Planning a Palestinian Urban Core: the City of Ramallah

Planning a Palestinian Urban Core: The City of Ramallah

Rassem Khamaisi Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905 Israel

In 1995, in the wake of the Oslo agreements, the En 1995, dans le sillage des Accords d’Oslo, les Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 process of establishing a new Palestinian processus de constitution d’une Autorité pales- Authority on the road to statehood and a capital tinienne ainsi que d’une capitale furent lancés. city took root. Notwithstanding Palestinian En dépit des revendications palestiniennes sur la claims to East Jerusalem as its core and capital partie orientale de Jérusalem, le cœur et capi- of the emerging Palestinian state, the city of tale de l’État palestinien en gestation, la ville de Ramallah began to transform itself from a Ramallah commença entre-temps sa transforma- district city to national core, gradually develop- tion, passant du statut de ville régionale à celui ing as the de facto capital of the Palestinian d’un noyau national ; elle devint ainsi progres- Authority. This article describes and discusses sivement la capitale de facto de l’Autorité pales- the geopolitical forces and the structural and tinienne. Cet article décrit et débat des tensions socio-economic factors that drive and shape the géopolitiques et des facteurs structurels et urbanization process and urban growth and that socioéconomiques qui guident et façonnent les spurred and guided Ramallah’s transformation. processus d’urbanisation et la croissance It also analyzes the planning process for the city, urbaine menant à la transformation de including a number of the planning problems Ramallah. Il examine également les processus de faced in its further development. The article has planification pour la ville, ainsi qu’un certain four main sections. It begins by describing the nombre de problèmes d’urbanisme auxquels development of Ramallah area, now a part of Ramallah sera confrontée à l'avenir. L’article metropolitan Jerusalem. The second section est divisé en quatre parties. Il débute avec une discusses and analyzes the implications and description du développement de la région de consequences of various internal and external Ramallah, qui fait maintenant partie de l’ag- factors and their direct impact on the crystal- glomération du Grand Jérusalem. La seconde lization of the urban fabric of Ramallah. The partie examine les implications et les third section examines the dilemmas and the conséquences de divers facteurs internes et obstacles faced in the spatial urban planning of externes et leur impact sur la consolidation du Ramallah, a city that developed under circum- tissu urbain de Ramallah. La troisième partie stances of occupation, amid the dichotomous examine les interrogations et les obstacles influences of traditional and modern forces, and auxquels est confrontée la planification urbaine in the context of outsider intervention. A final de Ramallah, une ville qui s’est développée dans section summarizes the process of developing a un contexte d’occupation, tiraillée entre les master plan for the city of Ramallah. forces de la tradition et de la modernité, tout en étant soumise à des interventions externes. La Key words: Palestine, Ramallah, planning, new dernière partie récapitule les modalités en cours core pour l’élaboration du schéma directeur pour la ville de Ramallah.

Mots clés : Palestine , Ramallah , planification , noyau urbain nouveau

Introduction analysis of the implications and consequences of various internal and external In Palestine there is an ancient tradition of factors and their direct impact on the crystal- urban development. The mid-20th century lization of the urban fabric of Ramallah, witnessed a neglect of this heritage, result- which transformed itself from a small tourist ing in great suffering for Palestinian devel- town into the main urban centre of the West opment. The 1948 war between Arabs and Bank and perhaps the core of the future Jews in Palestine touched off an exodus and Palestinian state. The third is an examination a wave of population movements that of the dilemmas and obstacles faced in the thwarted or disrupted organic development; spatial urban planning of Ramallah, a city this was accompanied by the imposition of whose development occurred under semi- Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 external control by Jordan and Egypt, which occupation, amid the dichotomous influ- led to an orientation toward Amman and ences of traditional and modern forces, and Cairo. Under Israeli control, Palestinian in the context of outsider intervention. Much cities became disconnected from the urban of this development took place in response cores of the neighbouring Arab states to top-down influences, in contrast to the (Jordan, Egypt, Syria, and Lebanon). Since organic, bottom-up development on “native” 1995, when control of Palestinian cities and land-ownership factors. Finally, the arti- passed to the Palestinian Authority (PA), cle summarizes the process of developing a these urban centres have all flourished to master plan for the city of Ramallah.1 some degree. In 1995, in the wake of the 1993 Oslo General Framework agreements and the process of establishing a new Palestinian state, a new capital city took Urban planning can not be disconnected from root. Despite Palestinian claims on East the political, geopolitical, social, and nation- Jerusalem as the core and capital of the building processes of a country. Quite the emerging Palestinian state, the city of opposite: spatial planning, and the reorgani- Ramallah began to change and transform zation of the hierarchy of urban centres, itself from a district city into a national core, towns, and villages—including urban plan- developing as the de facto capital of the PA. ning—is a fundamental element of the This article describes and discusses the missions and strategies used by states to geopolitical forces that have guided promote development and to secure a national Ramallah’s transformation and analyze the balancing of internal integration and continu- planning process of this city, including a ity, while at the same time facing outside chal- number of the planning problems with lenges and regional and global competition. which it has been confronted. The reorganization of population distribution The paper has four main foci. The first and the spatial organization of localities is a description of the development of within the state is an integral part of the Ramallah and the surrounding area— national security of a state (Cave 1992). Some surroundings that have become part of countries have adopted the approach of metropolitan Jerusalem. Ramallah is one of centrality in spatial planning to reorganize the the main Palestinian centres, a city whose space within their borders. Others have growth particularly increased after the impo- allowed market forces to determine the struc- sition of Israeli closure in 1993 and the ture of the dispersal of localities, including establishment of the PA, given the subse- urban centres, in the state. In still other coun- quent establishment of official institutions tries, governments have consolidated policies and international economic agencies in of decentralization and allowed competition Ramallah. The second is a discussion and between cities, based on their relative

