THE KINEMATICS OF BATTING AGAINST FAST BOWLING IN CRICKET by CHRIS PEPLOE A Doctoral Thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University July 2016 © by Chris Peploe, 2016. ABSTRACT In cricket, batting against a fast bowler is thought to be one of the most challenging tasks a player must undertake. Despite this, minimal research exists investigating the techniques used by batsmen, with the majority of research focussed on injury mechanisms and pace generation in fast bowlers. The aim of this study was to investigate the techniques used by elite and amateur batsmen in a training environment, such that key aspects of batting technique relating to success could be extracted, and recommendations for future coaching practice and player development could be made. A novel methodology was developed for the collection of full body three-dimensional kinematic data of cricket batsmen in a realistic training environment. Kinematic and high-speed video (250 Hz) data were collected for 31 batsmen, and a three-dimensional full body biomechanical model was developed. Batsmen performed forward drive and pull shots against different delivery methods. Key events and kinematic parameters were defined, and used to produce detailed biomechanical descriptions of the forward drive and pull shots. A curve fitting methodology was developed and validated to determine the impact location of the ball on the bat face, and used to investigate the effects of impact location on shot outcome during a range hitting task. Impacts further from the sweetspot were found to generate lower ball speeds and decrease shot accuracy through bat twist. Investigations into the presence of movement variability during the forward drive and pull shots, the differences in batsman response when facing different delivery methods, and the aspects of batting technique characterising the longest hitters in a range hitting task were also carried out. Studies identified the commencement of the downswing as a critical event due to the decreased timing and kinematic variability, with larger variation in kinematic parameters occurring during the downswing. Batsmen exhibited fundamentally different techniques against the bowling machine compared to the bowler due to their pre-release knowledge of ball bounce location, while responses against the Sidearm ball thrower were more similar despite the lower ball speed. Finally, batsmen generating the largest carry distances in a range hitting task were found to generate a large separation of the pelvis and thorax in the transverse plane (Z-factor) during the downswing, as well as greater front elbow extension and wrist uncocking. The methodology developed in this study provides a basis for continued investigation into the kinematics of cricket batting in a realistic training environment, allowing researchers to assess and make recommendations to improve current and future batting technique and coaching methods. i PUBLICATIONS Published Papers: Peploe, C., King, M.A., and Harland, A.R. (2014). The effects of different delivery methods on the movement kinematics of elite cricket batsmen in repeated front foot drives. Procedia Engineering, 72, pp. 220-225 Conference Presentations: Peploe, C., McErlain-Naylor, S.A., and King, M.A. (2015). Determining impact location in cricket: a curve fitting methodology. MathSport International Conference, Loughborough University, 29 June – 1 July. Peploe, C., King, M.A., and Harland, A.R. (2015). The effects of different ball delivery methods on the kinematic response of elite cricket batsmen in repeated pull shots. Proceedings of the 5th World Congress of Science and Medicine in Cricket, 23-27 March 2015, pp. 86. Peploe, C. and Harland, A.R. (2014). A method for capturing three-dimensional kinematics of a cricket batsman in a training environment. 1st International Conference in Sports Science and Technology, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 11-12 September Peploe, C., King, M.A., and Harland, A.R. (2014). The effect of different ball delivery methods on batsman response in cricket. BASES Annual Meeting of the Biomechanics Interest Group, Manchester Metropolitan University, 11 April. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Loughborough University and the England and Wales Cricket Board for the incredible opportunity I was given to undertake this research. In particular, my supervisors Dr. Mark King and Dr. Andy Harland have been invaluable to the progress of this research, and have been hugely influential on my continued learning, as well as Graham Thorpe and Michael Bourne who were the original driving force behind this work. I would also like to thank all the participants who took part in each study; from the ECB players who gave up some of their valuable time, and my good friends who on more than one occasion got me out of a hole by coming to take part at the last minute. Finally, I would like to thank all the members of the Sports Technology and Sports Biomechanics research groups, who were crucial in their assistance with data collection and continued help during my research, as well as providing laughs and good times throughout. There are too many to name, but without them this research truly would not have been possible, so for all their help I am eternally grateful. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT I PUBLICATIONS II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III TABLE OF CONTENTS IV LIST OF FIGURES IX LIST OF TABLES XV CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Chapter Outline 1 1.2 The Area of Study 1 1.3 Statement of Purpose 2 1.4 Research Questions 3 1.5 Chapter Organisation 4 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6 2.1 Chapter Outline 6 2.2 The Temporal and Spatial Constraints of Batting 7 2.3 Overcoming the Temporal Constraints of Batting 8 2.3.1 Anticipation 8 2.3.2 Visual Strategy 16 2.4 Perception to Action Theories 20 2.4.1 Predictive Control Theory 21 2.4.2 Prospective Control Theory 21 2.5 The Visual-Motor Delay 23 2.6 Advocating a Hybrid Control Mechanism in Cricket Batting 24 2.7 Movement Variability 26 2.7.1 Outcome and Movement Variability 26 2.7.2 Theories of Movement Variability 27 2.7.3 A Collaborative Theory of Movement Variability 30 2.8 The Kinematics and Kinetics of Batting 31 2.8.1 The Kinematics of Batting 31 2.8.2 The Kinetics of Batting 44 2.9 Endpoint Speed Generation in Hitting Sports 45 2.10 A Multidisciplinary Approach to Batting Research 47 2.11 Chapter Summary 49 CHAPTER 3: METHODS 1 – DATA CAPTURE 50 3.1 Chapter Outline 50 3.2 The Challenge of Tracking a Human Batsman 50 iv 3.3 Selecting a Motion Capture System 51 3.4 Marker Set Design 52 3.4.1 Development of the Lower Body Marker Set 52 3.5 Lower Body Marker Set for Static Calibration Trials 58 3.6 Full Body Marker Set for Dynamic Trials 60 3.7 Experimental Setup 63 3.8 Subjects 64 3.9 Motion Data Collection Procedure 66 3.9.1 Static Trials 66 3.9.2 Dynamic Trials 67 3.10 Measurement of Bat Characteristics 70 3.11 Chapter Summary 72 CHAPTER 4: METHODS 2 – DATA PROCESSING 74 4.1 Chapter Outline 74 4.2 Acquisition of Movement Data 74 4.2.1 Camera Calibration 74 4.2.2 Determining Marker Spatial Reconstruction Accuracy 75 4.2.3 Defining the Origin and Lab Coordinate System 78 4.3 Preparation of Movement Data 79 4.3.1 Reconstructing Marker Locations 79 4.3.2 Labelling of Dynamic Trials 79 4.3.3 Filtering and Interpolating Movement Data 81 4.4 Modelling Marker Data 83 4.4.1 Model Segment Definitions 84 4.4.2 Joint Angle Definitions 89 4.5 Model Processing 91 4.5.1 Assigning Tags to Files 91 4.5.2 Defining Key Events 91 4.5.3 Variable Definition 99 4.6 Chapter Summary 103 CHAPTER 5: A BIOMECHANICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE FORWARD DRIVE AND PULL SHOTS 104 5.1 Chapter Outline 104 5.2 The Forward Drive 104 5.2.1 Delivery Characteristics 105 5.2.2 Movement Timings 105 5.2.3 The Stance Phase 106 5.2.4 The Backswing 108 5.2.5 The Forward Stride 111 5.2.6 The Downswing to Impact 111 5.2.7 The Follow Through 115 v 5.2.8 Outcome 115 5.2.9 Questions from the Data 116 5.3 The Pull Shot 118 5.3.1 Delivery Characteristics 118 5.3.2 Movement Timings 119 5.3.3 The Stance Phase 120 5.3.4 The Backswing 121 5.3.5 Foot Movement/Weight Transfer Phase 122 5.3.6 The Downswing to Impact 123 5.3.7 The Follow Through 126 5.3.8 Outcome 126 5.3.9 Questions from the Data 126 5.4 Conclusions and Application to Coaching 129 5.5 Chapter Summary 130 CHAPTER 6: DETERMINING IMPACT LOCATION AND ITS EFFECTS ON SHOT OUTCOME 131 6.1 Chapter Outline 131 6.2 Introduction 131 6.3 Methodology 132 6.3.1 Stage 1 – Spatial Reconstruction Accuracy 132 6.3.2 Stage 2 – Ball Flight Tracking 133 6.3.3 Stage 3 – Impact Location Calculation: Static Ball 134 6.3.4 Stage 4 – Impact Location Calculation: Dynamic ball 136 6.3.5 Stage 5 – The Effects of Impact Location on Shot Outcome 137 6.4 Results 140 6.4.1 Stage 1 – Spatial Reconstruction Accuracy 140 6.4.2 Stage 2 – Ball Flight Tracking 140 6.4.3 Stage 3 – Impact Location Calculation: Static Ball 141 6.4.4 Stage 4 – Impact Location Calculation: Dynamic ball 142 6.4.5 Stage 5 – The Effects of Impact Location on Shot Outcome 144 6.5 Discussion and Conclusions 148 6.6 Chapter Summary 153 CHAPTER 7: ASSESSING MOVEMENT VARIABILITY IN CRICKET BATTING 154 7.1 Introduction 154 7.2 Methodology 155 7.2.1 Subjects 155 7.2.2 Data Collection and Processing 155 7.2.3 Data Reduction 156 7.2.4 Statistical Analysis 157 vi 7.3 Results 158 7.3.1 Forward Drives 158 7.3.2 Pull Shots 162 7.4 Discussion 167 7.5 Conclusions and Application to Coaching 171 CHAPTER 8: THE EFFECTS OF FACING DIFFERENT DELIVERY METHODS