Journal of Book of Mormon Studies
Volume 15 Number 2 Article 4
7-31-2006
Across Arabia with Lehi and Sariah: “Truth Shall Spring out of the Earth”
Warren P. Aston
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BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Aston, Warren P. (2006) "Across Arabia with Lehi and Sariah: “Truth Shall Spring out of the Earth”," Journal of Book of Mormon Studies: Vol. 15 : No. 2 , Article 4. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms/vol15/iss2/4
This Feature Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Book of Mormon Studies by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Title Across Arabia with Lehi and Sariah: “Truth Shall Spring out of the Earth”
Author(s) Warren P. Aston
Reference Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 15/2 (2006): 8–25, 110–13.
ISSN 1065-9366 (print), 2168-3158 (online)
Abstract Aston draws on his own research in Yemen and Oman as well as on the work of other scholars and research- ers to explore two locations in the Book of Mormon account of Lehi’s journey through Arabia: Nahom and Bountiful. Preliminarily, Aston highlights Nephi’s own directional indications for each leg of the jour- ney, considers the relevance of existing trade routes, and suggests relative durations of stops along the way. He reviews the research on the tribal area associ- ated with Nahom, including the discovery of an altar dating to roughly 600 bc that bears the tribal name NHM—possibly the first archaeological evidence of the Book of Mormon’s authenticity. Aston uses twelve criteria taken from Nephi’s descriptions of the area to identify the fertile Khor Kharfot area at the mouth of Wadi Sayq as the most likely candidate for Bountiful. The discussion also speculates on the kind of ship that Nephi may have built and the plausibility of a trans- Pacific voyage. Taken together, the archaeological and geographical evidence of Nahom and Bountiful strongly argue for the historicity of the Book of Mormon account. WARREN P. ASTON
Desert scene south of Marib, Yemen. Photo by Justin Andrews. All maps and other photos courtesy Warren Aston. Volume 15, number 2, 2006
ACROSS ARABIA WITH LEHI AND SARIAH: housands of years ago the prophet Enoch saw that in the last days truth would be sent forth “out of the earth” T(Moses 7:62). Joseph of Egypt foretold that a latter-day seer bearing his name would bring forth the words of his • ~ • , . . posterity “from the dust” (see 2 Nephi 3:19–20), and Isaiah • ....,r ...-...... - ..-u .. later prophesied of a sealed book in the last days that - ~ • . . would “whisper out of the dust” (Isaiah 29:4). Finally, the • ;:.~ . • Psalmist predicted that “truth shall spring out of the earth” • (Psalm 85:11). Latter-day Saints, of course, see the coming forth of the Book of Mormon—a record literally taken from out of the earth—as the fulfillment of these prophecies concerning our day. Some 176 years later, however, we can --~ see that these predictions may not only refer to a single .~, - --.. "., event in 1830, as significant as that was, but may also allude " ." . • - to a broader revelatory process whereby other buried records as well as confirmation of their truth will also come • " from “out of the earth.” The incredible unfolding in recent "' -", " '" .. years of the first 18 chapters of the Book of Mormon as new ..• , - " finds have placed them in their real-world setting can be , " seen as exactly that. • • •
journal of Book of Mormon Studies
“ “ ACROSS ARABIA WITH LEHI AND SARIAH: TRUTH SHALL SPRING OUT OF THE EARTH Lehi and Sariah’s monumental journey from science or knowledge. We must never undervalue Jerusalem to Bountiful through the modern lands what was written by prophets under inspiration, nor underestimate the Lord’s ability to fulfill his word. of Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Oman While we can extrapolate and even speculate within takes place in a setting largely unfamiliar to those reasonable limits, scriptural certainties must still who live far from the mountains and deserts of govern all that we do. Finally, we must be careful that the intriguing details of the Book of Mormon’s Arabia.1 In recent decades, however, a small corps setting do not divert us from its message of the of Latter-day Saint researchers has begun explor- Messiah and from its unique ability to change lives. ing the world in which that journey was made. To 3. In reconstructing an ancient desert jour- ney, one must recognize that no amount of library date, these efforts have demonstrated quite clearly research is sufficient without actual exploration that the incidental details recorded by Nephi fit the in the locations involved. Parts of Arabia remain ancient world of the Near East accurately.2 A broad largely unexplored, so despite the stunning correla- tions that have emerged concerning Lehi’s story, consensus on the route taken, in addition to totally more exploratory work is needed. (As of this writ- plausible locations for almost all of the important ing, for example, no other Latter-day Saint has vis- ited every possible location for Nephi’s Bountiful or places in Nephi’s text, has resulted. My own explored the large region east of Nahom.) The set- research on Arabia (including several expeditions ting of that record must be brought to life through there) has shaped my views on what can be reason- competent research that does nothing to detract from its eternal, instructive truths. The Book of ably inferred from the scholarship that attempts to Mormon deserves no less. shed light on Lehi and Sariah’s journey. As recent investigations have produced encouraging results, On Directions, Trade Routes, Duration this article highlights findings that will likely influ- Most readers of the Book of Mormon have yet ence and guide future research. to fully appreciate Lehi and Sariah’s contributions as leaders of an epic migration that was quite pos- Guiding Principles sibly the longest made in premodern times. I will focus mostly on the journey’s later stages, and in The following three principles have governed particular the locations of Nahom and Bountiful. my research for over 20 years. First, however, I will discuss three issues relevant 1. “Proof” of the truthfulness of the Book of to the entire journey. Mormon will not result from scholarly pursuits. As Hugh Nibley stated years ago, “The evidence that Nephi’s Directions will prove or disprove the Book of Mormon does In the introduction to his record, Nephi tells not exist.”3 The aim of Book of Mormon research us that it also includes “the course of their travels.” is to shed light on its message by providing helpful And, in fact, he does record a directional statement perspectives and to establish plausibility for the set- for each of the five stages of land travel: ting and details of the account. Those who claim to have found empirical proof of the Book of Mormon From the Jerusalem area to the Valley of Lemuel: misunderstand not only doctrine but also the very he departed into the wilderness . . . by the bor- nature of archaeological and historical research, ders near the shore of the Red Sea; and . . . in which is highly tentative and subject to revision.4 the borders which are nearer the Red Sea Ultimate vindication or proof of the truthfulness of (1 Nephi 2:4–5) the Book of Mormon still comes to each reader only as Moroni outlined (see Moroni 10:3–5). From the Valley of Lemuel to Shazer: 2. What scripture clearly says must always take we traveled . . . [in] nearly a south-southeast precedence over other data from any branch of direction (1 Nephi 16:13)
10 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 From Shazer to the place where Nephi’s bow broke: was not merely southeast but nearly south-south- we did go forth again . . . following the same east; he could also differentiate a slight adjustment direction (1 Nephi 16:14) to that direction (“nearly the same course”) in the fourth stage. From the place where the bow broke to Nahom: Nephi’s ability to determine directions so accu- we did again . . . [travel] . . . nearly the same rately has profound implications when he writes course as in the beginning (1 Nephi 16:33) that the final stage was nearly“ eastward.” As he had earlier done, Nephi would surely have recorded a From Nahom to Bountiful: more specific direction if it were possible. As I will we did travel nearly eastward from that time later show, the site that best matches Nephi’s Boun- forth (1 Nephi 17:1) tiful lies in fact almost directly due east of Nahom, which is, as this article documents, a location now Since the first four statements are directionally attested archaeologically. correct for an overland journey from Jerusalem to the Red Sea and then down the western side of Arabia, it seems evident that Nephi’s directions mean the same as they do today. Note how Nephi was able to determine that the direction (to Shazer) Main trade routes in western Arabia in Lehi’s time.