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) 244 Rassem Khamaisi advantages and disadvantages and according ethno-national demographics grew out of to development strategies demarcated and colonial British rule in the area. During the defined by local municipalities and local British Mandate in Palestine, Jerusalem forces, with only limited intervention from developed as a political, economic, and central forces. national urban centre, evolving into the polit- Planning processes occur only after a ical and economic core of the area as well as state has been established and gained sover- its cultural and religious core. In 1947, the eignty. A new nation-state reorganizes its United Nations Assembly partitioned population and economic activities within its Palestine into two states, Arab and Jewish, spatial boundaries, including the creation of under Resolution 181. The 1948 war between an urban core, if none existed prior to the Arabs and Jews, in the aftermath of this reso- Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 establishment of the new state. lution, led to the establishment of a Jewish The creation of a nation-state thus state with Tel Aviv as its urban core. This normally results in the creation of a new urban core began to develop in the 1930s, urban core, comprising the capital of the new even though the Israelis aspired to establish state and the institutions of a national move- Jerusalem as its political core after the 1948 ment. This urban core may include the institu- war. The Arab Palestinian state was not mate- tions of a representative political system, rialized, and the Palestinian territory outside such as a parliament, an executive house and the Israeli state fragmented into two units, its offices, government ministries, foreign lacking territorial continuity. As a result of representatives, embassies, and agencies. It this war, called the Nakba (“disaster”) by may be based on an existing urban centre, or a Palestinians, and the ensuing territorial frag- new one may be developed. The urban core mentation, the normal growth of Palestinian attracts economic activity; the concentration cities and towns changed in the wake of the of public, private, and financial institutions; establishment of Israel. Mandate Palestine and a workforce, as well as an immigrant was divided into Israel, an area under population seeking to benefit from the new Jordanian rule (the West Bank, or WB), and opportunity represented by the emerging an Egyptian-administered territory (the Gaza core. The change from the status of town to Strip, or GS). Between 1948 and 1967, the that of urban core and centre of national and Palestinians lost their urban centres in territo- international activities shifts the urban struc- ries within established Israel proper. The ture and urban fabric of a municipality. urban centres outside Israel’s borders, ruled Since the mid-20th century, a large by Arab states, remained relatively small and number of former colonies throughout the dependent on the Jordanian and Egyptian world – including the Middle East - have cores (Amman and Cairo), respectively. gained independence. The emergence of new Jerusalem, which had previously functioned states over the last century catalyzed the as the Palestinian urban core, was divided into creation of urban cores such as Amman, Tel two: West Jerusalem was under the sover- Aviv, Kuwait, and Manama. The change from eignty of the State of Israel, while East the status of regional town or district urban Jerusalem was under Jordanian sovereignty centre to that of national urban centre created and dependent on Amman. Since 1967, Israel a need for land-use planning by local institu- has occupied the West Bank and the Gaza tions, including the central community and Strip, thus interrupting the political, the municipality, to cope with new larger- functional, and economic dependence of scale needs, including the need to allocate of Palestinians towns upon foreign cores. land for regional and national facilities. Arab Palestinian towns are characterized The late-1930s partition of Palestine into by localism and similarity. Each town func- distinct Jewish and Arab states according to tions as an administrative and commercial

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) Planning a Palestinian Urban Core: The City of Ramallah 245 centre in its district or sub-district. Israel did divided into three areas (see Figure 1). Area A not allow the development of a Palestinian includes most of the territories under the central city, while the Palestinians looked to jurisdiction of the main Palestinian munici- Jerusalem as their principal city and future palities, consisting of about 3% of the terri- urban core. Until the mid 1980s, Palestinian tory of the West Bank and 60% of Gaza Strip. cities and towns developed according to the In this area, the PA was granted authority over master and outline plans prepared during the civic issues and security. Area B in the West British Mandate period (e.g., the town of al- Bank, which is jointly controlled, consists Khalil) or during the later Jordanian period 27% of the territory, and Area C where Israel (e.g., Ramallah and al-Bira). Limits on has both civil and security control, total 70% resources and restrictions imposed by the of the West Bank. Israel maintains full control Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 Israeli occupation retarded potentially rapid over East Jerusalem, as well as 40% of the development in the Palestinian Territories Gaza Strip (Falah 2005, 303). (PT), that is, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Because Jerusalem’s geographical and and East Jerusalem. Parallel to these restric- political future was postponed to final peace tions, economic and population growth in the negotiations, the Palestinians chose PT pushed the urbanization process of temporarily to establish most government Palestinian villages and led to sprawl and institutions in the twin cities of Ramallah and socio-economic changes after the opening of al-Bira, with other branches established in the Israeli market to Palestinian workers and Gaza City. The dual establishment of govern- services (Khan, Giacaman, and Amundsen ment and public institutions, and the division 2004). between the cities of Gaza and Ramallah, was At the same time, violence in the PT and the result of an existing division of the PT the first intifada (1987–1993) reduced and between the WB, of which Ramallah func- limited the development of Palestinian cities tioned as the core and “capital,” and the GS, and villages while strengthening the Israeli where Gaza functioned as the core and capi- occupation and its control over Palestinians, tal. From the Palestinian point of view, this including restraint of economic development, situation is a temporary one until the future of restriction of institutionalization, and limits Jerusalem is determined. Despite the unclear on accessibility and mobility between locali- future of Jerusalem, Israel began to imple- ties. These Israeli actions coincided with ment active policies of control over increased development of Israeli settlements Palestinians in East Jerusalem in order to in the PT, which continue to surround protect the status quo of the city as the capital Palestinian cities and limit their expansion of the State of Israel and to prohibit the possi- and development. bility of re-division. These policies include In 1988 the Palestinian National Council closure, prohibiting Palestinians from the authorized the Palestine Liberation Organiz- WB and GS from entering Jerusalem without ation (PLO) to establish a Palestinian state in a permit, and control over the establishment the PT beside Israel. The peace process began of Palestinian institutions in East Jerusalem; in Madrid in 1990 and led to formal recogni- since 2003, Israel has begun to build a separa- tion between the PLO and the government of tion wall surrounding the area that Israel Israel in 1993, establishing a Palestinian state defines as Jerusalem (Brooks et al. 2005). in the PT according to UN Resolutions 242 The geopolitical and national circum- and 338. Interim agreements were signed stances that arose after the Interim between the two parties. Agreements, including the establishment of According to the Interim Agreements official PA government institutions in (popularly known as the Oslo Accords) Ramallah, imposed rapid transformations on signed between 1993 and 1995, the PT was the small city, which until then had developed

