Earthscope Project Plan

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A NEW VIEW INTO EARTH ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

PROJECT PLAN ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

A NEW VIEW INTO EARTH ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

PROJECT PLAN

OCTOBER 2001 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

EarthScope Working Group

Thomas Henyey (Chair) ...... University of Southern California Thomas Herring...... Massachusetts Institute of Technology Steve Hickman ...... United States Geological Survey Thomas Jordan ...... University of Southern California John McRaney (Secretary) ...... University of Southern California Anne Meltzer...... Lehigh University J. Bernard Minster...... University of California, San Diego Dennis Nielson ...... DOSECC Paul Rosen ...... Jet Propulsion Laboratory Paul Silver ...... Carnegie Institution of Washington Mark Simons...... California Institute of Technology David Simpson ...... IRIS Robert Smith...... University of Utah Wayne Thatcher ...... United States Geological Survey Mark Zoback ...... Stanford University ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Contents○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Project Summary...... 1

A New View Into Earth: The Deformation of a Continent ...... 4

Scientific Themes and Motivation ...... 9 Continental Structure and Evolution ...... 10 The Pacific/North America Plate Boundary System ...... 11 Fault Systems and Seismic Hazards ...... 12 Magmatic Systems and Volcanic Hazards...... 13 Earth’s Interior ...... 15

Integrated Observation Systems ...... 17 New Observational Facilities ...... 18 USArray ...... 18 PBO ...... 19 InSAR ...... 20 SAFOD ...... 21 Data Management and Information Technology ...... 22 Education and Outreach ...... 24

Implementation ...... 27 Management Structure and Coordination ...... 27 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ National and International Partnerships...... 30 Budget and Planning Overview...... 32

Appendix 1: Implementation Milestones ...... 34

Suggested Reading ...... 36

Acronyms ...... 36 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Project Summary○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Earth is a dynamic planet. Motions ogy, geodesy, and remote sensing, of the fluid core produce the dynamo that EarthScope will yield a comprehensive, gives rise to the magnetic field. Convection time-dependent picture of the continent be- in the mantle drives plate motions, result- yond that which any single discipline can ing in the relentless cycle that creates achieve. Cutting-edge land- and space- oceans, builds mountains, shapes land- based technologies will make it possible for forms, and concentrates the world’s energy the first time to resolve Earth structure and and mineral resources. While these mo- measure deformation in real-time at conti- tions are gradual and usually go unnoticed, at times the outer layers of the crust shift rapidly, with catastrophic impact on Earth’s Recent California [and Washington] earthquakes have surface and the fragile web of human infrastructure and lives. In the United States, demonstrated that cities and towns in tectonically ac- vivid examples include the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens and the 1994 tive areas are built on complex systems of faults with Northridge earthquake in California. The hundreds of potential “moving parts,” some of which plate-tectonic forces responsible for devas- tating earthquakes and volcanic eruptions do not even breach the surface, and any one of which in the western U.S. and Alaska operate might suddenly shift. throughout the entire North American con- ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ tinent. They are tied to large earthquakes Active Tectonics and Society: A Plan for Integrative Science, 1993 that struck the New Madrid seismic zone in central U.S., and Charleston, South Caro- lina in the 19th century. No region of our continent is exempt from the influence of these nental scales. These measurements will great forces. permit us to relate processes in Earth’s in- While earthquakes and volcanic erup- terior to their surface expressions, includ- tions annually cause billions of dollars in ing faults and volcanoes. damage and tragic loss of life, they also re- EarthScope includes new observational veal the inner workings of our planet. If we technologies in seismology, geodesy, and can understand the geologic processes that remote sensing, that will be linked through control these phenomena, we can reduce high-speed, high-performance computing risks to life and property and, perhaps, one and telecommunications networks. The day predict them. new facilities build on existing strengths in EarthScope is a new Earth science initia- these fields, as well a strong tradition of tive that will dramatically advance our excellence in field observations and labo- physical understanding of the North Ameri- ratory research in the broader Earth sci- can continent by exploring its three-dimen- ences. Combined with funding for inte- sional structure, and changes in that struc- grated Earth science research and ture, through time. By integrating scientific education, EarthScope provides a unique information derived from geology, seismol- framework for basic and applied geologi-

1 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ cal research across the United States and magmatic plumbing to surface volcanism— its neighboring countries. EarthScope will is best done in portions of Alaska and the make new and fundamental contributions, Pacific Northwest, while natural laborato- permitting us to address the following key ries in the central and eastern U.S. afford questions: some of the best opportunities for examin- • What are the underlying geologic pro- ing relationships between intraplate stress cesses that build mountains, deform con- and earthquake occurrence. tinents, ignite volcanic eruptions, gener- EarthScope resources will be accessible ate earthquakes, and ultimately tear to the entire scientific and educational com- continents apart? munities. Data acquired from the new ob- • How do continents interact with the servational facilities will be telemetered in whole Earth system? near real-time to central processing facili- • How are features at Earth’s surface re- ties and made freely and openly available lated to structures and deformational to the research community, government processes in Earth’s deep interior? agencies, educators, and the public and pri- • How does the long-term process of stress vate sectors. End users also will have on- accumulation in Earth result in the greatly line access to software that will aid in data accelerated catastrophic failure associ- integration, manipulation, and visualiza- ated with earthquakes and volcanic eruption. An Earth science information system tions? of this type will build on the nation’s in- • What are the architecture and physical creasing capabilities in the development state of the lithosphere, and how do they and use of information technology. relate to deformation? EarthScope will provide mechanisms to • What are the spatial and temporal scales unite North American Earth scientists with of deformation across the continent? diverse tools and perspectives in a decade ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ • How are earthquakes, volcanoes, and or more of interdisciplinary studies of the mountain building related to preexisting continent. In doing so, EarthScope will ex- geologic structures and patterns of on- pand the culture of shared and coordinated going deformation? resources and research in Earth sciences. • How can the spatial and temporal pat- At the same time, it will encourage the in- terns of deformation, together with terpretation of the results of basic research knowledge of their associated structures, to support a society increasingly dependent be used to predict the behaviors of seis- on Earth resources and one susceptible to mic, volcanic, and other geodynamic geologic hazards. phenomena? EarthScope provides an excellent oppor- EarthScope will provide the scientific tunity to improve science literacy in the U.S. community with opportunities to engage in through a comprehensive education and integrated studies of entire geosystems. outreach program extending across the The program’s continent-wide scope opens country and continuing throughout and the door to major advances in our under- beyond the lifetime of the program. Earth standing of continental dynamics, while at science naturally integrates fundamental the same time allowing scientists to select concepts in math, physics, chemistry, and natural laboratories across the country to biology. EarthScope will capitalize on the optimize the study of particular systems. public’s interest in earthquakes and volca- For example, exploring a continental arc noes by demonstrating how active geologic system—from subducting slab through processes shape our modern environment

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EarthScope's facilities include the following four coupled components:

USArray (United States Seismic InSAR (Interferometric Syn- Array): A continental-scale, por- thetic Aperture Radar): A re- table seismic array will map the mote-sensing technique will structure of the continent and the un- provide spatially continuous strain mea- derlying mantle at high resolution. surements over wide geographic areas with decimeter to centimeter resolution. PBO (Plate Boundary Observa- tory): A fixed array of GPS re- SAFOD (San Andreas Fault ceivers and strainmeters will Observatory at Depth): A map ongoing deformation of the west- borehole observatory across ern half of the continent, from Baja Cali- the San Andreas fault will measure sub- fornia to the Bering Sea, with a resolu- surface conditions that give rise to slip tion of one millimeter or better over on faults and deformation in the crust. regional baselines.

and concentrate natural resources. agencies as requested. Implementation, EarthScope has the potential to make these operation, and maintenance of EarthScope subjects relevant on a region-by-region facilities will be carried out by organizations ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ basis as continental-scale results emerge, that demonstrate the highest level of ex- including both overarching and regional pertise through a competitive process. Each scientific issues as well as links between sci- successful organization will be expected to ence and society. At the advanced level, have outstanding management and tech- EarthScope affords graduate students in the nical staffs, a solid mechanism to incorpo- Earth sciences with an introduction to sys- rate input from the user community, and a tem-level integrative science and informa- demonstrated commitment to operating tion technology. Through unrestricted ac- community facilities. cess to real-time data and integrated EarthScope is being developed jointly by scientific information, EarthScope has the the scientific community and the National potential to impact Earth science education Science Foundation in partnership with in new ways. other science and mission-oriented agen- An EarthScope Coordinating Committee, cies including the U.S. Geological Survey composed of representatives from the (USGS) and the National Aeronautics and EarthScope facilities and Earth science Space Administration (NASA). community at large, will provide coordination among the component facilities, foster science integration, education, and outreach, establish and oversee data policies, coordinate annual reporting and funding re- quests, and provide advice to the funding