journal of Book of Mormon Studies 11 Are the Ancient Trade Routes Relevant? due to the lack of water sources there were never any trade routes in an easterly direction from the The ancient trade routes (the so-called Frank- Nahom area. From Nahom the trade route veered incense Trail) that brought incense and other prod- southeast toward Marib and Timna, then east to ucts up from southern Arabia to the Mediterranean Shabwah; the Lehites would then have needed to region5 connected water sources but also followed backtrack northwest for hundreds of miles in a great desert terrain suitable for camel caravans, as Lehi’s arc to reach the fertile coast. Such a zigzag course party would also have done. runs counter to Nephi’s unambiguous directional Some early writers assumed that Lehi followed statement. the entire trade route in reverse, eventually arriving Accepting that this final stage would have at the incense-growing region on the south coast of been away from trade routes helps us understand Arabia, equated with Bountiful. While there is no what Nephi recorded. The Lord’s instruction not question that the Lehites must have used the trade to “make much fire” (1 Nephi 17:12) is highly sig- routes for a significant distance, the matter is not so nificant. In well-traveled areas the making of fire simple: to begin with, their time in the wilderness would not have presented a problem, and perhaps occupied eight years, a distance covered by trad- the group needed to conserve fuel resources. They ers in only three or four months,6 so clearly some now ate their meat raw (see 17:2), probably spiced extended stops were made by Lehi’s group. Delays as many Arabs still do; camel’s milk would have and difficulties from seeking tribal permissions and helped them cope with reduced availability of water. paying taxes are unlikely for a small family group All this paints a clear picture of survival in a region not carrying commercial goods; the Lehites prob- away from other people. This region today remains ably attracted scant attention on their journey.7 almost devoid of water, people, and roads. There would also seem little need for a Liahona if It is testament to the literal accuracy of Nephi’s all that was necessary was to follow an established record that it fits what is now known about this part trade route. of Arabia. From Nahom the stony Mahrah plateau Most importantly, however, as travel from Nahom leads “nearly eastward” between two deserts (the to Bountiful was “nearly eastward from that time Empty Quarter desert to the north and the Ramlat forth” (1 Nephi 17:1), trade routes are ruled out; Sabaʾtayn desert in the south) all the way to the
At Nahom, Lehi’s party turned abruptly eastward, a direction away from established trade routes.
12 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 Burial structure east of Nahom on the al-Mahrah plateau, showing typical terrain.
and Sariah “in the wil- derness” (1 Nephi 18:7), perhaps in the Valley of Lemuel. All this activ- ity, forming the bulk of Nephi’s desert account, and also a “great many more things” (1 Nephi 9:1), likely took a con- siderable period. On the morning of their depar- ture, Lehi received the Liahona, perhaps the reason that Nephi could determine directions so precisely.9 fertile coast. This totally feasible “nearly eastward” In contrast, the other stopping places en route pathway from Nahom is one of the most significant to Bountiful occupy only a few verses each in findings in recent years; no one knew that degree of Nephi’s account and may have been stops only to detail about Arabian geography even 100 years after rest and to replenish supplies. I see no good reason the Book of Mormon was given to the world. to suppose that the last stage of the journey, cross- ing the barren wastelands to Bountiful, was much How Long Was Each Stage of the Journey? longer in duration than the earlier stages. Despite its many difficulties, Nephi chose to record more posi- Finally, Nephi’s text suggests that much of the tive things than negative about it, stating that the eight years in the wilderness was spent in the Val- Lord provided the “means” for them to survive in ley of Lemuel, in ancient Midian, safely distant the desert (see 1 Nephi 17:2, 3). This help may have from Jerusalem. The valley seems to have been a included leading them to large pools of standing place for Lehi’s people to regroup and prepare more water, which remain for months after rare rainfall. fully for their journey after the hasty departure Nephi no doubt saw the parallels between from their home. From here, Nephi and his broth- the exodus of his family and the earlier exodus of ers returned twice to Jerusalem to obtain the brass Moses and the children of Israel.10 Later in the Book plates (and, as it turned out, Zoram) and Ishmael’s of Mormon, Alma, who had access to the Lehites’ family. Sacrifices were offered here,8 and it seems fuller account, reveals the reason that they did not clear that Lehi presented to his family their own progress in their desert journey at times: their lack genealogy, the teachings found on the brass plates, of faith. As with the Israelites, their afflictions are and his own revelations, including his vision of the specified as “hunger and thirst” (compare Alma tree of life. Solidifying the group, Nephi, his three 37:41–42; Exodus 16:3; 17:3) rather than physical brothers, and Zoram married the five daughters of bondage or servitude. This fits perfectly with what Ishmael (see 1 Nephi 16:7); Nephi also had at least we now know of the terrain they had to cover. two sisters who may have been married to the two sons of Ishmael who brought their “families” with “The Place Which Was Called Nahom” them (see 1 Nephi 7:6). The birth of children to all these couples would naturally soon follow their Nahom, the burial place of Ishmael, is the first marriages. Jacob and Joseph were also born to Lehi uniquely Book of Mormon location that can be
journal of Book of Mormon Studies 13 verified archaeologically. The wording of 1 Nephi The Nahom Altar Discoveries 16:34, “the place which was called Nahom,” makes it seem clear that Nahom was an already-existing, The late Ross T. Christensen of Brigham Young locally known name. It appears that Nephi, know- University was the first to suggest, in 1978, that ing that the group would never return to the Old Nephi’s Nahom might correspond to a place called World, was careful to place on record the name “Nehhm” on a 1763 map of Yemen.14 Beginning in 1984, my research in Yemen eventually confirmed of the burial place of Ishmael, his father-in-law. that this was a large tribal area centered roughly 25 Because it is unlikely that Ishmael conveniently miles northeast of the Yemeni capital Sanatemple site near Marib in Yemen uncovered a num-
Votive altars bearing the tribal name Nihm excavated near Marib, Yemen, date to Lehi’s time. The close-up highlights the inscription NHM (read right to left).
14 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 ber of inscribed limestone altars dedicated to three tombs built of roughly hewn limestone slabs spread local gods. The inscription carved into one of these over several ridges,24 dating as far back as 2900 bc.25 altars, which had already been dated to between At least two much smaller burial sites are also 700 and 600 bc, named its donor as Biʿathtar, the located within the modern tribal area of Nihm.26 grandson of Nawʿum the Nihmite (or from the With the altar discovery confirming the antiquity place of the tribe of Nihm).18 Latter-day Saint schol- of the name Nahom, these ancient burial areas now ars were alerted to the find in a 1999 Journal of have a special significance for Latter-day Saints: one Book of Mormon Studies article.19 is likely the actual burial place of Ishmael. On 12 September 2000, two colleagues, Lynn Hilton and Gregory Witt, and I identified a second “And We Called the Place Bountiful” altar bearing the name Nihm at the site. Standing about 26 inches tall, this second altar bore an iden- The sensitive reader can detect the enthusiasm tical inscription to the first. Two months later, with and relief captured in Nephi’s words as he wrote the cooperation of the German archaeological team of the group’s arrival at the shores of the Indian at the site, I returned to Yemen and made a com- Ocean after a journey of some 2,100 miles across plete examination of the temple complex and other Arabia (see 1 Nephi 17:6).27 For those in the party altars, one of which later proved to also have the with the faith to see that they had been divinely same inscription.20 led, the green vista they had arrived at was truly a The text, unchanged on all three altars, refers to place “prepared of the Lord” (17:5). They emerged into a place full of trees and other vegetation, some the ruler Yadaʿ-il, who is likely the prolific builder bearing edible fruit, a discovery that would impress Yadaʿ-il Dharih II (about 630 bc), or perhaps a later anyone after eight years of desert life; in fact “much ruler, Yadaʿ-il Bayyin II (about 580 bc).21 In either fruit” was the very reason Bountiful was so named case, this places the making of the altars to within (see 17:5, 6). decades of Lehi’s day. In addition, since Naw um ʿ Clearly, the group was also impressed with the was the grandfather of Bi athtar, the name Nihm ʿ vast ocean panorama before them. Nephi recorded itself must be at least two generations older still, a proper name for the ocean, Irreantum, meaning thus dating to about the seventh and eighth cen- “many waters” (1 Nephi 17:5) and for which a plau- turies bc. The altar discovery was reported (along sible South Arabian origin has recently been sug- with a photograph) in the February 2001 Ensign gested.28 Since 1830, however, critics of the Book of magazine and referred to in the April 2001 general Mormon have seen Nephi’s “Bountiful” as a par- conference.22 In his landmark 2002 work published ticularly easy target because of its claims of fruit by Oxford University Press, By the Hand of Mor- and timber. For over a century, Latter-day Saint mon: The American Scripture That Launched a New writers could only assign the location of Bountiful World Religion, scholar Terryl L. Givens provided to a vague “somewhere” in Arabia. the following assessment of the find: “Found in the very area where Nephi’s record locates Nahom, Nephi’s Criteria for Bountiful these altars may thus be said to constitute the first No attempt to locate Bountiful on today’s map actual archaeological evidence for the historicity can be made without first carefully evaluating the of the Book of Mormon.”23 The three altars pro- Book of Mormon text. First Nephi provides us with vide irrefutable evidence that the name NHM truly an unexpectedly detailed picture of the place, as the dates to before Lehi’s era in 600 bc, just as Nephi following 12 observations make clear. recorded. 1. “Nearly eastward” from Nahom. There is a clear directional link between the locations of Burial Sites in Nahom Bountiful and Nahom. Bountiful lay “nearly east- Given that Nahom was a place of burial, the ward” from Nahom (1 Nephi 17:1). Given Nephi’s 1936 discovery of the largest ancient burial site in ability to determine directions in the Old World all of Arabia close to the boundary of the modern accurately, we should expect Bountiful to be close Nihm tribe is obviously significant. This necropo- to the 16th degree north latitude, as we now know lis consists of thousands of circular aboveground Nahom is.