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) 246 Rassem Khamaisi Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021

FIGURE 1 Location of Ramallah within the West Bank and Gaza Strip and the division of the Palestinian Territories into Areas A, B, and C, according to the Interim Peace Agreements

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) Planning a Palestinian Urban Core: The City of Ramallah 247

organically in accordance with its population stone and masonry work. This was a time of needs. Ramallah began to cope with the new social development. New money from rela- challenge of rapid growth necessary to func- tives in the United States, together with tion as the core of the new nation-state, employment prospects under the British Palestine. The challenges that gave rise to Mandate government, created a new Ramallah Ramallah’s planning activities are described bourgeoisie that moved from the old village to below. the area around it and into new villas. Ramallah grew, particularly along the main Passing from Small Village to Large roads and in the direction of al-Bira, bringing Urban Centre the two former villages yet closer together. During the 1920s and 1930s, the empty houses Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 Ottoman archives from the 16th century indi- in the old town were taken over by families cate that Ramallah was at that time a well- from the Hebron area who came to work for established agricultural village of about 400 Mandate officials. To this day, many of the people. Over time, Ramallah became a pros- people living in the older houses in this area are perous town, attracting families to the area. It originally from around Hebron (Riwaq 1998). developed like any ordinary village, notable At the same time, an emigration trend only for the fact that it was predominantly emerged that continued until the mid-1940s. Christian. The 19th century brought an influx By 1946, 1 500 of Ramallah’s 6 000 residents of church representatives and missionaries to had emigrated. In 1948, however, there was an the area, resulting in the development of influx of Nakba refugees to Ramallah, families church institutions such as schools and hospi- forced to flee by Israeli forces from their tals (Algube and Bisharah 2002). homes in Jaffa, Lydda, and Ramleh. So even At around the same time, Ramallah began though the population had doubled by 1953, to grow and spread beyond the boundaries of one-third of the native population had left and the original village, or old city. New houses were living in the Americas. appeared, with enclosed gardens and beautiful

TABLE 1 Building permits issued by Municipality of Ramallah, 1991–2004, by building use and area

& " # $ ## % ' ' ' ' ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) * !*+ * ,+ ,! + ++ +, ! - , ! * !,-! !,- * - !!., ! ,, ! ,- * --+ ! -. + . !+. , +! +, + , * , - ! + , * .. , ., ,**! * - , +, , !. - !, . .*+ *-++ . !* . ,* .+! - + , - *--. - !!+- ,* *!.+ . +-*+ *. - . !-!- -+ ! +* * +,! - *! + +*,*, - ,.+-. + - - !! * .!- - !,.. + , *!, ., + !*- * +! *! -., + -.*. , ,+.. ! *- ,- ! . ,++ ! *,* ! *! .

* Housing since 2000 includes public housing. ** Commercial since 2001 includes tourist building. Source: Engineering department, Ramallah Municipality.

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) 248 Rassem Khamaisi

50 000 45 000 45 000 40 000 37 000 35 000

30 000 population 30 458 25 000 24 646 20 000 22 000 15 000 16 530 17 145 10 000 14 759 12 495 5 000 Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 0 5 080 4 286 3 104

2004 1997 1996 1992 1985 1967 1967 1961 1952 1945 1931 1922 (after (before war) war)

FIGURE 2 Population growth in Ramallah City, 1922–2004 Urbanization The population of Ramallah doubled between 1992 and 2004. This population Until the 1960s, Ramallah was a small growth was the result of both natural increase Christian locality, developed organically from and immigration, including Palestinian a built-up core. This village core was located returnees who arrived after the establishment about two miles west of the historically main of the PA. Needless to say, these numbers road connecting north Palestine through include only those who registered with the Jerusalem to south Palestine, while its twin municipality and with the Palestinian Central village of al-Bira, a Muslim locality, was Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). In fact, the located four miles east of this primary road. population of Ramallah is greater than this The Municipality of Ramallah was estab- today: according to the PCBS, Ramallah had lished in 1908, when its population had approximately 50 000 residents in 2004 reached about 3 300 persons. The town’s (PCBS 2004). In addition, the population of growth as a centre of Ramallah sub-district the inner Ramallah metropolitan belt served the surrounding villages. The town’s (Ramallah, al-Bira, and Beituniya cities) is total area was 17 858 dunams (1 785.8 ha); it estimated at 130 000. Population growth also expanded slowly, without an official plan. In occurred in surrounding localities, such al- the mid-20th century, it suffered from negative Bira and Beituniya, Jerusalem, as well as in migration abroad (The Americas, Europe, and villages such as Al-Ram. These increases in Australia). During the Jordanian period population naturally coincided with an (1950–1967), Ramallah evolved into a tourist increased demand for housing and public destination, thanks to its good weather (partic- facilities and created economic and commer- ularly in the summer) and its open, welcoming cial activities that will be discuss below. This community. During this period the town began urbanization process gave rise to a transfor- to grow as a result of positive immigration mation of the social, communal, economic, from the rest of the WB as well as natural and institutional urban fabric, in addition to population growth. Figures 2 summarizes changes in the physical structure of the city, population growth in Ramallah between 1922 transforming it to become part, or the core, of and 2004 (Municipality of Ramallah 2000). the urban conglomerate.

