transport 70,000 Typesetting, printing & binding the report so,ooo Meals 40,000 Miscellaneous 75,000 TOTAL 300,000

49 APPENDIX III- Instruments QUESTIONNAIRE FOR OUT GROWER FARMERS, AND LABOUR WORKERS AT THE SCHEME.

I am a student of Kampala International University pursuing Bachelor of Science in Environmental Management.

First, I would like to thank you in advance for taking the time to participate in this researcch. The purpose of this questionnaire is to aid me research in my project entitled “Rice paddy schemes and wetland degradation, Tilda rice scheme, Bugiri District, Ugand~i” as the title of my research proposal. The main aim of this research is to establish the extent of wetland degradation as far as rice paddy scheme agriculture is concerned, and this will be purposely to enlighten scholar about the factors, activities and effects that rice paddy schemes pose to the wetlands, and I hereby like to information will be kept with maximum confidentiality and only for proposal purposes, is now the right time?

INSTRUCTIONS Interviewer: please tick where applicable In case of others, please specify

SECTION A: RESPONDENTS DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION.

1. What is your age? Below 3Oyrs [ ] 30-4Oyrs [ ] Above 4Oyrs [ ]

2. Which of these describes your sex? Male [ ] Female [

3. Marital status Single [ j Married [ J Divorced [ ] Widowed [

4. How many children do you have? None [ ] 1-2 [ ] 3-5 [ J Above 5 [

5. Which one of these education levels most applies to you?

50 Primary school [ j Secondary certificate [ ] Diploma [ ] Bachelor’s Degree [ j post graduate degree + [ ] Any other specify

6. What do you do for an income? Unemployed [ J Farmer [ ] Civil servant [ ] factory farm [ j Others specify

7. Which department do you work in?

8. For how long have you worked in this place? Less than one year [ ] I-3years [ ] 3-5 years [ J 6-10 years [ ] More than 10 years [ j

SECTION B: RICE PADDY SCHEME FACTORS 9(i). What do you think are the rice paddy scheme factors that contribute to wetland degradation?

(ii). Is there a relationship between rice paddy schemes and wetland degradation? Give a justification for you answer. Close [1 Very close [ ] No relationship [ ]

(iii) Which of the factors in 9(i) is the most dominant in this place?

51 SECTION C: ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN RICE PADDY AGRICULTURE 13. (i) Are you aware of any rice paddy scheme agriculture activities (spontaneous awreness) ? Yes [ ] No [ j

(ii) Which are they’? Land preparation { ] planting [ ] transplanting [ j weeding [ ] water control [ ] harvesting [ ] post harvesting storage { ] marketing [ ] others specify

(iii) Do you think any of these activities impact negatively on wetlands? Yes[ ] No[] (iv) If yes, please state and explain

(v) What time of the year are these activities done in 13(u)?

(vi) How are they done in (v) above? Explain briefly

52 SECTION D: EFFECTS OF RICE PADDY AGRICULTURE l4~( i)What are the effects of rice paddy agriculture on wetlands?

(ii) How do they impact on wetlands in this area?

(iii) Are the impacts direct or indirect? Briefly explain your answer. Direct [ ] Indirect [ j

(iv)How do you think the problem of wetland degradation could be minimized?

Thank you for your time, God bless you.

53 APPENDIX TV-Map of Bugfri district howing Kibimba wetland

I ~ n” $ - •- ____

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~&~u>t ~fL.%0e\ 1 1 AM! NDALO ~ p. -. , -~%. tv-~.. ‘~ 41 A,--’ y~~~•.-~su E- ‘Mks - “~- MASABA’ ~‘~ c~ ;~., •.,‘

BLJKABOLI ,; •• ,, •*~ I • ‘i • ~ -~ r ~ ~ ~ç.~~;;5 4iin N ~ (“N — V’ “-nt’ •r: ~ .••~,.

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— • • ;• -.- 2* —- ‘ I •• -

‘it. ≤erRaiev4 — I ~ _,~ ~ •--‘• . .7 \ —~/_‘ <... ~ \ Baf / ----I- I I (Source: District Baselinel Needs As: sment Report September 2009)

54 APPENDIX 1V.. Map of Uganda howing Bugiri district d/ Sudan

DR Kongo Albertsee

Kenia

Edwar see

Viktonasee

Ruanda Tansania

(Source: ct B ‘e/ Needs -~. meat Report September 2009)

55