journal of Book of Mormon Studies 15 2. Accessible from the interior. Clearly, the ter- fire, some type of flint (see 7:11) seems to have been rain had to permit reasonable access from the inte- located near the ore source. rior deserts to the coast, something impossible at 11. Unpopulated. 1 Nephi 17 is full of clues some places along the Arabian coast. that Bountiful at that time likely had no resident 3. Surrounding fertility. Nephi’s mentions of population that could contribute tools and man- Bountiful (1 Nephi 17:5, 7) suggest that a wider area power to the shipbuilding process. For one thing, may have enjoyed notable fertility, in addition to specific revelation from God was required to show that of the initial encampment (see 17:6). Nephi where ore could be found (see 17:9–10); and 4. Sheltered location. Logically on the east coast Nephi expended great effort to fashion his own of Arabia, Bountiful offered an initial tent encamp- bellows, locate ore, smelt it, and manufacture the ment (see 1 Nephi 17:5–6) but also long-term shel- tools he would need. Such basic items would have ter. The site had to offer a suitable place like a shel- been easily obtained by anyone living in, or near tered bay for constructing and launching a sizable to, a populated seaport. In addition, Nephi would ship (see 18:8). not have had to rely on his brothers to assist him 5. Much fruit and wild honey. Bountiful was had local labor been available. Lehi could easily named for its “much fruit” and “wild honey” (see have been directed to bring sufficient wealth 1 Nephi 17:5, 6; 18:6), and perhaps also for its small from his estate in Jerusalem to purchase a ship game that could be hunted (see 18:6). It is likely had they been in a shipbuilding area. When the that Bountiful was uninhabited when Lehi’s party time came, the continually dissenting Laman and arrived there (see item 11); if so, this would require Lemuel seem to have left Bountiful readily enough that the fruit there was not cultivated but was grow- for surely their first open-sea voyage, suggesting ing wild. there was little there to entice them to remain and perhaps return to their beloved Jerusalem. It also 6. Shipbuilding timber. Enough timber of types seems unlikely that the Lord would have directed and sizes to permit building an oceangoing vessel Lehi’s group, at such a critical juncture in their was available (see 1 Nephi 18:1, 2) and seemingly journey, to settle where they would be exposed to at hand. the pagan beliefs then prevalent in Arabia. Rather, 7. Year-round freshwater. Year-round water is Bountiful may have been intended to keep them required for the abundant flora described and the apart from other people for that reason. However, group’s extended stay (carrying water would have the fact that all water sources in Arabia attract diverted significant time from the demanding labor people requires us to identify reasons why such of shipbuilding). an attractive place with abundant water would 8. Nearby mount. A mountain prominent remain uninhabited. enough to justify Nephi’s reference to it as “the 12. Ocean access. Coastal conditions had to mount” (1 Nephi 17:7; 18:3) must have been near allow access to the open ocean and to suitable enough to have allowed Nephi to “pray oft” (18:3). winds and currents (see 1 Nephi 18:8–9) to carry 9. Cliffs. The incident of Nephi’s brothers the vessel seaward, most probably east toward the attempting to take his life by throwing him into Pacific coast of the Americas, as Alma indicates the depths of the sea (see 1 Nephi 17:48) makes lit- (see Alma 22:28). Travel eastward across the Pacific tle sense without substantial cliffs overlooking the against its prevailing currents and winds is prob- ocean. Such cliffs, which typically have rocks at lematic, however. their base, would constitute a real danger, whereas Such a detailed and comprehensive descrip- a sand beach would pose little threat to a young tion of a locale is unique in the Book of Mormon man described as being “large in stature” (2:16) narrative. While it is true that, archaeologically, and “having . . . much strength” (4:31), regardless only inscriptions could definitively establish that of his swimming ability. a group lived at a specific location so long ago, 10. Ore and flint. Ore, from which metal could from a scriptural perspective the plausibility of be smelted to construct tools, was available nearby the many specific requirements for Bountiful that (see 1 Nephi 17:9–11, 16); and although it remains are embedded in Nephi’s record has been clearly possible that Nephi carried flint with him to make established. By describing in such precise detail a
16 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 Mouth of Wadi Sayq on the Arabian Sea. particular location in Arabia—together with the ing Nephi’s Bountiful remained unknown to the route to get there, specific directions, and even a outside world for over 160 years after the Book of place-name en route—Joseph Smith put his pro- Mormon was published. phetic credibility very much on the line. Could this young, untraveled farmer in rural New York The 1987–1992 Survey of the Eastern Coast of State in 1830 somehow have known from maps or Southern Arabia writings about a burial area named Nahom and a During my first visit to Oman in 1987, it soon fertile site on the coast of Arabia? When the hold- became apparent that the 60-mile-wide Salalah ings of libraries that Joseph Smith and his con- bay in southern Oman failed to fully match the temporaries could have accessed before 1830 are description of Bountiful preserved in 1 Nephi. examined, the answer is clearly no.29 Long after The only previous visit to Salalah by Latter-day the 1830 publication of the Book of Mormon, maps Saints had been the one-day visit in 1976 by Lynn of Arabia continued to show the eastern coastline and Hope Hilton, giving time enough to establish and interior as mostly unknown, unexplored ter- only that many of the required features were pres- ritory. Even quite modern maps misplace place- ent. However, I found that these elements did not names and ignore or distort major terrain features. come together in any one location in Salalah and Not one of the explorers of Arabia in past centu- that several essential requirements—such as fruit ries explored the Qamar coast west of Salalah.30 In and timber trees and a nearby mountain—were fact, the location in Arabia most closely mirror- altogether absent anywhere along the coast.
journal of Book of Mormon Studies 17 Typical verdant scene in the mountains west of Salalah.
Accordingly, the following year I began a program so far only) time the entire southeast coast of Ara- of systematic exploration of the entire eastern coast bia had been explored from Latter-day Saint per- of Yemen and southern Oman, soon discovering spectives, yielding objective data in relation to the that the Qamar Mountains west of Salalah had location of Nephi’s Bountiful.31 greater fertility than any other areas on the south- ern coast of Arabia. Climate and Coastline Change Since Lehi’s Day When in April 1992 the last segment of this A question that naturally arises is whether essential survey was completed, it was the first (and the climate in this part of the world has changed
18 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 appreciably over the 2,600 years since Nephi wrote gone significant climatic and topographical changes his account. Also, could the coast be different now over the past two millennia (for which there is no in ways that would mask the location of Bountiful? evidence) or (2) Nephi’s account is not based on his- The short answer to both questions is no. Despite torical reality but is fictitious. reduced rainfall, there has been no significant cli- Nephi recorded a wealth of detail indicating mate change during the last two millennia, and the that he was an eyewitness to the events and places ruins of coastal buildings firmly dated more than recorded. It was not until completion of the coastal 2,000 years ago assure us that both coastline and survey in 1992, however, that Latter-day Saints sea levels have not changed appreciably since then. knew of a place on the Arabian coast that could be At this point it is interesting to reflect on the considered a likely candidate for Bountiful. Hidden situation had exploration of the Arabian coast not from the outside world and largely unknown even revealed a place matching Nephi’s description of within Oman today, this location meets all the cri- Bountiful. Our only choice would have been to con- teria unusually well. It matches Nephi’s description clude that either (1) the peninsula coast has under- detail for detail.
Wadi Sayq winds eastward through mountains toward the ocean.
journal of Book of Mormon Studies 19 Seen here at sunset and low tide, the prominent mountain on the west side of the bay at Khor Kharfot has a plateau near its base with 120-foot cliffs at water’s edge.