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) Planning a Palestinian Urban Core: The City of Ramallah 249

To provide housing for this rapid popula- growing, on average, 397 dunums (39.7 ha) tion growth, buildings for expanding per year. In the period 1994–2000, the built- economic activities, and offices for new insti- up area of Ramallah grew 24.5 %, an average tutions and government agencies, the munici- of 585 dunams (58.5 ha) per year. pality, which functioned as the Local The above indicators lead us to state that Planning Committee, was issued a large Ramallah and its surrounding cities now number of building permits. Table 1 summa- form one urban unit, as a result of the accel- rizes the increasing numbers of building erated urbanization process that began with permits issued by the Municipality of the establishment of the PA in the Ramallah Ramallah in the last decade. metropolitan area. The transformation The rapid urbanization of Ramallah includes a change in the landscape of the Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 brought about a concentration of the city’s city, from low density, with low-rise build- economic and commercial establishments. ings not more than four storeys in height, to By 2004 there were about 2 659 such estab- high-rise buildings reaching almost 20 lishments employing a total of 10 845 people storeys. (see Table 2). The increase in economic activity in Location Ramallah has led to a sprawling building pattern and an expansion of the built-up area Ramallah is located in the approximate centre as part of the urbanization process. Ishaq et of the WB, alongside the main road crossing al. (2005) analyzed an aerial photograph of the WB through al-Bira, Ramallah’s twin city, the expanding built-up areas in the WB and near Jerusalem. The process of urbanization found that the built-up area of Ramallah had that has taken place in the PT over the last four expanded by 16.1 % between 1989 and 1994, decades expanded the built-up areas of the

TABLE 2 Number of establishments in the twin cities of Ramallah and al-Bira, by type of economic activities and number of employees, 2004 Type of economic activity Ramallah al-Bira Establishments Employees Establishments Employees

Agriculture, hunting, 15 36 18 34 and forestry Manufacturing 301 1 652 235 1 218 Electricity and 1 200 2 172 water supply Construction 53 223 22 562 Wholesale, retail, 1 189 3 141 826 2 262 and repairs Hotels and restaurants 155 717 109 377 Transport, storage, 76 538 39 806 and communication Financial intermediation 48 732 34 1 066 Real estate, renting, 331 1148 130 706 and business Education 67 667 30 344 Health and social work 198 693 66 496 Other community, social, 225 1 098 129 658 and personal Total 2 659 10 845 1 640 8 701 Source: Unpublished PCBS data in Makhool et al. (2005, 33–35)

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) 250 Rassem Khamaisi villages and cities in the middle WB. Today, Birzeit to the north, Beituniya to the south- the built-up area of metropolitan Jerusalem west, and Jerusalem to the south (see Figure and Ramallah remain within this region, 3). As previously noted, the core of the city flanked by Bethlehem to the south and Birzeit began to grow from a flat area eastward, even- in the north. This Palestinian Jerusalem tually connecting via Al-Manara to the city of metropolitan area is truncated because of the al-Bira. The main centre of Ramallah and the ongoing geopolitical conflict (Khamaisi commercial centre of al-Bira together consti- 2003). The location of Ramallah in this urban tute the central business district (CBD) of the conglomerate has contributed to its rapid twin cities. The valley in the west of the city growth by attracting the government institu- guides development on top of the hill called tions currently located there, and its location Altera. Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 has become a major influence on its continu- ing development and expansion. Mosaic Community

Physical Morphology The community of Ramallah is characterized by a diversity accounted for by a number of Ramallah is located in a mountainous area. factors. First, Ramallah opened to immigra- This physical morphology has had a direct tion in the mid-20th century, and the influx of impact on the direction of the development of visitors and tourists ultimately resulted in the the city. Development and urban expansion in permanent relocation of various groups. Ramallah follows the main regional road Second, the city functioned as an administra- system, which connects the city with tive centre, attracting nearby villagers and surrounding arteries such as the roads to thus contributing to the urbanization of the

FIGURE 3 The approved outline plan during the British Mandate and Jordanian periods. Source: MPIC 1998

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) Planning a Palestinian Urban Core: The City of Ramallah 251 community within the city. Third, the housing ments between the PLO and the Israeli and land market that developed in Ramallah government, in conjunction with Israeli contributed not only to the development of a restrictions and prohibitions regarding mosaic of communities in the city but also to Palestinian institutional development in the establishment of the PA and the expansion Jerusalem, affects Ramallah in two ways of the urbanization process. Today, the affilia- (Machsom Watch 2004). The establishment tion is not based on the kinship of family but of most government and public institutions in is predicated more on socio-economic classes Ramallah/al-Bira and the subsequent or groups. The functional and spatial mobi- economic growth and activity there triggered lization of individuals and households has rapid urban development in the twin cities, contributed to the creation of the mosaic of which they were ill equipped to handle. Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 communities in Ramallah. Despite Israel’s efforts to deter and under- mine the creation of a Palestinian national Land Ownership and the Provision of core in Jerusalem, Palestinians—both Housing national leaders and the general public—and the Municipality of Ramallah view the Most of the land within the jurisdiction of the current Jerusalem situation as temporary, Municipality of Ramallah is privately-owned, believing that the Holy City will eventually be either by individuals or collectives. the capital of the State of Palestine. Consequently, there are limitations in the Meanwhile, Ramallah will continue to func- availability of land resources for public use, tion as the “capital” of the future Palestinian creating restrictions for planning and devel- state. opment in Ramallah. In addition, much of the At the local level, Area C includes barri- housing is built individually by households. ers that impede the development of jurisdic- For other types of housing like apartments, tions north, west, and south of Ramallah. In for example, developers build a definitive addition, the military road currently under number of units for sale or rent. Some public Israel’s control passes directly through the and government institutions rent and use Ramallah area, confining any development these units both for staff housing and for their around it. economic activities. The Planning Process and Methodology Israeli-Imposed Restrictions The planning process began in 1997, when The restrictions imposed under the Israeli the Municipality of Ramallah took the initia- occupation have affected Ramallah’s develop- tive to prepare a new outline plan for the city, ment in different ways and at various levels. including the city centre and the surrounding On the national level, Israel still controls areas within the jurisdiction of the municipal- development and resources; as of August ity, approximately 14 500 dunams (1 450 ha). 2006, a fully sovereign Palestinian state does A new reality emerged, and continues to exist, not exist. From the point of view of planning, in the context of Ramallah’s development. every development in Area C must be coordi- One part of the city exists within the purview nated with the Israeli military authorities that of the official plan—which was promulgated still control this area. In the case of Ramallah, during the British Mandate and Jordanian the land available for future development for periods—while most of the areas in the city national and regional facilities is in Area C, are still unplanned. While many private and which includes most public land. public developers have initiated preparations Postponement of Jerusalem’s geopoliti- for detailed local plans of their private lands, cal fate according to the interim peace agree- the municipality has no general plan to cope