3 A New View○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Into Earth The Deformation of a Continent

Geological processes create the rich features relate to structural, compositional, fabric of our continent’s landscape, from the and thermal differences in Earth’s interior, ancient, eroded Appalachian Mountains to or how plate tectonic stresses are trans- the youthful volcanoes of the Cascades and ferred to individual faults. Although we the shattered crust of the San Andreas fault have made major progress over the past Figure 1. The face of North system. The development of plate tectonic decade in understanding how faults rupture America reflects the variety theory during the last half century provided and what ground motions earthquakes gen- of geological forces that have sculpted the conti- a framework for explaining, to first order, erate, our understanding of what controls nent. EarthScope will cre- the structure of continents, the origin of earthquake size, why great earthquakes ate a linked infrastructure mountain belts, and the distribution of occasionally strike plate interiors, and when for a continental-scale ob- earthquakes and volcanoes. Despite the el- and where the next major events are likely servatory of remote-sensing geophysical instru- egance and utility of this paradigm, impor- to occur remains remarkably incomplete. ments to probe deep tant questions concerning the deep Earth Moreover, the rules that govern plate mo- beneath the surface. These processes that deform continents remain tion do not apply, in simple fashion, to instruments will illuminate unanswered. For example, while we know broad plate boundary zones such as west- the underlying structure of the continent, permitting a that continental crust grows progressively ern North America from the Rocky Moun-

better understanding of the ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ outward, we know little about the driving tains to the Pacific Ocean, where strain is processes that continue to mechanism of plate tectonics, how surface distributed and inhomogeneous. build and change the North American landscape.

4 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ A variety of continental tectonic pro- Figure 2. Rig used to drill the 3.0-km-deep Long Val- cesses, including deformation that leads to ley Exploratory well near earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain the town of Mammoth building, and sedimentary basins, have Lakes, California. A rig like been observed and described for centuries, this would be used to drill the SAFOD hole. but plate-tectonic theory finally provided a context for all these events. Early plate-tectonic theory was built upon a diverse set of global observations from which plate motions could be inferred—rather than from direct measurements of oceanic and continental crustal displacements. Within the last decade, however, limitations to directly measuring crustal motion, at all time scales, have been removed. Tech- niques for sensing crustal movements now have sufficient sensitivity to instanta- cause earthquakes in southern California neously measure continental deformation. years or decades later? Can an earthquake Interconnected telemetered seismometer in the Mojave desert trigger volcanic erup- networks now allow real-time detection and tions in the Pacific Northwest? Are fault lo- analysis of rapid (seconds to minutes) cations controlled by events that occurred movements associated with earthquakes. millions or even billions of years ago dur- GPS geodesy, borehole strain, and satellite ing assembly of continental fragments? Is radar interferometry can precisely measure earthquake activity in the “stable” mid-con- longer duration (hours to years) move- tinental region near New Madrid, Missouri ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ ments that redistribute stresses along plate related to the same forces that tried to split boundaries and within plates. Finally, dra- North America in half a billion years ago? matic improvements in geochronology al- All of these possibilities have been sug- low fine resolution within the thousand- to gested by detective work involving the as- billion-year time scales involved in earth- sembly of diverse clues extracted from in- quake and volcanic eruptive cycles, moun- dividual, often unrelated, studies. tain building, and continental evolution. Measuring crustal motions and how those EarthScope offers an opportunity to mea- motions are communicated across plates sure plate motion as it happens—on a hu- at the scale of North America will allow sci- man time scale and continental spatial entists to examine Earth at spatial and tem- scale—permitting us to decipher the cause poral scales commensurate with geologic and effect of movements. Instruments ca- processes. EarthScope may reveal whether pable of probing the crust in three dimen- slow stress waves from one event can sions and measuring its movements will be propagate across the continent to load placed throughout the actively deforming other tectonic systems, or whether second- western U.S. and slower moving eastern ary events are dynamically triggered and U.S. EarthScope will be able to track Earth’s isolated to areas characterized by “soft response to tectonic events and assist in spots” in the crust resulting from ancient finding answers to questions such as: Does geologic history. volcanism and seafloor spreading in the Gulf of California set up the stresses that

5 Seismic Hazard○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Analysis The Intersection of Plate Tectonics and Society

Seismic hazard analysis is one, especially As illustrated by the model ingredients, relevant example of interdisciplinary, inte- moveable seismic arrays (USArray) provide grative science that will benefit from the the subsurface structural representation EarthScope initiative. It requires collabora- (fault locations, fault geometries, and seis- tion of scientists from a variety of Earth sci- mic velocities) while geodesy (PBO and ence subdisciplines and integration of data InSAR), coupled with geochronology and from all four EarthScope components, paleoseismology, provide regional defor- coupled with a sound understanding of re- mation patterns and fault slip rates. Fault gional geology. Coordinated planning, rupture scenarios, needed for ground-mo- open data distribution, and a focus on a tion simulations, are the products of fault- common problem are its hallmarks, as well zone physics (SAFOD) and inversions of Figure acknowledgments clock- wise from top left. Seismicity: as the foundation on which EarthScope has wave-fields from past earthquakes Marquis, J., http://www.scecdc. been conceived. Moreover, hazard models (USArray and regional seismic networks scec.org/histanim.html. Paleo- seismology: Sieh, K. E., Jour. are becoming the products of natural labo- such as the Advanced National Seismic Geophys. Res., 83, B8, 3907-3939, ratories such as the San Andreas fault sys- System, or ANSS). Not shown, but equally 1978. Local Site Effects: Figure assembled by E.H. Field from the tem, New Madrid Seismic Zone, and Cas- important, is the next level of integration work of Gao, S., H. Liu, P. M. Davis cadia, for which EarthScope is particularly involving the conjunction of ground motion and L. Knopoff, Bull. Seis. Soc. Amer., 86, 1B, S209-S230, 1996 well suited with it emphasis on high-reso- intensity measures with performance- and from Graves, R. W.; A. lution, uniform, synoptic coverage of both based earthquake engineering design. Pitarka, P.G. Somerville, Bull. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Seis. Soc. Amer., 88, 1224 – 1242, crustal structure and rates of deformation. 1998. Geologic Structure: Shaw, J. H. and P.M. Shearer, Science, 283, 5407, 1516-1518, 1999. Rup- Seismic Hazard Model Ingredients ture Dynamics: Wald, D. J. and T. H. Heaton, Bull. Seis. Soc. Seismicity (ANSS) Paleoseismology Local Site Effects Geologic Structure Amer., 84, 3, 668-691, 1994. Seis- (USArray) mic Velocity Structure: Magi- strale, H., S. Day, R. Clayton and R.W. Graves, Bull. Seis. Soc. Amer, 90, 6B, S65-S762000. Crustal Deformation: Sandwell, D. T., L. Sichoix, D. Agnew, Y. Bock, J. Minster, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 19, 3101-3104, 2000. Faults (USArray) 5 s Crustal Motion: Background Im- 6 s 7 s age: Robert Crippen (Jet Propul- 8 s sion Laboratory); SCIGN map: 9 s Crustal Deformation Working 10 s Group, Southern California Earth- 11 s 12 s quake Center (Ken Hudnut, 13 s Chair). Stress Transfer: Image 14 s created by Ross Stein, USGS. 15 s 16 s Faults: Image created by Robert Seismic Hazard Model 17 s Crippen (Jet Propulsion Labora- 18 s tory), modified by Mark Benthien, Ventura San 19 s Basin Fernando Valley San San Bernardino SCEC. Seismic Hazard Model: Im- Gabriel Valley 1 Rupture 0 20 Chino 40 10 30 Valley 0 20 Basin 10

10 0 Dynamics age created by Ken Hudnut, 30 20 30

40 Los 70 30 20 60 50 Angeles 40 0 0 (SAFOD, 3 50 -10 40 1 -10 20 USGS, based on data from D. D. Basin 10 0 0 0 119˚ 118˚ 117˚ 50 40 30 V.E. 3:1 ANSS, 20