Making a Match in fairly recent times, Kharfot was an ideal location to build a ship. This remarkable place is Khor Kharfot (“Fort Towering over the west side of the bay is the Inlet”), the most naturally fertile location on the obvious candidate for the “mount” where Nephi Arabian coast, with abundant springs, timber retired often to pray. A small plateau at its base trees up to 40 feet in circumference, and vegeta- offers a sheltered encampment and 120-foot cliffs, tion extending over several miles. Kharfot is the providing an eminently suitable place to dispose of coastal mouth of Wadi Sayq (“River Valley”), a val- a troublesome younger brother. ley more than 16 miles long leading through the Nephi, whose skills included metalworking,33 mountains from the interior desert.32 Wild figs, an was familiar with gold, silver, and copper (he men- important staple in Lehi’s world, are prolific, along tions their presence in the New World; see 1 Nephi with tamarinds, dates, wild honey, and a variety of 18:25); yet he says that only “ore” was smelted at edible nuts, berries, vegetables, herbs, and roots. In Bountiful (see 17:16). Although rare, exposed sur- addition to small game and birds, the plentiful sea face iron deposits recently located near Wadi Sayq life may hold the key to understanding how Lehi’s by BYU geologists could have yielded adequate ore group, with its limited manpower, could derive for making Nephi’s tools.34 Just a few miles inland sufficient protein from the environment without of Kharfot, huge quantities of chert, a form of flint, diverting substantial time and energy to hunting. A lie exposed in limestone seams and nodules over sheltered sea inlet until it was closed by a sand bar several miles. Several areas of ruins are evident,
20 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 with the oldest found at the base of the elevated times in official Church materials.40 In 1995 Nigel mountain on the west side of the bay. Such lim- Groom, the leading authority on the incense trade ited remains make it seem likely that the place was in early Arabia, published a major paper referring uninhabited when the Lehites arrived there, thus to the importance of the discovery of Kharfot and explaining why Nephi needed revelation for such the still-emerging picture of early eastern Arabia as basic items as tools.35 follows: When considered together, all these factors The recent discovery of ancient sites in the vi- reveal a location that is completely consistent with cinity of Harfut (Kharfot) by Aston and Costa, the events that Nephi describes, conforming to now being investigated by a Brigham Young every detail found in the scriptural account. No University team . . . raises new problems of other coastal location has all the features that Nephi identifying sites in Dhofar with places men- so clearly described. tioned in the early sources.41
Exploring Khor Kharfot Periodic fieldwork at the site by BYU geolo- gists, botanists, archaeologists, and historians, With the coastal survey completed, I led two sometimes working with Omani colleagues, has FARMS- and BYU-sponsored expedition teams to continued since. The identification of previously Kharfot in 1993. Personnel included FARMS presi- unknown surface iron deposits near Kharfot, mak- dent Noel B. Reynolds, geologist William Christian- ing Nephi’s account even more credible, has been sen, and noted Italian archaeologist Paolo M. Costa. one of the most significant findings resulting from Dr. Costa later presented a paper about the site at this fieldwork.42 Research is also under way with the prestigious annual Seminar for Arabian Studies phytoliths (fossilized pollens) in an effort to identify held in London in July 1993, noting Kharfot’s abun- plant species at the site dating back to Lehi’s day.43 dant flora and offering a preliminary dating for the While fieldwork at the Nahom and Bountiful sites human traces.36 Data from those expeditions also will continue for many years to come, the body of allowed Latter-day Saint researchers to begin mov- data about both places means that their location is ing beyond the cautious stance that was prudent in no longer merely conjectural. In the case of Nahom, the past regarding specific Book of Mormon locales. the location is substantiated by the most powerful Late in 1993, for example, FARMS reported the first evidence of all—inscriptional; at Kharfot, the weight expeditions to Kharfot as follows: of support rests upon the way that this pristine Khor Kharfot and its environs have all the place uniquely meets an extended, very detailed features mentioned in the Book of Mormon in scriptural paradigm. connection with Old World Bountiful. It has Significantly, several very early Maya accounts no features that would conflict with the Book from Guatemala speak of the traditional place of of Mormon account. A survey of alternative their ancestors’ departure as a place of abundance, sites in the Arabian Peninsula has turned up near “Babylonia” across the ocean. Some of these no others that come close to fitting the criteria writings go further and also describe the Old World for Bountiful so well. On this analysis, Khor departure point as a “ravine” and a place of reeds, a Kharfot emerges as the most probable site for quite specific description that closely matches Khor Lehi’s Bountiful.37 Kharfot.44 Perhaps in these writings elements of Lehi and Sariah’s epic journey are preserved. A 2002 assessment of Kharfot stated, “There now exists convincing evidence that an obscure “Towards the Promised Land” location at the extreme western end of Oman’s Dho- far coast, Khor Kharfot, is the probable location of We now turn to the resources and possibilities Nephi’s Bountiful.”38 Because Kharfot depicts so that awaited Lehi’s group at Bountiful. clearly what Nephi described, a photograph of the site illustrated the 1992 Encyclopedia of Mormonism Nephi’s Ship entry on “First Book of Nephi”39 and continues to The long trek from Jerusalem to Nahom took be used to portray the Old World Bountiful, some- Nephi past several places where ships could be
journal of Book of Mormon Studies 21 observed, includ- ing Ezion-Geber, the major Red Sea port of his day. However, a vessel capable of car- rying a group from Arabia to the Ameri- cas clearly requires better design and workmanship than one making brief fish- ing forays or regional trading runs. Thus the Lord told Nephi that he would be shown how to construct it (see 1 Nephi 17:8), and Nephi recorded that the Lord did “show me from time to time” (18:1) how to proceed. Conjectural raft design for Nephi’s ship. Drawing by Chad D. Aston. Nephi neither worked the timbers nor built his ship “after the manner of men” (18:2), and his choice of the phrase curious workmanship (18:1) implies that he was building we suppose, their journey was eastward, a mini- something other than the ships of his day. mum of 17,000 miles of ocean voyaging lay ahead of Regarding the kind of ship Nephi built, the text them (see 18:12, 21–22), a journey of at least a year, offers only three hints. First, the fact that the people possibly two. Stops en route for supplies are quite went “down into” the ship (1 Nephi 18:5, 6 [twice], possible, but rainwater, fishing, and stored supplies 8) suggests a decked vessel, as does the mention may have provided the basis for their diet. of dancing on board (see 18:9). Second, sails and at least one mast were involved since the ship was Historical Seafaring in Oman “driven forth before the wind” (18:8, 9) and “sailed Centuries before Lehi’s day, Oman was at again” (18:22). Third, some type of rudder system the forefront of Arab sea exploration and trade, was used, because after binding him, Nephi’s angry building ships that operated to Africa, India, and brothers “knew not whither they should steer the China.46 Historians have only recently recognized ship” (18:13). As to the size of the ship, one estimate this, a fact that someone in 1830 could not have is that a 60-foot ship would be required; however, a appreciated.47 smaller, more utilitarian ship seems likely.45 Did Nephi Build a Raft? The Period of Construction With the Iron Age technology available to With the limited manpower available to Lehi’s Nephi, his options for building an oceangoing ves- group and the need to also attend to domestic sel were limited. If indeed a hulled vessel, it was concerns at Bountiful, a likely minimum period likely a lashed (“sewn”) ship rather than a nailed required for constructing the ship is two years. It one. Great skill is required to ensure that the may well have taken longer. Nephi records a period timbers are shaped precisely before being lashed of gathering “much fruits and meat from the wil- together, a method taking two or three times longer derness, and honey in abundance, and provisions” than using nails. Another design possibility is a raft (1 Nephi 18:6, 8). The account makes it seem fairly of some sort. Because it required much more tim- certain that no outsiders joined the voyagers. If, as ber than other ship styles, the raft concept did not