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) 252 Rassem Khamaisi with the increase in applications for building suggests alternatives. The fourth step is the permits, nor does it have a mechanism for selection of one of the suggested alternatives accepting or rejecting applications, or for by the municipal council. The planning staff issuing guidelines to local public and private develops the alternative plan chosen by the developers. These needs cannot be addressed municipality in great detail, including appen- without preparing a new general or master dices for road and transportation plans as well outline plan for the city. The first step in the as to regulations and policies for implementa- planning process ended in 1999 when the tion. The planning methodology is based on a Palestinian High Planning Council author- parallel process that consists of five channels ized the main outline plan for Ramallah. The of output: new plan includes the unplanned areas under Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 the jurisdiction of the city. 1 Development of the “planning discourse Throughout the planning process, the and languages” through research and municipality representatives understood the study of existing plans in different tiers. implications and limitations of changing This is the facilitation channel. existing planning rights granted according to 2 Development of a general future vision the Jordanian-authorized outline plan; as a for Ramallah City and its district. This is result, the municipality requested that plan- the creative channel. ning staff work on the unplanned area only 3 Shaping of a physical land-use plan and elected not to disrupt the status quo of the based on the Palestinian Planning Law of planning in the city centre, where the 1996 and the Jordanian Planning Law of approved outline plan had existed since 1967. 1966, the latter of which continued to In 2000, the Ministry of Local Govern- operate after the Israeli occupation of the ment (MOLG) decided to expand the jurisdic- PT in 1967. This is the regulatory chan- tion of Ramallah by adding 2 063 dunams nel. (206.3 ha) in the north-west. The municipal- 4 Development of principles for imple- ity once again took the initiative to prepare an mentation and achievement of the goals outlined plan of the new area annexed to of the urban plan by creating an action Ramallah. It accepted this plan in 2006, but plan. This is the initiatives and operative the district planning committee and the channel (Hamdi and Goethert 1997). Palestinian High Planning Council have not 5 Devising of tools and mechanisms to authorized the additional plan. follow up and provide feedback on the action plan and the regulatory plans. This The Planning Methodology is the dynamic and feedback channel applied to the process of planning and The multi-disciplinary planning staff works implementation. according to a comprehensive and incremental approach. The aim is to create a blueprint Developing these multidimensional of physical land use. The process has several channels in parallel has allowed the planning steps. The first step involves examining the staff to propose a plan to municipality repre- existing situation, problems, and needs, as sentatives that follows a bottom-up approach. well as investigating various plans on differ- The planning process was open to ent levels, all of which have affected the city members of the public, although the planning of Ramallah. The second step is accepting the staff did not adopt a systematic methodology elements of the plan and future programs, for public participation. The barrier to full which present land-use based on projections public participation was a natural conse- that 90 000 persons will reside in Ramallah by quence of the planning approach employed 2020. In the third step, the municipal council and followed from the assumption that the

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) Planning a Palestinian Urban Core: The City of Ramallah 253 municipal council represents the needs of the with environmental, functional, population. In addition, one of the planning economic, and aesthetic considerations. strategies was to avoid increasing land values 3 Create good hierarchical transportation during the planning process and to avoid pres- connections between the neighbour- sure from landowners. Nevertheless, an alter- hoods and the city centre through arterial native plan was presented to an array of roads that connect Ramallah to the outer interest groups and to the general public on regional and national road systems. numerous occasions and at various meetings. 4 Avoid creating a second city centre for The planning staff made many amendments to Ramallah that would compete with the the plan in response to comments from the existing one; new neighbourhoods public, municipal council members, members should function as satellites to the main Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 of the district planning committee, and other functional centre. experts. 5 Adopt existing parcelization schemes and take land ownership into considera- Description of the Suggested Land-Use Plan tion when demarcating the road system and allocating land for public facilities. The proposed plan for Ramallah consists of 6 Allow for implementation of the plan by two steps. The first includes a physical outline, stages and according to the municipal- authorized by the Palestine Planning System ity’s ability to provide services. in 1999, for an area of 9 360 dunams (936 ha) 7 Develop a regional government and (see Figure 4, map C). The second step is public centre to serve the district. incremental to the first and includes an area 8 The planning goals, based on the above added to the city’s jurisdiction in 2000; it is principles, were as follows: planned but has not been fully authorized by 9 To prepare an outline plan for Ramallah the National Planning System. This step of the that would cope with and guide the future plan is known as the Ramallah Incremental needs and development of the city and Outline of 2005, and it covers an area of 2 360 would be a base for preparing detailed dunams (236 ha) (see Figure 4, map B). Below plans. I summarize the planning principles and goals 10 To reorganize future land use in the city. of the proposed Ramallah plan, as well as 11 To create a regulatory regime and guides giving a brief summary description of the for using the zones. suggested land-use plans. 12 To consider tools to preserve the nature of the city and allocate residential zones The Planning Principles to absorb population growth in suitable housing conditions. The principles that guided the planning activ- 13 To plan a hierarchical system of new or ities, according to the five channels described expanded roads to secure good connec- above, can be summarized as follows: tions and easy mobility between the 1 Develop a unique city that includes different parts of the city. neighbourhoods of low-density housing 14 To plan and allocate land for public facil- allocated for the upper and middle ities in appropriate locations and with classes, including allocation of an area appropriate distribution. for villas that will preserve the unique- 15 To create an outline plan (statutory plan) ness of Ramallah by securing housing that embodies a balance between resi- quality in the satellite neighbourhoods. dential, public-use, commercial, eco- 2 Ensure that future development avoid nomic, and recreational zoning. valleys, which should remain green open The Planning Concept spaces or agricultural areas, in keeping

