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Biomass Conversion Process and Progress on Cellulose-Based Electroactive Paper

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Biomass Conversion Process and Progress on Cellulose-Based Electroactive Paper Review of Cellulose Smart Material: Biomass Conversion Process and Progress on Cellulose-Based Electroactive Paper S.H. Hassan1,2, Lee Hwei Voon1*, T.S. Velayutham2*, Lindong Zhai3, Hyun Chan Kim3 and Jaehwan Kim3 1Nanotechnology and Catalysis Research Center (NanoCat), Institute of Postgraduate Studies, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2Low Dimensional Materials Research Center, Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 3Department of Mechanical Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, South Korea Received June 15, 2017; Accepted September 22, 2017 ABSTRACT Cellulose is a renewable biomass material and natural polymer which is abundantly available on Earth, and includes agricultural wastes, forestry residues, and woody materials. The excellent and smart characteristics of cellulose materials, such as lightweight, biocompatibility, biodegradability, high mechanical strength/stiffness and low thermal expansibility, have made cellulose a high- potential material for various industry applications. Cellulose has recently been discovered as a smart material in the electroactive polymers family which carries the name of cellulose-based electroactive paper (EAPap). The shear piezoelectricity in cellulose polymers is able to induce large displacement output, low actuation voltage, and low power consumption in the application of biomimetic sensors/actuators and electromechanical system. The present study provides an overview of biomass pretreatment from various lignocellulosic cellulose (LC) resources and nanocellulose production via TEMPO-mediated oxidation reaction, followed by the production of different types of EAPap versus its performance, and lastly the applications of EAPap in different areas and industries. Specifically, LC biomass consists mainly of cellulose having a small content of hemicelluloses and lignins which form a defensive inner structure against the degradation of plant cell wall. Thus, selective approaches are discussed to ensure proper extraction of cellulosic fibers from complex biomass for further minimization to nano-dimensions. In addition, a comprehensive review of the development of cellulose-based EAPap as well as fabrication, characterization, performance enhancement and applications of EAPap devices are discussed herein. KEYWORDS: Biomass pretreatment, nanocellulose, renewable materials, smart materials, actuators 1 INTRODUCTION use of renewable materials has been proven as a way to produce zero emissions [3, 4], which could reduce The drastic growth of global energy consumption, the negative impact on the environment [5]. For the depletion of fossil fuel reserves as well as climate past several years, researchers have been focusing on change have created a high demand for renewable lignocellulosic cellulose (LC), which is a renewable materials which are less harmful to the environment polymer, for various methods of alternative petro- in order to ensure the sustainability of our society and chemical production [3, 6]. The LC biomass is derived environment [1, 2]. The burning of fossil fuels has led from different sources such as agricultural residues, to severe environmental problems such as the emission forestry residues and energy crops [7, 8]. of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. In contrast, the Typically, the main composition of LC biomass is cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignins, which are bun- dled in a complex structure of cell walls [9–11]. The *Corresponding author: [email protected]; t_selvi@ chemical composition might vary for different species um.edu.my DOI: 10.7569/JRM.2017.634173 J. Renew. Mater., Vol. 6, No. 1, January 2018 © 2018 Scrivener Publishing LLC 1 Lee Hwei Voon et al.: Review of Cellulose Smart Material: Biomass Conversion Process and Progress DOI: 10.7569/JRM.2017.634173 Table 1 Chemical composition of lignocellulose in different is a long-chain polysaccharide made up of D-glucose resources [3, 8, 9, 12]. ((C6 H10 O5)n) which is connected by β-1-4-linkages [17]. Lignocellulosic Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Every monomer consists of three hydroxyl groups resources (%) (%) (%) which have the ability to form hydrogen bonds to sup- port cellulose with a highly ordered three-dimensional Agriculture residues crystal structure [10, 18]. In addition, the molecular Nut shells 25–30 25–30 30–40 aggregation of cellulose in plant cell wall contributes Corn stalks 48 29 16 to its unique polymer properties. This phenomenon Corn cobs 45 35 15 occurs primarily via intra- and intermolecular hydro- gen bonds between the cellulose chains, which lead to Sugar cane bagasse 42 25 20 parallel arrangement of cellulose chains organized in Wheat