22 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 develop in Arabia. For anyone building at Kharfot, Mormon origins and the practical realities of life at however—and, very significantly, only at Khar- sea.49 Since then, better-known seamen like Thor fot—availability of timber was not an issue, and a Heyerdahl have demonstrated that the oceans were raft design, more than any other, would have been highways linking different civilizations, rather than totally unfamiliar (and thus not “after the manner barriers separating them. The closest modern paral- of men,” 1 Nephi 18:2) to anyone in Lehi’s party. lel to the Lehite voyage, however, was undoubtedly Building a large oceangoing raft would still have the seven-month voyage from northern Oman to been a significant project, but one more closely China by the Irish writer Tim Severin in 1980–81 matched to the materials and labor resources at in an 80-foot sewn ship, the Sohar, built by 30 men hand. Additionally, although equipped with sails without using a single nail.50 and rudder like a conventional ship, a raft design While the account of the Sohar’s voyage to China offers greatly improved stability and safety at sea. is most interesting and instructive, we should exer- With a broad keel of several layers of securely cise caution before drawing too many conclusions. lashed logs, taking on water and sinking would For one thing, lacking a site prepared by the Lord, never have been a concern, and only an unusually Severin was forced to use timber imported some powerful storm could have presented any dan- 1,300 miles from India, the practice in northern ger. A raft also offers greater deck space (perhaps Oman for thousands of years. Nephi, in southern using multiple decks) for storage, for the growing Oman, would not have needed to do the same— of small gardens, and for private quarters for each the timber trees at Kharfot are very suitable for family—all significant factors that were exploited shipbuilding.51 by other cultures that used rafts. Finally, the shal- low draft of a raft would more easily allow stops and require less skill in maneuvering than would a regular ship, perhaps explaining why there is no mention in Nephi’s record of any predeparture test sailing. Archaeologist P. J. Capelotti, referring to the 5,000-mile Kon Tiki raft voyage, makes a general point about the merits of rafts that will strike Lat- ter-day Saint readers as significant: By its very structure, a raft is a floating ware- house. They were therefore the perfect vessel to carry the contents of a culture across an ocean. They are not fast, but they are virtually inde- structible. If a conventional sailboat gets a small hole in its hull, it sinks. By contrast, a balsa- wood raft can lose two thirds of its hull and still keep its crew and twenty tons of cargo afloat.58 While it may require an adjustment to the cul- tural assumptions of most Latter-day Saints, a raft design not only meets the scriptural requirements of Nephi’s “ship,” but seems to be the optimal and most feasible structure that could have been con- structed at the unique site of Bountiful. Modern Parallels to Lehi’s Voyage Much can be learned about Lehi’s sea voyage Constructing the “sewn” ship Sohar entailed lashing planks to the from more recent voyages. One Latter-day Saint hull (top) and oiling the hull (bottom). Photos by Bruce Foster/ Severin Archive. attempt in the 1950s focused attention on Book of
journal of Book of Mormon Studies 23 Long ridiculed by establishment science, the rent (the “doldrums”) for up to a year or more, thus so-called diffusionist view—captured so matter- allowing travel in an easterly direction across the of-factly in the Book of Mormon accounts of the Pacific.54 Once again, science and time vindicate the Jaredite, Lehite, and Mulekite sea voyages—is now prophetic writings by demonstrating their total plau- supported by an overwhelming body of evidence, sibility. How appropriate, then, that the very means explicable only by accepting that ocean voyaging that likely allowed Lehi to sail east to the New World, has taken place globally for thousands of years.52 carrying with him the religion of the Christ to come, is itself named after the Son of God! Did Nephi Require Local Assistance? Bountiful was far more than merely a suitable Using Nephi’s Criteria to Evaluate Two port; it was also a place “prepared of the Lord” Candidates for Bountiful (1 Nephi 17:5). This suggests it had all the resources needed by the prophet-led group, including the After decades of research, only two specific guidance needed to construct a ship. Nephi plainly locations have been seriously proposed for the Old states that he was instructed of the Lord “from World Bountiful—Khor Rori, an ancient port east time to time” (see 18:1, 3) rather than instructed to of Salalah involved in the incense trade, and Khor visit with an experienced local shipbuilder, as some Kharfot, farther west near the Yemen border. have speculated. Moreover, Nephi emphasizes three Both sites are close to being “eastward” from times that his ship was not built after “the manner Nahom. Both were originally sheltered inlets of men” (18:2). Even if experienced shipbuilders accessible from the interior, and freshwater, cliffs, had been available to instruct him, they could only and an ore source are common to both. They have shared information about what they knew, vary considerably, however, for the remaining six not the long-distance craft Nephi required. To me, criteria, as shown below. On this analysis Khor Nephi’s unequivocal statements effectively rule out Kharfot emerges as the better match for Nephi’s assistance from others outside the group; it is also Bountiful. very unlikely that there was even a deepwater port operating in southern Oman in Lehi’s day.53 The 1 Nephi Criteria Khor Rori Khor Kharfot whole sense of Nephi’s account is that revelation guided the shipbuilding and that the timber and Surrounding other items needed were on hand, as they are today. area likely fer- no yes Whether viewed from scriptural or historical per- tile (17:5–7) spectives, there is simply no need to claim that the resources found at Bountiful and the Lord’s tutor- Much fruit and ing were somehow not enough for Nephi. wild honey no yes (17:5–6; 18:6) El Niño and the Sea Voyage to the New World As noted earlier, continuing across the Pacific Shipbuilding in an easterly direction is difficult in the extreme timber on hand no yes because the winds and surface currents move in (18:1–2) a westerly direction—exactly opposite of what the Lehites needed to reach America. In recent years, A nearby however, science has begun to understand a phe- “mount” (17:7; no yes nomenon known as the ENSO effect. The acro- 18:3) nym consists of El Niño (Spanish for “the [Christ] Flint deposits Child”)—so called because the changed weather none known yes (17:9–11, 16) patterns commonly reach the Americas about Christmastime—and southern oscillation, since these Unpopulated changes commence in the southern Pacific Ocean. area (17:5–6, no yes An El Niño event expands the normally narrow 8–11; 18:1–2, 6) and unreliable east-moving equatorial countercur-
24 Volume 15, number 2, 2006 Sunset at Wadi Sayq/Khor Kharfot.
Sacred Text, Serious History This article has summarized compelling reasons to take the Book of Mormon seriously as history. Somewhere on the shores of the Indian Ocean, The congruence of so many logical, historical, and Lehi and Sariah’s long and difficult crossing of Ara- geographical specifics, including a uniquely fertile bia ended. Today we can stand on the beach at Khor coast nearly eastward from a 600 bc Nahom, argues Kharfot and gaze inland at trees and other green- strongly that the Book of Mormon is no less than its ery laced with freshwater streams. The air is full of translator claimed for it. Henceforth, only the unin- insects, birds, and the sound of waves breaking on formed can claim that it lacks historical and archae- the beach. The bulky mountain on the western side ological support. The discovery of ancient altars, of the bay looms even more prominently against tombs, and the geographical realities discussed the purple twilight following sunset. Perhaps the in this article—coming forth literally “out of the New World saga that occupies most of the Book of earth”—is confirming and vindicating the record of Mormon began long ago at this very location when Joseph in unprecedented ways in our own day. ! a wooden ship pushed out into the vastness of the ocean. In such a place Nephi’s spare yet illuminat- ing account comes to life as never before.