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) 254 Rassem Khamaisi Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021

City Centre Residential Use C

Green Industrial Area

Villas Cemetary

Public Buildings Residential Use A

Future Expansion Residential Use B

FIGURE 4 The approved and suggested outline plans during the Israeli occupation and PN

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TABLE 3 Population and household growth in Ramallah City, 1997–2020

Year Population Average size of Households for household (persons) providing housing 1997 37 000 5.3 6 981 2000 42.800 5.0 8 560 2005 47 000 4.8 9 792 2010 60 000 4.4 13 636 2020 90 000 4.0 22 500

Sources: Khamaisi (1997, 46; 2005, 29). Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021

The physical plan includes various traditional •The linear concept, in which cities conceptual alternatives, based on develop in a linear pattern (e.g., rectan- •The circular or organic concept, in gularly alongside main arterial roads, which the city develops in an organic where a centre exists). way with a series of belts around a main •The grade concept, in which the city centre. develops by grades of road. This

TABLE 4 Zoning in Ramallah according to the fully approved plan of 1999 and the proposed incremental plan of 2005 Suggested zone in the plan Approved plan (1999) Proposed municipal plan (2005) Area (dunams) % area Area (dunams) % area

Villa zone 422 5.0 1 460 42.2 Housing zone A 1 943 20.5 – – Housing zone B 1 681 17.0 – – Housing zone C 370 4.0 – – Commercial zone 73 0.8 34 0.4 Industrial zone 379 4.0 – – Mixed-use zone 665 7.0 – – Public building zone 353 4.0 536 15.5 Open public zone 70 0.7 2 0.1 Cemetery zone 31 0.35 – – Exhibition zone 136 1.5 – – Tourist facilities zone 60 0.6 – – Technical engineering zone 53 0.6 – – Transportation centre 31 0.35 – – Suggested road 1 425 15.0 610 17.6 Existing road 850 9.0 – – Pedestrian road 25 0.3 12.0 0.3 Housing in agricultural zone 723 7.5 804 23.2 Future development 154 1.6 – – Archaeological zone 16 0.2 – – Total 9 460 100.0 3 460 100.0 Sources: Khamaisi (1997, 2005)

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approach follows an arterial road, with ice needs of the population the hierarchical functional centres Based on these factors, the planning concept located at the intersections of the main and planning models should roads. • Preserve and strengthen the existing •The spread or radiation concept, in urban centre, Al-Manara, as the main which the city develops from an organic CBD and allocate development along- core and spreads. The core evolves to side the main arterial roads that spread become the commercial and functional from this centre to the regional road and centre. The development spreads and surrounding towns and villages; the idea sprawls alongside main roads, disrupting is to promote organic development. ease of movement from the surrounding • Create a functional hierarchy of public Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 areas to the main centre. services for the city and for such satellite These planning concepts guided the neighbourhoods as Al-Krena and Al- planning staff in developing various physical Tere. planning models. After a concept was adapted • Promote development in contiguous or refined to fit reality, and after the realiza- belts around the Al-Manara centre and tion of existing situations and possible devel- prohibit building in the low area and opments, the planning concepts and models valleys, which must remain open green derived from the appropriate concept were and agricultural space. applied to the corresponding needs of the city. • Provide a hierarchical road system Specifically, in Ramallah, the planning staff connecting the centre and the outer sought planning concepts and models that neighbourhoods that can integrate both dealt with the city’s challenges and could be private transportation and public trans- integrated in the metropolitan area to develop portation in the future. the city into a regional centre. • Provide for housing, based on the private The physical planning concepts and sector, that can be supported from private components of models for Ramallah land ownership. addressed in the planning process are the • Allow for the private sector to provide following: semi-public services and help meet the • The mountainous topography and physi- needs for public buildings and infrastruc- cal structure of the city ture. • The organic direction of city develop- • Preserve the unique character of ment Ramallah as a medium-sized city with a • The future needs of the city at the local, planning capacity of about 100 000 regional, and national levels and the inhabitants (see Table 3). Projected challenges of possible integration of the population growth is based on both natu- surrounding area ral increase and positive immigration. • The authorized existing statutory zoning • Separate zones while ensuring conti- plans in the area concerning landowners’ nuity and complementary land use building rights that includes neighbour cities such • Private land and the formation of private as al-Bira. land parcels • Secure the creation of small local sub- • The ability of municipal and public insti- centres in the satellite neighbourhoods tutions to provide appropriate services that depend on the main centre. Housing and to secure development density will probably be low in these • The social norms, values, and economic neighbourhoods. structure that affect the process of • Develop open space and green area in the providing housing and meeting the serv- valleys and in the areas surrounding