10 34˚ 34˚ Jackson et al., Bull. Seis. Soc. 0 -1 0 P wave velocity m/s km 0 50 and 119˚ 118˚ 117˚ 223 350 900 1400 1900 2400 2900 3400 3900 4400 4900 5400 5900 6400 6900 Amer., 85, 379-439, 1995. USArray) Stress Transfer (InSar, Crustal Motion Crustal Deformation Seismic Velocity Structure PBO, and SAFOD) (PBO) (InSAR) (USArray) 6 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ The opportunity to observe and measure a variety of disciplines in both ancient and Earth structure and deformation in unprec- modern geologic environments, and we edented scale and detail arises now as the must make detailed studies of Earth’s sur- result of a number of critical factors: face as well as the regions below. This is • Development of high-precision instru- particularly challenging because Earth’s ments capable of being placed in remote interior is inaccessible and characterized by locations for extended periods of time; extreme conditions. Although laborious • Availability of radio and satellite telem- and expensive, drilling is still the best etry that allows remote instruments to method for direct sampling of materials in communicate directly and constantly the outer few kilometers of Earth’s crust. with operational support bases; To probe deeper, we must rely on remote • An expanded capability for deep drilling sensing methods including seismic, grav- into active fault zones and the ability to ity, and electromagnetic techniques. For ex- instrument these holes to extract key in- ample, earthquakes and controlled (artifi- formation on the physical conditions cial) seismic sources generate elastic waves within earthquake nucleation zones; that encode an immense amount of infor- • Widespread computer networks that mation about the earth through which they bring real-time data to the desktop and propagate. This illumination can be cap- are capable of connecting scientists and tured on arrays of sensors and digitally pro- educators across the country into a cessed into three-dimensional images of united research and educational enter- Earth’s internal structure and time-lapse prise; pictures of active tectonic processes. The • Analytical improvements in geochronol- more expansive the arrays, the greater the ogy that provide both higher precision resolution and the deeper we can look. and application to a wider age range of Integrating geology, geochronology, and ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ events; geophysics within EarthScope will provide • Expanding data archival systems capable us with an approach to investigate the struc- of storing and manipulating huge data ture of the North American continent in four streams arriving from large instrument dimensions. Understanding a particular arrays; geodynamic process and predicting its be- • A mature national infrastructure of Earth havior requires knowledge of Earth mate- science organizations and consortia that rials, rates and magnitudes of motion, and have developed considerable experience the structures on which the motion is tak- in managing facilities similar to those in ing place. Satellite-based interferometric EarthScope. synthetic aperture radar can map decime- EarthScope has its roots in the concept of ter- to centimeter-level deformation due to dynamic geosystems, such as fault sys- strain buildup and release along faults, tems, magmatic systems, orogenic sys- magma inflation of volcanoes, and ground tems, and convective systems. It is no subsidence over areas tens to hundreds of longer sufficient to simply observe these kilometers wide. Moreover, these images systems and their consequences; rather we of the strain field complement even more must understand the underlying processes precise ground-based arrays of continu- in order to predict their behaviors. To un- ously operating GPS receivers with milli- derstand solid Earth geosystems, we must meter precision over baselines of thou- assimilate and integrate observations from sands of kilometers. For example, GPS

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velopment of many new remote-sensing EarthScope will contribute substantially to under- and direct-sampling technologies. Data- gathering efforts have been greatly facili- standing the structure, evolution, and active defor- tated by communication systems that can mation of the continents and the attendant earthquake transmit high-resolution data with many variables from remote locations to ad- and volcanic hazards. vanced data centers and scientists’ desk tops in real or near-real time. Basic Research Opportunities in Earth Science, NRC, 2001 The next major advances in our understanding of how the dynamic Earth works, and how humankind can best deal with arrays can be used to map long-term strain both the beneficial resources and the dra- rates across plate boundaries, such as in matic hazards Earth provides, must come western U.S., and short-term deformations by expansion of our observational network associated with earthquakes and volca- to the scale of plate-tectonics. EarthScope noes. Strainmeters, the most sensitive of will provide this step for the continental the geodetic techniques, can be used to de- United States. A national program on the tect any pre-event transients associated scale of EarthScope, integrating geologic, with these potentially catastrophic phe- geodetic, seismological, and remote-sens- ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ nomena. Finally, geologic and paleoseismic ing data from continent-wide observation investigations extend the time dependence systems, will catalyze solid Earth science of dynamic geosystems back in time, pro- research in the United States and provide viding a baseline with which to compare a new view of the North American conti- modern kinematic data. nent and its active tectonic environment. Much of what has been learned about Moreover, the scientific and organizational Earth over the past half century has come structure underlying this interdisciplinary from either mid-1900s technology or more effort can serve as a national model for recent technologies implemented only in Earth science studies in continental dynam- specific regions, resulting in subcritical ob- ics. Perhaps the most exciting aspect of the servations. EarthScope will provide a quan- EarthScope initiative is the prospect of un- tum leap in our observational capabilities. anticipated discovery and unveiling of re- Newly available technologies range from sults and insights that we cannot yet imag- space-based platforms and global networks ine. of surface observatories to extremely sensitive instruments that can measure Earth materials and processes in both the laboratory and the field. Furthermore, the digi- tal revolution has significantly improved Earth science observations through the de-

8 Scientific Themes and Motivation○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

North America’s landforms are the re- complex systems. To address any given sult of hundreds of millions of years of ac- part of a system, we must understand the tive surface and deep-Earth processes. system as a whole and the processes that Many of these landforms reflect tectonic span a broad range of spatial and tempo- motion that is building and deforming the ral scales. continent today. Some are subtle, such as EarthScope will apply new technologies, those associated with the mid-continent rift including high-resolution sensors for seis- and New Madrid seismic zone. Others, such mology and geodesy, satellite imaging sys- as the Cascade stratovolcanoes and San tems, electronic miniaturization, wide-band Andreas fault system, stand out in stark and high-speed communications, high-per- contrast to their surroundings. There is a formance computers, networking, and data need to understand the wide range of de- handling to: (1) produce the first high-reso- formational processes that result in these lution synoptic views of the continental landforms, many of which represent threats lithosphere and mantle beneath North to life and property. America, (2) generate the first comprehen- Although we have developed a relatively sive maps of crustal deformation across the detailed understanding of the continent’s continent, and (3) provide the first look at tectonic framework through high-resolution the inner workings of a portion deep within topographic and geological mapping, our an active geosystem—the San Andreas ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ knowledge of the underlying structures and fault. And most importantly, EarthScope processes that control the location, behav- will integrate measurements contributed by ior and evolution of fault and magmatic a diverse set of Earth Science disciplines systems, mountain belts, and crustal rift- and observational tools, providing a frame- ing is sparse and incomplete. We lack a work for broad studies across the Earth sci- comprehensive understanding of how a ences. This framework will produce the next continent interacts with the underlying major advances in our field. The time is mantle, how inherited structures and com- right, and the scientific motivation there, for positional variations in the continental an initiative of this magnitude. lithosphere modulate modern tectonic pro- The following five sections highlight the cesses, how plate margins develop and key scientific themes and important ques- deform, how plate tectonic motions are tions to be addressed by the EarthScope transferred into sudden slip on individual initiative. faults, and how near-surface magmatism couples to tectonics below. Moreover, we have only sparse data on actual deformation rates across the United States, including those rates leading up to and following major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Active tectonics processes operate within

9 Continental Structure○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ and Evolution

Earth is unique among the terrestrial plan- the time in between, provide the targets for ets in having compositionally distinct con- EarthScope’s focus on the structure, defor- tinental and oceanic crust. While plate tec- mation, and evolution of the North Ameri- tonics provides a cogent explanation for can continent. EarthScope will provide the origin of the oceanic crust, the mechanisms first ever continuous, coherent, high-reso- that form continents remain elusive. Mod- lution images of the lithosphere at the con- els for continent formation include plate- tinental scale. tectonic mechanisms, such as collision of island arcs, and non-plate-tectonic mecha- Scientific Issues nisms such large-volume magmatism as- • How are continents assembled? sociated with mantle-plume eruption. The • What is the connection between crust/ formation of continents, the mechanical re- mantle structure and the geographic lo- sponse of continents to the forces of mantle cation and character of tectonic pro- convection and plate tectonics, and possi- cesses and features? bly the long-term survival of continents at • How are the various modes of continen- Earth’s surface are intimately linked to tal formation and deformation reflected crustal properties, and to the combination in the structure, composition, and physi- of crust and its melt-depleted mantle root. cal properties of the crust and underly- North America has a rich plate tectonic ing mantle? and geodynamic history spanning more • What are the feedback loops between than three billion years. The central stable crustal deformation (including uplift/sub-