journal of Book of Mormon Studies 25 e n d n o t e s
In Search of Lehi’s Trail—30 5. See George D. Potter, “A New Deseret Book, 1994), 5–25 illustrate how completely Years Later Candidate in Arabia for the and endnotes 23–26. This Book of Mormon studies has Lynn M. Hilton ‘Valley of Lemuel,’” JBMS 8/1 book was preceded by their expanded into all areas of (1999): 54–63, and the photo study “The Search for Nahom scholarly inquiry and increas- 1. Lynn M. and Hope A. Hilton, of the canyon mouth on the and the End of Lehi’s Trail ingly draws upon appropriate In Search of Lehi’s Trail (Salt Red Sea inside the back cover in Southern Arabia,” FARMS secular studies. Lake City: Deseret Book, of the same issue. Students of Preliminary Report (Provo, 2. Those whose roots lie in Near 1976). This book grew out of Arabia have concluded that UT: FARMS, 1988). Eastern rather than Western a discovery trip sponsored there are no perennial streams 11. See Nigel Groom, Frankin- culture have an immediate by the Ensign magazine, and in the peninsula; see Rushdi cense and Myrrh: A Study of and instinctive appreciation before going, we were set Said’s statement “The Red the Arabian Incense Trade of the details recorded by apart by a General Author- Sea . . . is left without a single (London: Longman, 1981), Nephi. See, for example, the ity for the task. Our effort flowing river. In this respect 169–70, 181, 183–84. response by an Arab member resulted in the book that was the Red Sea is unique and 12. See Brown and Johnson, Jour- of the LDS Church, Ehab based on our two articles without rival,” in The River ney of Faith: From Jerusalem Abunuwara, “Into the Desert: titled “In Search of Lehi’s Nile: Geology, Hydrology and to the Promised Land, 152–63. An Arab View of the Book of Trail,” Ensign, September and Utilization (New York: Per- 13. See Brown, “New Light from Mormon,” JBMS 11/1 (2002): October 1976, 32–54 and 34– gamon Press, 1993), 7. George Arabia on Lehi’s Trail,” 89; 60–65. 63, respectively. Since then, Rentz also writes that “Arabia S. Kent Brown, “Nahom and 3. Hugh Nibley, Since Cumo- we have published our further contains no large perennial the ‘Eastward’ Turn,” JBMS rah, ed. John W. Welch (Salt research in Discovering Lehi: rivers” (“Djazīrat, al-ʿArab,” 12/1 (2003): 111–12; and Pot- Lake City: Deseret Book and New Evidence of Lehi and Encyclopaedia of Islam ter and Wellington, Lehi in FARMS, 1988), xiv. Nephi in Arabia (Springville, [Leiden: Brill, 1960–], 1:537. the Wilderness, 107–20. 4. See John W. Welch’s analysis UT: Cedar Fort, 1996). 6. David R. Seely has shown that in “The Power of Evidence in 2. For discussions of possible the “three days” (1 Nephi 2:6) Across Arabia with Lehi and the Nurturing of Faith,” in Sariah: “Truth Shall Spring out routes, consult Hilton, “In was a distance required if a Parry, Peterson, and Welch, Search of Lehi’s Trail,” Sep- of the Earth” person wanted to offer sacri- Echoes and Evidences, 17–53. tember, 38; October, 36–37; Warren P. Aston fice away from the Jerusalem On the limitations of archae- D. Kelly Ogden, “Answering temple; see his “Lehi’s Altar ology, see John E. Clark, head the Lord’s Call (1 Nephi 1–7),” Much of the material for this and Sacrifice in the Wilder- of the New World Archaeo- in Studies in Scripture, Volume article is taken from my book Lehi ness,” JBMS 10/1 (2001): logical Foundation, “Archae- Seven: 1 Nephi to Alma 29, in Arabia: The Old World Setting 62–69. ology, Relics, and Book of ed. Kent P. Jackson (Salt Lake of the Book of Mormon (forthcom- 7. See S. Kent Brown, “‘The Mormon Belief,” JBMS 14/2 City: Deseret Book, 1987), ing, 2007). Place That Was Called (2005): 38–49. 17–33, especially 23; S. Kent 1. The foundational works in Nahom’: New Light from 5. The most comprehensive study Brown, “New Light from Ara- Old World Book of Mormon Ancient Yemen,” JBMS 8/1 of the ancient incense trade bia on Lehi’s Trail,” in Echoes studies are Hugh Nibley’s (1999): 66–68; and Warren P. remains Nigel Groom, Frank- and Evidences of the Book Lehi in the Desert; The World of Mormon, ed. Donald W. Aston, “Newly Found Altars of the Jaredites; There Were incense and Myrrh: A Study Parry, Daniel C. Peterson, and from Nahom,” JBMS 10/2 Jaredites, ed. John W. Welch, of the Arabian Incense Trade John W. Welch (Provo, UT: (2001): 56–61. Darrell L. Matthews, and (London: Longman, 1981). FARMS, 2002), 55–125, espe- 8. Terryl L. Givens, By the Hand Stephen R. Callister (Salt 6. Depending on the terrain, cially 56–60, 99–100; S. Kent of Mormon: The American Lake City: Deseret Book the season, the breed and Brown, Voices from the Dust: Scripture That Launched a and FARMS, 1988); and An maturity of the animal, and Book of Mormon Insights New World Religion (New Approach to the Book of Mor- the loads carried, camels can (American Fork, UT: Cove York: Oxford University mon, ed. John W. Welch (Salt cover 20–25 miles a day. See nant, 2004), 3; S. Kent Brown Press, 2002), 120. Lake City: Deseret Book and Gus W. Van Beek, “The Rise and Peter Johnson, eds., Jour- 9. Consult Ross T. Christensen, FARMS, 1988). Of immense and Fall of Arabia Felix,” Sci- ney of Faith: From Jerusalem “The Place Called Nahom,” value also are Robert F. entific American 41, Decem- to the Promised Land (Provo, Ensign, August 1978, 73. Smith, “Book of Mormon ber 1969, 36–47. UT: Neal A. Maxwell Institute The map appears in Carsten Event Structure: The Ancient 7. On the need for Lehi to pay for Religious Scholarship, Niebuhr, Reisebeschreibung Near East,” JBMS 5/2 (1996): levies and seek tribal permis- 2006) and the Journey of Faith nach Arabien und den 98–147, especially his section sion en route, see Emanuel DVD (Provo, UT: Maxwell umliegenden Ländern, 3 vols. “The Arabian Nexus,” which Marx, “Back to the Problem Institute, 2006). (Copenhagen: Möller, 1774, places Lehi’s life in its Near of Tribe,” American Anthro- 3. Concerning “borders” as 1778, and 1837, reprint: Graz: Eastern context; and John W. pologist 81/1 (1979): 124, high- mountains, consult Alma 8:3; Akademische Druck, 1968), Welch, David Rolph Seely, lighting reasons why a small, 21:1; Brown, “New Light from 1:4–5. On whether Joseph and Jo Ann H. Seely, eds., noncommercial family group Arabia on Lehi’s Trail,” 77–79; Smith could have known this Glimpses of Lehi’s Jerusalem would have presented little George D. Potter and Richard name from any published (Provo, UT: FARMS, 2004). threat to local tribes, who Wellington, Lehi in the Wil- sources in his day, see Brown, Other publications, such as often allowed travelers the use derness: 81 New, Documented “New Light from Arabia on Donald W. Parry, Daniel C. of water and pasture. Along- Evidences That the Book of Lehi’s Trail,” 69–76. Peterson, and John W. Welch, side caravans of hundreds or Mormon Is a True History 10. Warren P. Aston and Michaela eds., Echoes and Evidences of even thousands of camels, the (Springville, UT: Cedar Fort, Knoth Aston, In the Footsteps the Book of Mormon (Provo, Lehites would have seemed 2003), 25. of Lehi: New Evidence for UT: FARMS, 2002) and the insignificant. 4. Hilton, In Search of Lehi’s Lehi’s Journey across Arabia publication of the Journal 8. For a discussion of the types Trail, 62–74. to Bountiful (Salt Lake City: of Book of Mormon Studies, of sacrifices offered, see