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housing and public buildings by imple- The planning process, principles, and goals menting the principle of multi-use or have faced numerous planning dilemmas and integration in building and land use. problems. These dilemmas may exist in other The assumptions underlying the pro- localities, but they are more significant jected Ramallah population growth are as because of the unique situation and circum- follows: stances of Ramallah, which is still affected • Minimal decrease in natural growth as a by the ongoing Israeli occupation. The plan- result of economic and education ning dilemmas can be classified as either changes, particularly among the female external or internal problems. What follows population is a brief presentation and discussion of the • Increased immigration to Ramallah, main problems. Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 particularly of young households that Despite Ramallah’s inclusion in Area A come to the city looking for opportuni- according to the interim peace agreements of ties in housing and work 1994–2000, the city has been occupied by This rapid population increase comes as Israeli military forces since 2000. During the a result of the establishment of the PT in Second Intifada, which included violent Ramallah, with its several government and activities, Israel reinvaded Ramallah; six public institutions, which provide many years later, the Israeli occupation still controls immigration opportunities. internal areas of Ramallah and the villages The new plan of Ramallah will provide and territories surrounding the city, and zoning for the development of housing, serv- Israeli settlements continue to exist in the ices, and economic activities. Table 4 summa- Ramallah metropolitan area. The military rizes the proposed zoning plan for Ramallah. government has controlled economic and The proposed zones listed in Table 4 spatial areas, reducing both development illustrate how integrating planning principles opportunities for Ramallah and the city’s abil- into the planning concept and model can ity to become the core of the anticipated achieve the goals of the plan. The incremental Palestinian state (RAND Palestinian State plan of 2005 suggests an area of 450 dunams Study Team 2005). (45 ha) allocated for a government district. This occupation spurred both a percep- This government neighbourhood is outside tion and a reality of scarcity among Ramallah’s jurisdiction, in Area C. As a Palestinians, which has had a direct impact result, the MOLG representative demanded on the physical planning of Ramallah by that this area be excluded from the plan. In the creating and deepening a dual discourse 1999 plan, the municipality avoided allocat- within the municipal council. On the one ing zones for national facilities such as hand, the government, public, and financial government districts; that plan suggested establishments concentrated in the Ramallah zones for villa housing (to attract upper- and area could be developed as a centre and core. middle-class households) and for exhibition On the other hand, the Israeli occupation and economic activity, indicating the charac- limits and restricts potential development by ter of the city the plan aimed to achieve. The controlling access and immigration. The planning policy of the municipality does not challenge in the planning process remains threaten the Palestinian claim that East the search for a way to produce outline plans Jerusalem should be the capital and core of dealing with the future “the day after” the the new State of Palestine, but at the same end of occupation by including land outside time it maintains a continued effort to the jurisdiction area of Ramallah. strengthen the centrality of Ramallah. Municipal representatives and the Planning Dilemmas and Implications MOLG have refused to accept plans suggest- ing zoning outside the city’s jurisdiction, in

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) 258 Rassem Khamaisi spite of the need to develop the future city into suggestion that could be even remotely a national core. The PA’s main argument was construed as transforming Ramallah into the that this territory is still occupied and not Palestinian capital and national core. In real- under Palestinian control; Israel has not ity, these official government and public authorized Palestinian officials to approve establishments are physically situated in plans for its development. The municipal Ramallah, but, since the situation was viewed representatives argued that this territory is not as temporary, they have received insufficient needed for Ramallah’s development and that planning consideration. The challenges of proposed land uses that aim to develop creating Palestinian spatial continuity has national facilities and services would change been overshadowed by the Israeli occupation, the character of the city, bringing about a which has not allowed even the suggestion of Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 rapid structural transformation that would continuity in the national conceptual plan for threaten its existing social and ethnic balance. an integrated development between East The city council prefers to preserve develop- Jerusalem and Ramallah.2 ment of this territory for the upper and middle Other planning dilemmas arise from the classes, rather than planning for and provid- planning hierarchy. In a normalized state ing housing for immigrants from the rest of building process, the state has full sover- the PT. eignty over determined territory and over Another external dilemma that has had a organizing settlements. The PT, however, is direct impact on Ramallah is the relationship fragmented among various authorities. In this between Ramallah and Jerusalem. The situation, no officially accepted national plan Palestinian national and popular goal is to exists, thanks to the same challenges that establish East Jerusalem as the national core prevent the planning of a concept or model to and the political capital of Palestine. Israel fit the needs of the city. rejects this demand and has prohibited the There are various extant schemes by establishment of Palestinian institutions in which one could develop a national and East Jerusalem. The closure policies and the regional plan to reorganize national physical building of a wall around Jerusalem are planning in the Palestinian state, including intended to achieve the Israeli goals of the following: preserving Jerusalem, both East and West, under Israeli control, prohibiting any future 1 The principle for physical planning in re-division of the city, and reducing the the new state of Palestine (CEP 1992) Palestinian population there (Brooks et al. 2 The proposal for a new town alongside 2005). On the other hand, the Palestinians the existing one and urbanized strategies need to establish their own national institu- for the Palestinian state (Khamaisi tions in order to manage their new state. In the 1996, 1997) beginning, these institutions were located in 3 PNA, the Norwegian Project 2015 rented houses in the Ramallah area. The idea (MPIC 1998) which includes preparing was, in 1999, that the final political negotia- a master plan for the municipalities of tions between the Israelis and the Palestinians Ramallah and al-Bira(see Figure 4, would soon take place under international map B) auspices and that East Jerusalem would be 4 The Arc Project (Suisman et al. 2005; placed under Palestinian rule and developed MOLG 2005). as the core and national centre of the new 5 Ramallah metropolitan plan (MOLG state. These considerations have had an 2005) impact on the planning and zoning of the Ramallah area. Municipal council and MOLG officers have avoided any planning