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ craton of North America records the exist- sidence and erosion) and deep-seated ence of Precambrian orogenic belts, worn geodynamic processes? down to their roots by erosion over the mil- • What are the relationships between Figure 3. Seismic (a) and lennia, which can be interpreted in terms crustal provinces and intraplate stresses? geodynamic (b-d) models of heterogeneity in struc- of plate rifting and convergence. In contrast, • How can knowledge gained from ancient ture at a depth of 1100 km along North America’s western margin, orogenic systems be used to understand in the mantle. The major continental evolution driven by plate inter- the behavior of active tectonic systems? feature beneath eastern actions is occurring through similar, but cur- • What are the relevant time scales for con- North America is interpreted as a piece of old rently active tectonic processes. These geo- tinental evolution? How do geologic and ocean—the Farallon plate logic environments, and those representing geodetic deformation rates compare? —that was subducted to the east beneath the continent during an earlier 1,100 km depth phase of plate tectonic movements. Images de- acdb rived from EarthScope data will make it possible to determine more precisely the location and composition of this structure and help constrain the geodynamic models. Modified from Bunge and Grand, 2000, Nature, 405, 337-340. -0.5% +0.5%

10 The Pacific/North America Plate Boundary○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ System

125˚W 124˚W 123˚W We stand at a critical juncture in the evolu- 40˚ 00'N SAF MF BSF tion of the Pacific/North America plate Land shots boundary system. This zone is being trans- Offshore shots Modeled offshore shot formed from an Andean-type convergent OBS locations margin that has existed since the Triassic Land receivers and produced the North American Cordil- 39˚ 30'N Onshore-offshore receivers Earthquakes lera with large subduction-zone earthquakes and pervasive magmatism, to the predominantly strike-slip boundary that we WESAFCoast MF BSF observe today. This unfinished transition -100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100 has produced several fascinating plate- 0 boundary structures in addition to standard 10 20 subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath 30 Alaska. These include subduction of small Depth (km) young remnants of the Farallon Plate be- 1.5 3.5 5.5 7.5 8.5 neath Cascadia and southern Mexico, ex- P-wave seismic velocity (km/s) tension in the Basin and Range, deforma- Figure 4. Seismic velocity- tion of the western North American reflectivity cross section Cordillera, and, of course, initiation of the boundary processes. Because these pro- across the San Andreas San Andreas fault system. cesses have dominated North American Fault transform system in This major transform plate boundary sys- geology over the last several billion years, northern California. The lower crust and Moho are

tem that began 12-14 million years ago has the North American continent is an excel- ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ offset across the San both grown and migrated inland, generat- lent place to unravel the general evolution Andreas and Macaama ing distributed shear across California and of our continent. faults. At this latitude the Great Basin. The evolution continues (~39.5ºN) the transform system is ~2 m.y. old. From to the present. Although a map of the Ba- Scientific Issues Henstock, T.J., et al., Sci- sin and Range suggests spatially uniform • What is the distribution of crustal defor- ence, 278, 650-653, 1997, extension, geodesy reveals a recent focus- mation throughout the Pacific/North and Henstock T.J., and ing of deformation near its western and America plate boundary between the Levander, A., Geophysical Journal International, 140, eastern edges. This, in turn, suggests dra- Rocky Mountains and Pacific coast, and 233-247, 2000. matic differences in material properties across southern Alaska? within the crust and mantle across the Ba- • How does the pattern of deformation cor- sin and Range that are probably thermally relate with plate kinematic models, re- induced. gional tectonics, and seismicity? Deformation within the Pacific/North • How is the pattern of crustal deforma- America plate boundary zone occurs over tion in the plate boundary zone related a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. to the structure, composition, and physi- On the largest scale, shortening that pro- cal properties of the lithosphere and duced the North American Cordillera is giv- mantle below? ing way to shear and extension that is now • What is the relationship between re- pulling this region away from the stable gional seismicity and conditions/pro- continent. This provides us with an actively cesses in the crust and upper mantle? deforming natural laboratory that should • Are there processes in the upper mantle greatly increase our understanding of plate- 11 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Figure 5. Crustal motion beneath the plate boundary zone that can NEVADA map for southern Califor- CALIFORNIA be correlated with patterns of deforma- nia derived from 250 permanent SCIGN stations tion and tectonic styles at the surface, (green dots). Stations are such as Cascadia or the Basin and concentrated in the Los An- Range? geles region because of its • What can the current crustal deformation large seismic hazard; little N was known about defor- pattern tell us about the evolution of the mation in the region before Faults plate boundary? SCIGN. Arrows show the SCIGN stations 0 1 2 inches/year MEXICO • What is the relationship between tec- slow movement of some Pacific 0 40 millimeters/year Ocean tonism and volcanism throughout west- stations relative to the N.A. 0 60 MILES 0 50 100 kilometers 0 60 KILOMETERS plate. From USGS Fact ern North America? Sheet D69-01, August 2001. Fault Systems and Seismic Hazards

Faults and earthquakes are common to well, such as along the Mississippi River in

Figure 6. A seismic shaking many parts of North America, affecting tens central U.S., along sections of the coastal amplification map for the of millions of people. Stresses that gener- region of southeastern U.S., and in parts greater Los Angeles region ate earthquakes exist throughout the con- of New England and the North Atlantic sea- based on the effects of tinent, deforming Earth’s outer layers most board, and these may not be the only such near-surface geology and depth to basement. The conspicuously at or along zones of crustal zones. North America’s historical record is blue areas represent base- weakness. Because the boundaries be- excruciatingly short. Thus, earthquakes ment exposed in the sur- tween plates are weak links in the global must be regarded as a national problem. rounding mountains. Com- plate tectonic mosaic, earthquakes and Although predicting the precise time, bining information about ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ site effects with where and other forms of deformation occur most place, and magnitude of an impending how often earthquakes of commonly adjacent to these zones, such as earthquake must remain a long-term goal, various magnitudes are the Pacific/North America plate boundary there are important aspects of earthquakes likely to occur should pro- along the western margin of North America that can be forecast, including the probable vide improved assess- ments of seismic hazard. and southern Alaska. However, zones of locations of future major events, and char- Image created by E. H. weakness prone to earthquakes are known acteristics of the ground motions likely to Field based on SCEC Phase to exist in others parts of the continent as be generated throughout the greater epi- 3 study, Bull Seismol. Soc. central region. An integration of all Amer., 90, 6B, 2000. EarthScope component facilities will be needed to quantify the kinematics and dynamics of the plate-boundary system, develop a better physics-based understanding of the behavior of faults and fault systems, and put the knowledge to practi- cal use for hazard mitigation. Specifically, we must enhance the identification of seismogenic structures and zones of deformation that contribute to regional seismic hazard, measure their rates of deformation, explore the inner workings of an active fault including how fault rupture starts and stops,

12 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ and search for evidence of strain transients • What are the subsurface conditions and or precursors that may presage potentially seismic wave propagation effects that damaging events. control the pattern and characteristics of ground shaking during an earthquake? Scientific Issues • What is the relationship between the re- • What is the deep structure of faults and gional stress field and seismicity? fault zones? Are faults truncated at mid- • What are the relationships among intra- crustal detachments or do they continue plate stresses, geologic structures, and through the crust and Moho? regional seismicity? • What material properties govern defor- • Do detectable earthquake strain precur- mation in the lower crust and mantle? sors exist? • How do complex systems of faults ac- • How does the long-term process of stress commodate overall plate motions, and accumulation in Earth result in the greatly to what extent does distributed deforma- accelerated catastrophic failure associ- tion play a role within the seismogenic ated with earthquakes and volcanic erup- layer of the crust? tions? What are the physical laws gov- • What fault-zone properties govern earth- erning such failures? quake nucleation and slip on faults? • To what extent are earthquakes predict- • What factors control the space-time pat- able? Can the maximum magnitude on tern of earthquake occurrence? a given fault or fault system be predicted? Magmatic Systems and Volcanic Hazards