110 volume 15, number 2, 2006 S. Kent Brown, From Jerusa- was the sole survivor) was Reine de Saba (Paris: Flam- tombs are still being exca- lem to Zarahemla: Literary initiated in part by a desire marian, 1997), 144. vated at this time. A useful and Historical Studies of the to complete the gaps on an 19. Reported by S. Kent Brown, summary is contained in Iris Book of Mormon (Provo, UT: earlier map, specifically “‘The Place Which Was Gerlach, “Edifices funeraires BYU Religious Studies Center, J. B. d’Anville’s Premier Partie Called Nahom’: New Light au royaume de Saba,” Dossiers 1998), 1–8; and David Rolph de la Carte d’Asie. This map from Ancient Yemen,” JBMS d’Archeologie 263 (May 2001): Seely, “Lehi’s Altar and Sacri- also showed “NEHEM” and 8/1 (1999): 66–68. 50–53. For preliminary data fice in the Wilderness,” JBMS was published in Paris in 20. Warren P. Aston, “Newly on the Shibam al-Ghiras buri- 10/1 (2001): 62–69. 1751. None of these works, Found Altars from Nahom,” als, see Jean François Breton, 9. For a discussion of a simple nor Robert Heron’s transla- JBMS 10/2 (2001): 56–61, Arabia Felix from the Time engineering principle pos- tion of Carsten Niebuhr’s is the fullest treatment of of the Queen of Sheba: Eighth sibly utilized in the Liahona, Travels through Arabia and the altar find published to Century bc to First Century ad, see Robert L. Bunker, “The Other Countries in the East date. Burkhard Vogt et al., trans. Albert LaFarge (Notre Design of the Liahona and the (Edinburgh: R. Morison and “Arsh Bilqis”—The Temple of Dame, IN: University of Notre Purpose of the Second Spin- Son, 1792), which includes a Almaqah of Bar journal of Book of Mormon Studies 111 30. For examples showing how mon Scholar (Bountiful, UT: 40. See, for example, Book of (Oakland: Kolob Book, 1950), the Qamar coast has remained Horizon, 1999). After weigh- Mormon: Seminary Student 81, 84, first noted that the pre- unvisited, see J. Theodore ing the evidence, Tvedtnes Study Guide (Salt Lake City: Classic Nuahatl (central Mexi- Bent, “Exploration of the concludes that the most likely Church Education System, can) term Tulan—literally Frankincense Country, South- occupation for Nephi was that 2000), 28; and John W. Welch, “place of reeds”—included the ern Arabia,” Geographical of “metalworker.” ed., Reexploring the Book concept of abundance. Hunter Journal 6/2 (9 August 1895); 34. Although some iron exists, of Mormon (Salt Lake City: also authored an article titled Wilfred Thesiger’s description copper was the primary metal Deseret Book, 1992), 52. The “Book of Mormon Evidences” of travel circa 1945–47 on the mined in Oman anciently. findings regarding Nahom containing the same mate- al-Mahrah plateau, recounted See G. Goettler, N. Firth, and and Bountiful were referenced rial, which appeared in the in Arabian Sands (London: C. Huston, “A Preliminary in an article that offered the Improvement Era (December Penguin, 1991), 181–201; and Discussion of Ancient Mining general membership of the 1954, 914). The original Wendell Phillips, Unknown in the Sultanate of Oman,” Church the most comprehen- reference to the term Tulan Oman (London: Longman, Journal of Oman Studies 2 sive summary yet of current is taken from Martinez Her- 1966), 206. For discussion of (1976): 43–56. This fact makes Book of Mormon research; see nandez, Diccionario de Motu exploration only four decades the recent discovery of two Daniel C. Peterson, “Mount- (Merida, Yucatan, 1930), 824. ago and as recently as 1995, iron ore sites in Dhofar, one ing Evidence for the Book of The texts referring to see Nicholas Clapp, The Road of them near Wadi Sayq, so Mormon,” Ensign, January the legendary place of origin to Ubar (London: Souvenir significant. See the study by 2000, 18–24. Photography include the translation by Press, 1998). geologist Wm. Revell Phillips, of Kharfot continues to be Miguel Angel Asturios and 31. Reported in Warren P. Aston “Metals of the Book of Mor- used to the present: see, for J. M. Gonzalez de Mendoza, and Michaela Knoth Aston, In mon” JBMS 9/2 (2000): 36–41. example, Welch, Seely, and Anales de los Xahil de los the Footsteps of Lehi (Salt Lake 35. Paolo M. Costa, in “Khawr Seely, Glimpses of Lehi’s Jeru- Indios Cakchiqueles (Guate- City: Deseret Book, 1994), Kharfut, Dhofar: A pre- salem, 77, and the presenta- mala City: National Press, 37–43; also available in the liminary assessment of the tion to BYU faculty and staff 1934), 10–11; and Delia Goetz LDS Library 2006 (LDS Media archaeological remains,” by Noel B. Reynolds in March and Sylvanus G. Morley’s and Deseret Book, 2006). Proceedings of the Seminar 2004, as reported in Insights translation from Adrián Reci- 32. Years before Latter-day Saint for Arabian Studies 24 (1994): 24/2 (2002). Fall 2005 saw nos, Popol Vuh: The Sacred scholars became aware of the 27–33 (presented July 1993). the release of the BYU and Book of the Ancient Quiche place, several scholars had A summary of the extent of FARMS documentary film Maya (Norman, OK: Univer- drawn attention to the unique Iron Age settlement in early Journey of Faith. Despite the sity of Oklahoma Press, 1972). fertility of the Khor Kharfot Arabia (see 1:389), major inclusion of what I see as some A more recent translation is and Wadi Sayq area. See “The sites, exploration, metallurgy, highly speculative material Allen J. Christenson, Popol scientific results of the Oman ceramics, and so on can be dealing with the final stage of Vuh: The Sacred Book of the Flora and Fauna Survey, 1977 found in Daniel T. Potts, The Lehi’s land journey, the film Maya, 2 vols. (London: O (Dhofar),” Journal of Oman Arabian Gulf in Antiquity, presented both Khor Rori and Books, 2003–4). Studies (Muscat, 1980), special 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Khor Kharfot as potential 45. See John L. Sorenson, “Trans- report no. 2, which includes Press, 1990), esp. chapter 10 of Bountiful sites, with the lat- oceanic Crossings,” in Monte photographs of Kharfot. The volume 1. ter clearly favored in both the S. Nyman and Charles D. vegetation of Dhofar is cata- 36. See note 37 for details on Dr. location filming and in the Tate, eds., The Book of Mor- loged in Anthony G. Miller Costa’s published findings. commentary by Noel B. Reyn- mon: First Nephi, the Doctri- and Miranda Morris, Plants of 37. “F.A.R.M.S-Led Expedition olds. Kharfot as “Bountiful” nal Foundation (Provo, UT: Dhofar, the Southern Region of Examines Likely Candidate has even entered Latter-day BYU Religious Studies Center, Oman: Traditional, Economic, for Lehi’s Old World Bounti- Saint popular culture; see 1988), 251–70; and his “Winds and Medicinal Uses (Muscat: ful,” Insights (FARMS news- Keith Terry, Into the Light and Currents: A Look at Office of the Advisor for Con- letter), September 1993, 4. (American Fork, UT: Cov- Nephi’s Ocean Crossing,” in servation of the Environment, 38. Noel B. Reynolds, “By Objec- enant, 2004), which recounts Welch, Reexploring the Book 1988), and in the more general tive Measures: Old Wine the discovery of Kharfot in of Mormon, 53–56. works edited by Shahina Gha- into New Bottles,” in Echoes chapter 2. 46. George F. Hourani, in Arab zanfar (with Martin Fisher): and Evidences, 128. See also 41. Groom, in “The Periplus, Seafaring (Princeton: Prince Vegetation of the Arabian his 1997 BYU presentation Pliny and Arabia,” in Arabian ton University Press, 1995), Peninsula (The Netherlands: “Shedding New Light on Archaeology and Epigraphy deals with early trade routes, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Ancient Origins,” published (Copenhagen: Munksgaard ship types, and navigation 1998), A Vernacular Index of in Brigham Young Magazine International, 1995), 184–85, methods. Also valuable are the Plants of Oman (Muscat: (Spring 1998), 44–45; and makes the argument that the G. R. Tibbetts, Arab Naviga- Al Roya Publishers, 2001), his article “Lehi’s Arabian classical port of “Moscha” tion in the Indian Ocean before and an earlier work, Trees of Journey Updated,” in Noel B. must lie west of Khor Rori. the Coming of the Portuguese Oman: An Illustrated Guide Reynolds, ed., Book of Mor- 42. See Phillips, “Metals of the (London: Royal Asiatic Society to the Native Trees of Oman mon Authorship Revisited: The Book of Mormon.” of Great Britain and Ireland, (Muscat: Ministry of Regional Evidence for Ancient Origins 43. See Terry Ball et al., “Phyto- 1981); and the discussion of Municipalities and Environ- (Provo, UT: FARMS, 1997), liths Produced by the Vege monsoon winds in the region ment, 1997). Dr. Ghazanfar 379–90. tation of the Sub-Tropical and literature dealing with participated in the preliminary 39. Encyclopedia of Mormonism, Coastal Region of Dhofar, Arab seafaring in S. Soucek 1999 BYU survey in Dhofar. ed. Daniel H. Ludlow (New Oman,” accessible at www. et al., “Milaha: navigation, 33. For a discussion of evidence York: MacMillan, 1992), 1:145. phytolithsociety.org but not seamanship, seafaring,” in indicative of Nephi’s trade(s), The photograph also appears otherwise available in schol- the Encyclopaedia of Islam see John A. Tvedtnes, “Was in To All the World: The Book arly or popular formats. (Leiden: 1991). On sewn ships, Lehi a Caravaneer?” in his of Mormon Articles from the 44. Milton R. Hunter and Thomas see A. H. J. Prins, “A handbook The Most Correct Book: Encyclopedia of Mormonism S. Ferguson, in Ancient Amer- of sewn boats” (Greenwich: Insights from a Book of Mor- (Provo, UT: FARMS, 2000), 40. ica and the Book of Mormon Maritime Monographs and 112 volume 15, number 2, 2006 Reports, no. 59, 1986). More As orthodox science accepts tory (Springville, UT: Cedar don: Stacey International, general treatments such as ancient intercontinental sea Fort, 2003), 25–28. 