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These general plans have not been offi- ance and to initiate preparations for a master cially accepted by the PA or the Municipality plan for the three municipalities that make up of Ramallah. The planners within the munici- the Ramallah metropolitan area. The pal council have attempted to use national and Ramallah outline plan of 1999 was drawn up regional assumptions to guide local planning. before any such MOLG initiative, giving rise The absence of official, or at least acceptable, to series of problems and dilemmas that could planning policies or schemes has made it have been resolved by coordination guidance. difficult to provide plans that could integrate As mentioned earlier, most of the land the city and surrounding area and anticipate within the jurisdiction of the Municipality of the challenges that every planner and devel- Ramallah is privately owned. Some of the oper would potentially face. landowners live in Ramallah; others live Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 In addition to the external dilemmas and outside the country. Still others have author- problems described above, scores of internal ized legal officers to manage their lands. issues have a direct impact of the planning Wherever they are, of course, the owners are process and output. One of these relates to the affected by government planning. Physical twin cities of Ramallah and al-Bira and the and zoning planning create land abatements town of Beituniya. These three municipalities and confiscate some private land for public form one urban functional unit and one urban facilities. Land issues are a sensitive topic space (Khamaisi 2004). The infrastructural within traditional Palestinian communities, sub-structure must be continuous among as in other traditional communities. The these municipalities in order to serve sensitivity becomes more acute in a situation Ramallah, but coordination between the three of foreign occupation, which reduces the municipalities remains limited. The split possibilities for expanding or allocating municipality continues to develop according planned lands for development. The objec- to the Jordanian outline plan. During the tive of the planner is to establish a transpar- Israeli occupation and prior to the establish- ent planning process, including opening the ment of the PA, a new outline plan was process to the landowner; this creates signif- proposed (Khayat 1985), but this plan did not icant pressure on the planning process and receive final official approval (see Figure 4, on the potential allocation of land for public map A). The complexity of coordination and facilities. The municipal council recognizes the desire of every municipality to locate and understands landowners’ claims, and every public facility in its jurisdiction have this further complicates the difficulties of created difficulties in zoning and in planning creating a plan that includes sufficient road infrastructures, as well as creating a development opportunity for public use. The duplication of land uses. Each municipality absence of public land reduces public space has defined and determined its spatial poli- in the city of Ramallah, and the council has cies, even though, in reality, the three munici- reduced the possibility of allocating land palities together serve as a national core, confiscated from private owners. The dispersing functionality among them (Maky absence of public land has obviously 1997). During the planning process the plan- decreased the possibility of building govern- ners tried to coordinate their efforts and thus ment centres or public housing. Today, most deal with the challenges of duplication and government and public offices are located in the barriers to a more functional integration; private buildings. The limited availability of competition between the municipalities, public land has negatively affected the however, caused them to work back to back potential transformation of Ramallah into a instead of working face to face. This situation national core. was further complicated by the failure of the The Municipality of Ramallah was MOLG in 2005 to provide coordination guid- developed to manage and serve a small city.

The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006) 260 Rassem Khamaisi

Rapid growth has put the municipal council main component of state development. The and staff under considerable pressure, partic- connection between state building and the ularly because the mayor was appointed by need to develop an urban core that consolidates the president rather than winning a popular government establishments and spreads devel- election. There is also a scarcity of financial opment to surrounding areas is realized in resources in Ramallah. These political, finan- many new nation-states. The national move- cial, and managerial barriers, combined with ment for Palestinian statehood has declared a scarcity of resources, create questions about Jerusalem to be its core; yet the persistence of the legitimacy of the planning process and the Israeli occupation in Jerusalem has led to plan approval. In addition, the municipal the development of a new city and national council finds itself caught between authoriz- centre, Ramallah, that previously functioned as Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/awg/article-pdf/9/4/242/1446322/arwg_9_4_tu3j11501l73u627.pdf by guest on 25 September 2021 ing plans and providing necessary infrastruc- a small marginal city and a regional centre. The ture and services. On the one hand, the Israeli occupation continues in the areas municipality aims to reduce land and housing surrounding Ramallah and has placed many values, which have increase because of rising limits and restrictions on the mobility of demand since the establishment of the PA in Palestinians and their access to Ramallah. A Ramallah. On the other hand, the municipal- contradiction is reflected in rhetorical ity wants to guide the private development discourse about the future state, as seen in the initiatives on private land according to a clear conflict between the national Palestinian aspi- planning policy accepted by landowners and ration to establish East Jerusalem as the developers, and it wants to prohibit building Palestinian capital and urban core and the real- without permits. The planning of new areas ity that the Ramallah area has become the core. overcommitted the municipality with regard The proposed general plan for the State of to the provision of services and infrastructure, Palestine has envisioned the Ramallah area as since the municipality did not have enough the core, and the local plan of Ramallah has resources to develop these infrastructures. A striven to create a balance between the local typical dilemma resulted, and it is the more and national levels. The Israeli occupation is significant because of the reduced capacity still a main factor, and has had a direct impact for municipal guidance of development on the planning process and zoning. The occu- resulting from strong intervention by the pation gives more significance to internal central government. The reality of a munici- barriers among the community and municipal pal council and mayor appointed by the administration and, in some cases, is used to central government, and the extensive politi- avoid dealing with planning issues that could cization of professional staff in the munici- transform the city into a central core. Needless pality, has produced an ineffectual to say, the challenges of planning in the context municipality. The existing political and mili- of the geopolitical situation subsisting between tary occupation has also produced a situation Palestinians and Israelis, including the occupa- in which spatial planning, in some cases, tion and cycles of violence, threatens the possi- serves elites in the local and central levels of ble integration of Ramallah into the government. surrounding region and the global economy. The existence of a fragmented core in the Conclusion Palestinian state and of barriers to free mobility and accessibility threatens any possibility Establishing a new nation-state requires of developing a successful, viable, and sustain- considering the political system, economic able Palestinian state. The development of an activities, social structure, and institution- appropriate urban core is an important factor in building process. Little attention is given to the securing state and societal sustainability and spatial organization of towns and villages as a establishing regional geopolitical stability.

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The Arab World Geographer/Le Géographe du monde arabe 9, no 4 (2006)