Volcanic arcs are found above subduction the lower crust and upper mantle, through ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ zones, and represent one of the most com- melt chemistry and xenoliths (included mon forms of global volcanism. Arc volca- fragments of lower crustal and mantle noes are often explosive, and eruptions rocks). Globally, active volcanic arcs are pose significant hazards to local popula- typically found above the ~100 km depth tions and air traffic. Eruptions threaten over contour of the downgoing slab. However, 10 million people in the Pacific Northwest active volcanoes are absent from sections and Alaska, can potentially knock jet aircraft of some arcs, and the chemistry and pro- out of the sky by choking their engines with ductivity of volcanic systems vary tremen- ash, and can disrupt global commerce by dously from arc to arc and along any single suddenly blanketing key regions with thick arc. EarthScope will provide abundant geo- layers of debris. In contrast to earthquakes, which commonly strike without warning, Figure 7. Mt. St. Helens af- volcanoes typically show telltale signs of ter May 1980 eruption. unrest. Nonetheless, our ability to forecast the timing, magnitude, and impact of eruptions is frustratingly imprecise. Volcanism builds new continental crust either in situ, or through the development of island arcs on oceanic crust that may later be accreted onto a continent. The out- put of these systems offers a window into

13 microplate model ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ British Columbia 1 rel. motion mm/yr 10 motion w/ respect to N. Am., mm/yr Cascade Eruptions During the Past 4,000 Years 117° 49° Mount Baker N-S shortening Glacier Peak Scientific Issues: Seattle Seattle fault Washington 6 Mount Rainier • What controls magma genesis in the as- 8 Mount St. Helens OCÐNAM Mount Adams thenospheric wedge between the slab 36 pole Mount Hood AM and the overriding crust? What are the -N Yakima fold and F OC thrust belt Mount Jefferson JD r o time scales for magma genesis and rise 12 ta Three Sisters b ting loc k 1 Newberry Volcano from the asthenosphere to the base of Pacific Oregon Crater Lake Ocean the crust, and then into the upper crust, 42° Medicine Lake Volcano OCÐSN Mount Shasta and what controls these time scales? 11 Lassen Peak pole vlbi • Are variations in productivity controlled 51 translating Basin and Range Sierra Nevada 4000 2000 PACÐNAM by variations in the rate of magma gen-

Nevada 200 esent block YEARS AGO pr esis, or by conditions that affect magma 200 km 5 California vlbi rise? What are the links between magma Figure 8. Cascadia tectonic rise and eventual eruption, and how long physical data from multiple disciplines that setting and history of Cas- do magmas reside in the upper crust? cade volcano eruptions. will complement the rich data set from • What are the dynamics of intrusion and Yellow arrows show mo- geochemical studies; together, these data eruption? To what extent can magma tion relative to North may allow us to answer fundamental ques- American Plate (NAM). motion in the subsurface be tracked by tions about magmatic systems. Proposed target volcanoes surface deformation data? What are the have red names and clus- EarthScope’s geodetic data can be used size and shape of magma reservoirs and ter deployments are to quantify the rate of magma accumula- conduits, and how do they constrain the marked with black bowties. tion in the upper crust beneath several ac- Figure from Lisowski, M., dynamics of magma flow? tive volcanoes in the Aleutian and Cascade D. Dzurisin, E. Roeloeffs, • How do temporal and spatial scales of arcs. Using these data we will be able to Plate Boundary Observa- ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ deformation vary with eruptive style and tory Workshop, October determine how rapidly magma accumu- magma composition? 2000. lates, and whether the accumulation rate • Can we characterize deformation that is steady (over a time scale of a few years) leads to an eruption versus that which is or episodic, representing either a continu- normal "breathing," and thus predict ous trickle of new magma or discrete blobs. eruptions with high confidence? EarthScope geodetic data may also permit • Are there interactions between earth- detection of the rise of large magma bod- quakes and volcanic/magmatic behav- ies through the upper mantle and lower iors, and if so, what are the controlling crust. factors? In general, how do active tec- EarthScope’s broadband seismic data tonic and volcanic structures interact? can be used to construct three-dimensional • What is the relationship between ongo- tomographic images of the downgoing ing deformation in large calderas, such slab, asthenospheric wedge, and crust of as Long Valley and Yellowstone, and the overriding plate. Changes in velocity structures and processes in the underly- and attenuation are sensitive indicators of ing crust and mantle? temperature and the presence of melt. • To what degree is the Yellowstone hot Broadband seismic data will also provide spot influencing regional tectonics and sensitive records of the vibrations induced modifying the continental lithosphere, by the flow of magma and the breaking of and vice versa? rock as magma moves through it.

14 Earth’s○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Interior

Knowledge of the detailed structural, physi- 410 and 660 km) as well as the occurrence cal, and chemical properties throughout of regional discontinuities (e.g., 220 km) Earth’s Interior—including the crust, provide information on compositional, ther- mantle, and core—is required to under- mal, and chemical differences from one stand how the solid Earth works as a glo- region to another. Knowledge of anisotropy bally interconnected system. Although we of seismic velocities, reflecting prior strain know that the lithosphere and mantle both events, can be an important tool in discern- play important roles in continental dynam- ing past and present mantle flow. ics, their three-dimensional structure be- EarthScope will provide multidirectional neath continents is poorly known. source-receiver coverage so that anisotropy EarthScope will provide the first high-reso- can be mapped beneath the continent to lution tomographic images of Earth’s inte- help unravel the link between mantle flow rior at the continental scale, linking geologic and lithospheric deformation. features on the surface to structures deep We suspect that large-scale mantle con- below. vection is important in the development To understand continental evolution, we and evolution of continents and that conti- need higher resolution information on ma- nents, in turn, modulate convection. We jor features such as the depth to which the roots of continental material extend beneath the craton—a continent’s ancient core. Variations in the depth of global upper mantle discontinuities (near depths of ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Figure 9. The Kaapvaal project in South Africa is an international program that incorporates many of the multidisciplinary geological and geophysical techniques that will characterize EarthScope investigations. This three-dimensional cross section shows a number of properties of the crust and upper mantle of southern Africa. The upper panel shows surface topography and outlines the major geologic terranes ranging from the 3+ billion-year-old Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons to the 600-700 million year old Cape Fold Belt. The middle panel shows the depth to the bottom of the crust, while the lower panel shows tomographic images of high- (blue) and low- (red) velocity structures deeper in the mantle. The long vertical bars penetrating the panels show the downward extrapolation of the kimberlite pipes to their likely depths of origin. Mantle samples with ages > 2.5 Ga derive only from areas with high seismic velocity which also pre- dominately only underlie the old crustal sections of southern Africa. Figure courtesy of M. Fouch, D. James, and R. Carlson.

15 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

know little of the properties of the mantle earthquakes as sources, USArray’s highly transition zone, including the velocity gra- sensitive broadband instrument coverage dients at the discontinuities (which strongly will be able to track seismic waves that have depend on the mineralogical composition), penetrated to and even through the inner lateral variations in composition and tem- core, providing high-resolution information perature, and how this region relates to on the structure and composition of Earth’s large-scale mantle convection and deepest interior. hotspots. A continental-scale seismic array can Scientific Issues also be used as a downward-looking tele- • What is the three-dimensional structure scope to observe distant structures, not nec- of the upper mantle under North essarily underneath North America. We do America, including variations in anisot- not know much about the lateral structure ropy, composition, and temperature? of the mid-mantle, partly because hetero- • What is the compositional and mechani- geneities appear to be relatively small at cal stratification of the lithosphere and these depths. There are occasional reports sublithospheric mantle, and how does of additional discontinuities (1000, 1200, this stratification vary from young oro- 1800 km), the potential existence of which genic belts to the cratonic interior of the could have a significant impact on our un- continent? derstanding of mixing in the mantle. • What is the nature of mass transfer ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ The core-mantle boundary is the most (crustal recycling) between the crust and dramatic and important discontinuity in mantle and between the lithosphere and Earth’s interior. Understanding the pro- deeper Earth during subduction and oro- cesses that occur at and across this bound- genesis? ary are essential to modeling the evolution • What is the relationship between deep of the mantle and core, the nature of flow mantle convection and plate tectonics? in the mantle, and the origin of the • What is the nature of upper mantle geodynamo. These processes occur at a discontinuities, including the velocity variety of spatial scales: there is a known gradients and fine structure of the 410 large-wavelength pattern of velocity and 660 km discontinuities, and how do anomalies, but there is also an indication they relate to orogenesis and rifting? of strong variations over much shorter dis- • How does mantle flow correlate with tances. There are indications of an ultra-low lithospheric deformation? velocity zone and underplating of the core- • Are there additional global-scale mantle boundary, as well as both thermal discontinuities in the mid-mantle? and compositional variations in the lower- • What processes are represented by very most 300 km of the mantle. Furthermore, different scale anomalies observed at the there are suggestions that Earth’s most re- core-mantle boundary? mote region, the inner core, contains struc- • What is the anisotropy and heterogene- ture on a wide range of scales including ity of the inner core? some very strong anomalies. Using distant