1994), 10, 11. Paul Lunde’s “The Middle East voyaging, we can expect fur- 3. See Hugh W. Nibley, Lehi in 9. Pliny, Natural History, trans. and the Age of Discovery,” ther insights into this longest, the Desert; The World of the H. Rackham (London: Wil- Aramco World 43/3 (1992), yet least known, stage of Jaredites; There Were Jaredites liam Heinemann, 1952), 30.53. and “The Indian Ocean and Lehi’s odyssey to emerge. (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book 10. Hilton and Hilton, In Search Global Trade,” Saudi Aramco 53. Alessandra Avanzini, in Khor and FARMS, 1988); Lynn M. of Lehi’s Trail, 36. World 56/4 (2005)—at www. Rori Report 1 (Pisa: University Hilton and Hope A. Hilton, 11. Andrew Taylor, Travelling saudiaramcoworld.com— also of Pisa, Arabica Antica Series, In Search of Lehi’s Trail (Salt the Sands (Dubai: Motivate, provide valuable context and 2002), gives a date of circa 300 Lake City: Deseret Book, 1995), 18. insights into aspects of early bc for the earliest develop- 1976); and Warren P. Aston 12. Hilton and Hilton, In Search Arabian seafaring that illumi- ment at the Khor Rori site, and Michaela Knoth Aston, In of Lehi’s Trail, 33. nate Nephi’s account. reaching its peak hundreds of the Footsteps of Lehi: New Evi- 13. Hilton and Hilton, In Search 47. See Reynolds, “By Objective years later. See also Alessan- dence for Lehi’s Journey across of Lehi’s Trail, 27. Measures,” 128–29. dra Avanzini and Alexander Arabia to Bountiful (Salt Lake 14. See Taylor, Traveling the 48. Capelotti, senior lecturer in V. Sedov, “The stratigraphy of City: Deseret Book, 1994). Sands, 12. anthropology and American Sumhurum: new evidence,” 4. See S. B. Miles, The Countries 15. See Isaiah 21:13; Jeremiah studies at Penn State Univer- in Proceedings of the Seminar and Tribes of the Persian Gulf, 25:23; 49:7; Ezekiel 25:13; sity and author of Sea Drift: for Arabian Studies 35 (2005): 2nd ed. (London: Frank Cass, 38:13; and Genesis 10:7; 25:3. Rafting Adventures in the 11–17. These dates effectively 1966), 2. 16. See Al-Wohaibi, The Northern Wake of Kon-Tiki (Piscataway, rule out any notion that an 5. In medieval times a second Hijaz, 204–12 and map in NJ: Rutgers University Press, established seaport existed in route came into being that ran back of book. 2001), made this comment Dhofar in Nephi’s day or that along the Arabian coast. This 17. For a more complete discus- (emphasis added) about he could have drawn upon was built at great expense sion of this subject see Potter rafts, accessible at http:// local knowledge. to provide protection from and Wellington, “Jerusalem rutgerspress.rutgers.edu/ 54. See Ben R. Finney, “Anoma- bedouin raiders who were and the Way of the Wilder- acatalog/Capelotti_interview. lous Westerlies, El Niño, and attacking Muslim pilgrims ness,” in Lehi in the Wilder- html. Sincere appreciation is the Colonization of Polyne- traveling along the old Frank- ness, 15–29. expressed to Steven L. Carr, sia,” American Anthropologist incense Trail on their way to 18. The “Judæans fled to east of MD, of Salt Lake City, for his 87/1 (1985): 20. See also the perform Haj and Umra in the the Jordan River when Nebu- pioneering efforts, based on discussion of the ENSO effect Muslim holy cities of Mecca chadnezzar captured Jerusa- two visits to Dhofar, to resolve and its implications for the and Medina. This route came lem in 587 B.C.” and scattered the practical realities of how Lehite sea voyage in David L. into being approximately themselves among the lands Nephi’s ship may have been Clark, “Lehi and El Niño: A 1,400 years after Lehi traveled of Ammon, Moab, and Edom constructed and how it func- Method of Migration,” BYU through Arabia. See Abdul- (Burton MacDonald, Ammon, tioned. From this has come Studies 30/3 (Summer 1990): lah al-Wohaibi, The Northern Moab and Edom: Early States/ a new look at the merits of a 57–65. The projected sail- Hijaz: In the Writings of Nations of Jordan in the Bibli- raft as a possible design for ing date given in that article the Arab Geographers [ad] cal Period [Amman: Al-Kutba Nephi’s ship. (August, in the midst of the 800–1500 (Beirut: Al-Risalah, Publishers, 1994], 46; see 49. See Captain DeVere Baker, monsoon storms) seems 1973), 324, 325, and map in G. Lankester Harding, The The Raft Lehi IV: 69 Days unlikely, however. back of book. Antiquities of Jordan [New Adrift on the Pacific Ocean 6. Thus we agree with Hugh York: Frederick A. Praeger, (Long Beach, CA: Whitehorn Lehi’s Trail: From the Valley of Nibley’s proposal that the 1967], 46). According to the Publishing, 1959). For an Lemuel to Nephi’s Harbor route Lehi took was inland, book of Obadiah, which is overview of his life and the Richard Wellington east of the Hijaz mountains. generally believed to have sailing from California to and George Potter See Nibley, Lehi in the Desert, been written shortly after Hawaii in July 1958, see Sam- 112; and Lynn M. Hilton and the Babylonian destruction uel W. Taylor, “Twenty-Five The authors lived for many years Hope A. Hilton, Discovering of Jerusalem, the Edomites, Years on a Raft: The Odyssey in Saudi Arabia. Richard Wel- Lehi (Springville, UT: Cedar through whose lands the road of DeVere Baker,” Sunstone lington left in 2003 after more Fort: 1996), 34 (map). The to Aqabah ran, participated 21/3 (August 1998): 72–76. than 18 years there, and George Hiltons drove down the west in the capture of escaping 50. See Tim Severin, The Sind- Potter is still living there after coast of Arabia and suggested Judeans and the finding and bad Voyage (London: Arrow 14 years. This circumstance gave that this was the route Lehi handing over to the Babylo- Books, 1983). the authors a unique opportunity took, and a map of this route nians of those who remained 51. Sycamore fig and tamarind to travel freely in Saudi Arabia, was placed on the FARMS in Edom. “Neither shouldest are the major timber species where much of the early chapters Web site for many years. This thou have stood in the cross- found at Kharfot today. of the Book of Mormon took map was removed a few years way, to cut off those of his that 52. See John L. Sorenson and place, something that could be ago, and S. Kent Brown pro- did escape; neither shouldest Matthew Roper, “Before done only by those few Western- duced a map that essentially thou have delivered up those DNA,” JBMS 12/1 (2003): ers who had visas to work and live mirrors the route we proposed of his that did remain in the 13. An expanded and more there. to FARMS in 1998 (see Don- day of distress” (Obadiah focused examination is John 1. See George Potter, “A New ald W. Parry, Daniel C. Peter- 1:14). L. Sorenson’s “Ancient Voy- Candidate in Arabia for the son, and John W. Welch, eds., 19. As the walls were being ages Across the Ocean to Valley of Lemuel,” JBMS 8/1 Echoes and Evidences of the breached, King Zedekiah and America: From ‘Impossible’ (1999): 54–63. Book of Mormon (Provo, UT: his sons made their escape to ‘Certain,’” JBMS 14/1 2. See George Potter and Rich- FARMS, 2002), 58. through the king’s garden (2005): 4–17. The article’s ard Wellington, Lehi in the 7. See Al-Wohaibi, The Northern by the gate between the two endnotes provide a useful Wilderness: 81 New, Docu- Hijaz, 325. walls near Siloam pool (see index of other material related mented Evidences That the 8. Alan Keohane, Bedouin: 2 Kings 25:4). But Zedekiah’s to transoceanic voyaging. Book of Mormon Is a True His- Nomads of the Desert (Lon- party was captured when they journal of Book of Mormon Studies 113