straw 30 50 15 a sheet-like structure. Cellulose fibers are stabilized by Rice straw 32.1 24 18 interchain OH–O hydrogen bonds to form flat chain Coffee pulp 35 46.3 18 sheets with weak CH–O hydrogen bonds between the Forest residue fibrils [19]. These good inherent properties of cellulose and low production cost have enabled it to be applied Hardwoods stems 40–55 24–40 18–25 in many areas [20]. Softwood stems 45–50 25–35 25–35 Nanocellulose is generally referred to as a cel- Energy crop lulose particle having at least one dimension in the Grasses 25–40 35–50 10–30 nanometer range (1–100 nm) [21, 22]. Nanocellulose exhibits numerous remarkable properties such as high Coastal Bermuda 25 35.7 6.4 mechanical strength, extensive surface area, unique grass optical properties, high crystallinity and stiffness [7, Switch grass 45 31.4 12.0 18]. There are three types of nanocellulose (refer to Figure 1), i.e., (i) microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) or nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC), (ii) nanocrystalline of plants (Table 1) [3, 8, 9, 12]. Cellulose is the major cellulose (NCC) or cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) and constituent among the other components which sup- (iii) bacterial cellulose (BC). Nanocellulose either in port the structural components of the cell walls [3, 9]. longer cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) or rod-like CNCs It has many prominent properties such as high modu- is known by a variety of names such as nanocrystals, lus and tensile strength, excellent mechanical strength, rods, whiskers, nanofibers or nanofibrils [19, 23]. The hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability and aspect ratios of NCC are much lower than MFC due to relative thermal-stability [13, 14]. This study reviews the presence of amorphous regions in the microfibrils. the latest advancements in cellulose and nanocellulose In contrast, the stiffness and modulus of NCC with technologies which consist of the preparation, prop- more crystalline regions are higher than those of MFC erties and applications of cellulose and nanocellulose, and BC fibrils with both crystalline and amorphous possible application as EAPap, followed by highlights structures [24]. of methodologies and readiness of EAPap. The devel- opment of EAPap is extensively elaborated, including 1.2 Conversion of Biomass via TEMPO- the fabrication, characterization and its applications such as piezoelectric EAPap, flying magic paper Mediated Oxidation and biodegradable microelectromechanical systems The diversity of cellulose and nanocellulose particles is (MEMS). highly dependent on its source and extraction process. Therefore, the choice of biomass pretreatment is a key 1.1 Cellulose and Nanocellulose Chemistry element of the biomass conversion process [25]. Since LC biomass is mainly composed of cellulose, hemicel- Cellulose is the most abundant source of raw materials luloses and lignins, it is mandatory for cellulose fibers with worldwide production of approximately 1.5 × to undergo a biomass pretreatment process in order 1012 tons per year [15, 16]. The agricultural and forestry to separate each constituent’s fiber components which residues are the highest contributors to this cellulose are connected in the cell wall structure [26]. According annual production. However, only less than 2% of the to Harmsen et al., the pretreatment process contributes cellulose is recovered industrially by various appli- to several advantages such as increased surface area cations in the furniture industry, paper production, and porosity of cellulose and it is also a cost-effective textile production, biocomposites, chemical industry technique to further depolymerize the cellulose into and pharmaceutical industry, among others. Cellulose other biochemicals [27]. 2 J. Renew. Mater., Vol. 6, No. 1, January 2018 © 2018 Scrivener Publishing LLC DOI: 10.7569/JRM.2017.634173 Lee Hwei Voon et al.: Review of Cellulose Smart Material: Biomass Conversion Process and Progress Nanocellulose family Microbrillated cellulose Nanocrystalline cellulose Bacterial nanocellulose (BC) (MFC) (NCC) Other names: Other names: Cellulose Other names: bacterial Microbrillated cellulose, nanocrystals, whiskers, cellulose, microbial cellulose, nanobrils, microbrils rod-like cellulose biocellulose nanobrillated cellulose microcrystals Sources: wood, hemp ax Sources: wood, sugar beet, Sources: gram-negative wheat straw, tunicin, potato tuber, hemp, ax bacteria species such cellulose from algae and Average size: 5-60 nm as alcaligenes, azotobacter, bacteria rhizobium and gram- Length: several Average size: 5-70nm micrometers positive bacteria such Length: 100-2500nm as sarcina venriculi. Synthesis process: (plant cellulose) mechanical process and 100nm to several Average size: 20-100nm aided by enzymatic or micrometers (tunicates, Length: dier for various chemical process such as algae
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