16 Integrated Observation Systems○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Study of the structure and deformation these extensive data resources, which then of a continent requires integrated observa- provide the basis for analysis and interpre- tional systems that span temporal scales tation using highly sophisticated computa- from seconds to the age of Earth, and spa- tional resources. tial scales from continental dimensions With strong support from NSF, USGS, (1000s of km) to the submillimeter ground NASA, and DOE over the past decade, the displacements in small earthquakes. U.S. Earth science community has built EarthScope will combine the tools of mod- linked, community-based management ern geophysics with geological observa- structures and technical expertise to oper- tions (Figure 10) to permit scientists to ex- ate and make optimum use of these ad- amine the dynamic Earth and its structure vanced technologies. EarthScope’s obser- at the spatial and temporal scales over vational components are a natural which geologic activity takes place. extension of these resources, extending the Seismological and geodetic observa- base established through facilities such as tions, with arrays of fixed and portable seis- UNAVCO, IRIS, SCEC, and ANSS, to form a mometers and strainmeters, will sense the complementary and linked observational short-term deformation process in indi- system extending across North America. vidual earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. GPS observations, InSAR images, and geo- seismic geodetic paleoseismic geologic logical data will measure strain accumula- ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ tion during intra-seismic periods and long- -10 term plate deformation. Geophysical and SAR GPS geological tools will be used to probe the -12 underlying structure of the continents, which carries the record of the past and in- STRAINMETER fluences future episodes of deformation. -14 plate motion EQ Cycle Orogeny In common with all areas of observa- log strain rate(1/s) tional science, the Earth sciences have ben- -16 efited from the enormous advances that hour day month year decade 1000 years million years billion years have taken place in recent years in sensor 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 technology, recording systems, communi- log period (s) cations, data management, and computa- Figure 10. Components of an EarthScope Observing System. Thresholds of tional power. Highly rugged, portable in- strain-rate sensitivity (schematic) are shown for strainmeters, GPS, and InSAR struments can now be left unattended in as functions of period. The diagonal lines give GPS (green) and InSAR (blue) detection thresholds for 10-km baselines, assuming 2-mm and 2-cm displace- remote environments, continuously mea- ment resolution for GPS and InSAR, respectively (horizontal only). GPS and suring the full spectrum of ground defor- InSAR strain-rate sensitivity is better at increasing periods, allowing, for ex- mation and transmitting data in real-time ample, the detection of plate motion (dashed lines) and long-term transients to centralized data collection and distribu- (periods greater than a month). Strainmeter detection threshold (red) reaches a minimum at a period of a week and then increases at longer periods due to tion centers. Advanced data management an increase in hydrologic influences. Post-seismic deformation (triangles), slow systems allow users to selectively mine earthquakes (squares), and long-term deformation (diamonds), preseismic transients (circles) and volcanic strain transients (stars).

17 New Observational○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Facilities

United States Seismic Array (USArray)

Modern seismology has evolved a rich provide constraints on temperature and complement of tools and techniques for fluid content within the lithosphere. probing the fine-scale structure of the crust The transportable array will roll across and upper mantle. Fixed and permanent ar- the country with one- to two-year deploy- rays of seismometers, recording small lo- ments in each region (Figure 11). Multiple cal earthquakes, active sources, and large deployments will cover all contiguous 48 events from anywhere in the world, are states and Alaska over a ten-year period. used to develop high-resolution images of When completed, the more than 2000 seis- geological structures in the crust, upper mic station locations will have provided un- mantle, and deepest interior. precedented coverage for three-dimen- The seismological component of sional imaging of the entire continental EarthScope, USArray, consists of three in- lithosphere and underlying mantle. New terrelated parts. USArray’s core is a trans- images of the largely uncharted lowermost portable telemetered array of 400 broad- mantle and core-mantle boundary will band seismometers designed to provide emerge. Although USArray’s initial focus is real-time data from a regular grid of sta- coverage within the United States, exten- tions with dense and uniform spacing of 70 sions of the array into neighboring coun- km and an aperture of 1400 km. The array tries and onto the continental margins in will record local, regional, and teleseismic collaboration with scientists from Canada, Mexico, and the ocean sciences community

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ earthquakes, providing resolution of crustal and upper mantle structure on the order of would be natural additions to the initiative. a few tens of kilometers. Moreover, resolu- An important second element of USArray tion of structures in the lower mantle and is a pool of 2400 portable instruments (a at the core-mantle boundary will be dra- mix of broadband, short period, and high matically increased beyond that which pres- frequency sensors) that can be deployed Figure 11. Deployment ently exists. Fifty magnetotelluric field sys- using flexible source-receiver geometries. strategy for the transport- tems will be embedded within the array to These instruments will permit high-resolu- able array. The underlying grid shows a regular spacing of 70 km, resulting in approximately 1600 sites in the lower 48 states. USArray begins operations in California, encompass- ing the SAFOD site at Parkfield. Western U.S. detail shows the nominal coverage for the first full deployment of the 400 instruments of the transportable array. Included in this map as colored sym- bols are existing sites of broadband instruments in regional networks.

18 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ tion, short-term observations of key geographic imaging of deep Earth structure, logic targets within the footprint of the providing a platform for continuous, long- larger transportable array, using high-den- term observations, and establishing fixed sity sensor spacing and both natural and reference points for calibration of the trans- artificial sources of seismic energy. portable array. This USArray component is The third element of USArray will be an being undertaken in collaboration with the augmentation of the fixed National Seismic USGS and represents an EarthScope con- Network operated by the USGS. Relatively tribution to complement the initiative un- dense, high-quality observations from a derway by the USGS to install an Advanced continental network with uniform spacing National Seismic System (ANSS) for earth- of 300 to 350 km is important for tomo- quake monitoring.

Plate Boundary Observatory (PBO)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) has InSAR (see next section), when and where revolutionized tectonic geodesy. Over the available, to define the regional component past ten years, positional accuracy has in- of the strain field. creased and instrument costs have dropped PBO’s second element consists of fo- to the extent that continuously recording cused, dense deployments of continuously installations for measuring movements of recording instruments (“clusters”) in the Earth’s crust are now the norm. Recent ad- 60 vances in field monumentation coupled ˚ Figure 12. Map of GPS with the best data processing strategies ˚ 210 sites. Backbone stations have reduced positional errors and changes ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ are solid blue; existing sta- in baselines of hundreds of kilometers to ˚ tions are green; volcanic 240 approximately one millimeter. Thus, GPS clusters are red; fault/tectonic-related clusters (ex- networks can routinely track plate-tectonic cludes volcanic, e.g. San and fault-related crustal motions in many Andreas Fault system) are orange. Anticipated sta- parts of North America from a few millime- ˚ ters to a couple of centimeters per year. 210 tions through international 60˚ collaboration with Canada The geodetic component of EarthScope, PACIFIC PLATE and Mexico are open blue. PBO—an observatory designed to study the three-dimensional strain field resulting 30 from plate-tectonic deformation of the ˚ western portion of the continent—consists of two elements (Figure 12). The first is a backbone network of 100 continuously re- NORTH cording GPS receivers sparsely deployed AMERICAN PLATE throughout conterminous western U.S. and 30˚ southern Alaska to provide a long-wave- ˚ 240 length, long-period synoptic view of deformation of the entire plate boundary zone. Receiver spacing will be approximately 200 km, and the data will be integrated with

270

19 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ most tectonically active areas requiring the Existing geodetic networks in the west- greatest temporal resolution. Each cluster ern conterminous U.S. and Alaska will be consists of an integrated network of GPS fully integrated into PBO thereby forming receivers and borehole strainmeters. These a geodetic facility spanning the plate instruments, with a nominal spacing of 5 boundary from the coast across the Basin to 10 km, will provide nanometer strain sen- and Range and Rocky Mountains. More- sitivity. On the order of 800 observing sites over, combining all permanent GPS stations (GPS receivers plus strainmeters in a 4:1 into a single network will avoid siting re- ratio) will be installed around the most ac- dundancies, maintain instrumental compat- tive tectonic regions of western contermi- ibility, provide for free and rapid data ac- nous U.S. and southern Alaska, including cess, and permit uniform operation and the San Andreas fault system, Yellowstone maintenance. and Long Valley calderas, and several Alas- kan and Cascade volcanoes.

Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR)

Although GPS has proved a powerful way land subsidence, and fault creep, further to study the deformation of Earth’s surface, emphasizing the importance of this tech- these measurements lack spatial continu- nique to the EarthScope initiative. ity and require field equipment at each A dedicated InSAR satellite mission car- study site. Recent technological advances ried out jointly among NASA, NSF, and the

Figure 13. InSAR image for in space-borne radar interferometry permit USGS will provide spatially continuous 1992-1993 draped over to- observation of mm-level surface deforma- strain measurements over wide geographic pography of Yellowstone tion at 25-m resolution with worldwide ac- areas. These InSAR images will be an es- National Park (boundaries ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ cessibility. Derivation of the first interfero- sential contributor to understanding crustal of park shown by dashed line, outline of caldera metric maps of the co-seismic displacement deformation, complementing the continu- boundary is white). Sub- field of the 1992 Landers earthquake by ous GPS point measurements made by sidence is located beneath French scientists was arguably one of the PBO. The optimum characteristics are the northeastern resurgent most exciting results in earthquake geod- dense spatial (100 m) and temporal (every during 1992-93, but from 1993-95, deformation mi- esy. More recently, InSAR has been applied 8 days) coverage of the entire plate bound- grated to the southwest, to post-earthquake relaxation phenomena, ary with vector solutions accurate to 1 mm indicating outflow of mag- volcano-magmatic inflation (Figure 13), over all terrain types. Existing and planned matic fluids for a source international SAR missions cannot deliver about 8 km beneath the caldera. the required data. InSAR will enable mapping of surface displacements before, during, and after earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, as well as charting strain accumulation across broad, actively deforming zones of conterminous western U.S. and Alaska, thereby highlighting regions of highest risk for future earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It also will provide a tool for mapping subsidence induced by petroleum production and ground water withdrawal.

20 San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

SAFOD will be EarthScope’s first subsurface Figure 14. Schematic cross observatory. It will be drilled to a depth of section of the SAFOD drill hole showing small target 4 km, directly into the San Andreas fault earthquakes (red dots) at 3- zone through a cluster of microearthquakes 4 km depth. The colored and close to the nucleation point of a 1966 patterns show electrical re- M6 earthquake near Parkfield, California. sistivity at depth as deter- mined from surface sur- SAFOD will directly sample fault zone rocks veys; the lowest resistivity and fluids, measure a wide variety of fault rocks (red) lie beneath and zone physical and chemical properties, and to the southwest of the sur- monitor the creeping and seismically active face trace of the San Andreas fault (red line) and fault zone at depth. may represent a highly Modern drilling and borehole instrument fractured and fluid-filled technology, pioneered by both the oil and fault zone. gas industry and the scientific community, now permit detailed sampling, characterization, and observation of the upper crust to depths of several kilometers. Subsurface measurements of material properties and wave radiation patterns, and rupture me- other in-situ conditions must be integrated chanics, and to help determine the posi- with seismic and geodetic data acquired at tions of active fault strands. Fluid pressure the surface to properly characterize zones will be monitored continuously at a care- of deformation such as major strike-slip fully chosen depth and the hole will be

faults and magmatic systems, thereby mov- logged repeatedly to identify places where ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ ing us closer to predictive understanding the casing may be deforming due to active of these processes. shear zones. Drilling will begin west of the San SAFOD will be the focal point for the real- Andreas fault. At a depth of 2 km, advanced time earthquake physics experiment going directional-drilling technologies will be on at Parkfield. It will supplement the dens- used to drill an inclined hole through the est surface fault monitoring network in the entire fault zone until relatively undisturbed world with direct in situ physical and fluid rock is reached on the other side (Figure property measurements within the seismi- 14). During drilling, the hole will be logged, cally active fault zone. The effort to build a spot cores and cuttings collected, and flu- real-time and predictive model of an active ids and gases continuously sampled. After fault zone will take advantage of the knowl- conducting side-wall coring and open-hole edge base developed over the past 15+ geophysical logs, the completed hole will years in the area through the collaborative be cased and cemented. Fluid sampling, efforts of hundreds of scientists from the permeability, and hydraulic fracturing ex- USGS, universities throughout the United periments will be made through perfora- States, and U.S. government laboratories. tions in the casing. An array of seismometers will be deployed in the hole to make near-field observations of earthquake locations, seismic

21 Data Management○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ and Information Technology

Tools from modern data management and ogy in ways that have not only overcome information technologies will be applied earlier technical limitations, but also fun- throughout EarthScope—in collecting data damentally changed the manner in which from the field, creating and accessing data data are treated as a community resource, bases and archives, developing and pro- strongly encouraging data exchange and cessing data products, and analyzing and communication. The use of powerful data visualizing multidimensional data. The in- management tools for coordinated data formation infrastructure established to collection and distribution from large ob- meet EarthScope’s data needs is also ex- servational systems, for example, seismic pected to stimulate the growth of a much networks (IRIS, ANSS), regional networks, broader effort in Geoinformatics and Earth and geodetic arrays (UNAVCO, SCIGN), is Information Systems, incorporating multi- now widely accepted as an essential com- disciplinary data resources that extend well ponent of the geophysical research infra- beyond those produced by EarthScope fa- structure. EarthScope will build on these cilities alone. traditions and established mechanisms EarthScope facilities will produce data at (Figure 16). a rate that only a decade ago would have Three aspects of EarthScope data man- overwhelmed the technical capabilities of agement are: Figure 15. Current and the geoscience community (Figure 15). projected data holdings at USArray alone will produce almost 5 Primary Data the IRIS Data Manage- ment Center. The current terabytes of data per year—eight times that The challenges of data collection, archiv- (2001) data archive of over produced by the Global Seismograph Net- ing, and distribution for EarthScope’s ob- ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 15 terabytes is increasing work. The volume of data in the image ar- servational systems are significant, but well at four terabytes per year. chive created by InSAR will be even larger. within current capabilities. While data quan- It is estimated that USArray would add ap- Over the past decade, the geosciences have tities are large, they represent less than an proximately five terabytes embraced modern advances in computer, order of magnitude increase over that per year. Total archive re- communication, and information technol- which is presently being handled by the quirements are expected IRIS Data Management System and re- to be over 100 terabytes by 2005. gional networks. Raw data from the primary instrument components of EarthScope—

EarthScope/USArray Actual Estimated seismometer arrays, strainmeters, geodetic 120 CTBT/IMS receivers, and other geophysical instru- ANSS ments—will be treated as an open commu- 100 Contributed nity resource. These raw data can be rela- PASSCAL tively simply classified as time-series 80 GSN (seismograms, strain records, and geodetic data from USArray, PBO, and SAFOD), and

Terabytes 60 images (InSAR). All data will be collected 40 and distributed in real time. An annotated

0 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

22 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Figure 16. Coordinated data management and EarthScope Science Integration integration from all EarthScope components USArray and the application of in- Seismic waveforms formation technology tools Earthquake locations will provide a rich environment for research and SAFOD Data Products modeling. Documented Borehole samples & Integration Downhole observations and open data and soft- Networked ware resources will en- Data Centers Integrated Models of courage multidisciplinary PBO & Collaboration Continental Structure GPS vectors investigations of continen- Strain records and the Active Geophysical tal structure and the active Environment geophysical environment Information InSAR • Structure with applications in educa- Images Technology Tools • Kinematics Displacement maps tion, seismic hazard as- • Dynamics sessment, and resource Data Sources Information Exchange management. & Modeling Resources

archive of all data will be created and main- Integrated Earth tained, and free and open access will be Information System provided to national and international re- A far greater challenge, and one that holds search and education communities. promise for fundamental changes in the Derived Products way we do science, is the merging of dis-

parate data sets from diverse disciplines. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ A growing realization in information sys- EarthScope provides a forum to aid the tems is the need to provide end users with development of an Integrated Earth Infor- access to data, and software to aid data integration and manipulation. For many in the research community, the raw data from EarthScope instruments will be the most These proposed facilities and direct and critical products from this initiative. For other researchers, and especially the resultant open data sets will for the public, it will be important to con- have an egalitarian effect of vert these primary data into products that are accessible and interpretable by the lay- broadening the accessibility person, teacher, resource manager, or policy maker. of science; a small-college re- The seismic and geodetic data from searcher with a workstation EarthScope will be a powerful tool for focused studies of natural hazards such as can do first-rate science with earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and resources that were previously natural resources. limited to major universities.

Frank Press, GSA Annual Meeting, 1999

23 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ mation System that can be accessed easily standards to facilitate information sharing. by the Earth science community, educators, An important part of EarthScope's data government agencies, and the interested management mission is to facilitate the public. A considerable amount of informa- adoption of data exchange standards by the tion already exists from decades of geologi- geologic community and to facilitate the cal, geochemical, and geochronological transcription of existing data into these studies of North America. A large portion standards. EarthScope will provide a forum of these geological data, however, are in to coordinate and work with the USGS, forms that are not readily compared with state geological surveys, and other agen- other information and exist only in print- cies to establish data exchange formats and published tables and maps, or in electronic protocols. This will ensure that data access format on an individual scientist’s com- and management are facilitated for the ben- puter. For several large categories of Earth efit of the entire scientific community. science data, there are no data exchange

Education and Outreach

Although the primary motivation for ments will provide education and outreach EarthScope is grounded in fundamental opportunities across the country for many advances in scientific discovery, the initia- years, while the local nature of the deploy- tive also provides a spectacular opportu- ments will make the initiative's scientific in- nity for a focused education and outreach vestigations and discoveries relevant for program that will reach the general public, educational efforts on a region-by-region ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ K-16 students and faculty, and Earth science basis. professionals. EarthScope will capitalize on EarthScope is emerging at a time when the public's natural curiosity about our dy- there is growing national awareness of the namic planet by providing all Americans need to improve science education, with new insights into how Earth works. coupled with an appreciation of the oppor- The national scope of instrument deploy- tunities offered by Earth sciences to engage students at all levels in the exploration of Figure 17. Children gather the world around them. The nature of the around IRIS’ hands-on decade-long experiment will provide many seismology exhibit at a opportunities for citizens of all ages to par- museum. ticipate in scientific inquiry and discovery along with EarthScope scientists. With strong encouragement and support from NSF and other federal agencies, education programs are becoming an integral part of Earth science facilities and research programs. The Earth science community— from major research facilities to profes-

24 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ sional societies, government agencies, and Figure 18. Students visit an individual scientists—is building educa- active GPS site in southern California. tional links to resources primarily established for research. In addition, a growing number of Earth scientists are actively pur- suing educational initiatives as a formal part of their research. Providing real-time access to the rich data sets, along with tools and materials that create opportunities for citizens to explore and understand these data, will be an important EarthScope activity. EarthScope’s national scale and breadth of associated research is unprecedented in the Earth sciences. It has the potential to spawn new areas of discovery in ways similar to the Human Genome project for the biological sciences. We anticipate an education and outreach program that conveys both the exciting results that emerge from dience and (2) providing more focused edu- EarthScope’s national scientific effort, and cational efforts for specific audiences or perhaps as importantly, the nature of our regions. scientific method. For example, as USArray The first level of EarthScope E&O will moves from region to region, the educa- focus on high-profile information (and data) tion and outreach efforts will highlight both dissemination that facilitates the science important regional questions and an initiative and is consistent with education ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ emerging (and changing) continental-scale of a broad audience. A significant compo- picture. This process will provide a genu- nent of this outreach effort will include pro- ine example of how our scientific thinking viding real-time access and tools necessary often changes as new data become avail- to manipulate, analyze, and view able. In addition, the rich data sets will pro- EarthScope data. Disseminating informa- vide new ways to help students make their tion on project goals, initiatives, activities, own discoveries, thereby understanding key geoscience concepts, and discoveries Earth more deeply. EarthScope will be able will help media representatives, community to capitalize on the excitement created by leaders, educators, students, scientists, and a huge science experiment in one’s own the general public understand the project backyard. and stay abreast of new developments. All EarthScope will foster education and out- resources and information will be available reach coordination among individuals and on-line as well as in posters, brochures, and organizations in the Earth science commu- occasionally as video. By coordinating on- nity by providing opportunities for partici- line information by region, it will be pos- pation at two levels: (1) developing a core sible to link communities to EarthScope ac- of information and resources appropriate tivities and show how data recorded in their for national-scale outreach to a broad au- region merges with data from other regions to provide a coherent picture of Earth.

25 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

EarthScope facilities will provide the in- shops for K-16 faculty. To help individual frastructure for principal-investigator (PI)- efforts build upon one another for maxi- driven scientific research; similarly, a core mum impact, individual PIs or organizations of EarthScope education and outreach ef- will work with teachers, scientists, colleges, forts will provide a basic foundation for PI- museums, and state geological surveys to driven education and outreach activities. develop materials that apply to the initia- Thus, the second level of EarthScope E&O tive as a whole and materials that highlight will focus on PI-driven educational activi- hazards, natural resources, and the geo- ties for specific audiences and regions and logic structures and history that are region- will include small to large-scale projects specific. These materials will effectively such as informal science programs in mu- translate and communicate both scientific seums and schools, regional and national results and the scientific method to all au- citizen or student directed scientific inves- diences and will be critical for education tigations, instructional materials develop- and outreach efforts when the instrument ment, and professional development work- deployments are under way. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Earthquake Epicenter 0˚ Northridge, California

PFO P wave , S wave 30 0 minutes 10 minutes 20 minutes 30 minutes SRR HKT ˚ P 0˚ TEIG wa Su ve, rfa S w ave ce DISTANCE from earthquake (1 PAYG JTS W a SDV P ve 30˚ w 60 BOCO av s e, ˚ RPN S w PTGA av e P NNA SAML w surface LPAZ A 60˚ a C v LVC I P E R e SwaveS w M w Sw A ave PK av T H a U e, S ve S O P PLCA BDFB w CPUP w 90˚ TRQA ave a 90˚ PP w

INNER v P e CORE P a v

EFI w e

a ve

HOPE 120˚ , ASCN ASCN OUTER S S CORE Shadow Zone ˚ =111 km) w ˚

P CRUST av 120 K Pwav e 150˚ SUR SHEL BOSA LBTB e TSUM A MANTLE F R I C A LSZ ˚ 180˚ TIME since earthquake occured (travel time) 150 0 minutes 10 minutes 20 minutes 30 minutes 180˚

Figure 19. Concise explanations of scientific topics, in the form of posters and “one-pagers,” are one way to develop links between research topics and the classroom. Distributed in printed form at workshops and available via the web, these materials provide high school teachers with supplemental materials to enhance standard curriculum and establish direct contacts between educators and researchers. This figure is from, “Exploring the Earth Using Seismology,” and describes how analysis of seismic waves from earthquakes permits seismologists to explore Earth’s deep interior. (See www.iris.washington.edu/EandO/ onepager.htm)

26 Implementation○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Management Structure and Coordination

An undertaking as broad and complex as ful in bringing together the best of the EarthScope requires management and co- nation’s scientific expertise to focus on spe- ordination at several intersecting levels. cific research topics. The research commu- • As a facilities program the various nity will work with NSF and other federal EarthScope components will need to agencies to match the most appropriate of build on the strengths of the individual these management and funding mecha- communities they represent. During all nisms with the wide range of programmatic phases of development, however, deci- requirements necessary for EarthScope to sion-making and implementation of all succeed. components will be closely coordinated, including project planning, instrument Evolution of EarthScope definition, site selection, data collection, Programs and Integration data management, and project review. Many individuals and groups within the • As a scientific endeavor the breadth of U.S. Earth science community have contrib- EarthScope’s disciplinary and geo- uted to planning and developing the graphic reach will have an impact on EarthScope concept.

many aspects of Earth science research The SAFOD concept of instrumenting the ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ in the United States for the next decade San Andreas fault has arisen many times and beyond. There must be close coor- over the past several decades. The current dination among the facilities, their man- SAFOD project had its origin in December agement, the user community, and fund- 1992 at an NSF workshop attended by 113 ing agencies. scientists and engineers from seven coun- NSF uses a variety of methods to select tries. Its purpose was to initiate a broad- and fund both research and facilities. The based scientific discussion of the issues that individual investigator research grant re- could be addressed by direct experimenta- mains at the core of NSF support of funda- tion and monitoring within the fault at mental research. For larger, interdiscipli- depth, to identify potential sites, and to nary programs, multi-institutional identify technological developments re- collaborative funding arrangements are quired to make the construction and drill- used. Large-scale facilities are often oper- ing possible. The fundamental scientific is- ated by nonprofit consortia through coop- sue addressed in this effort, obtaining an erative agreements with NSF. These con- improved understanding of the physical sortia have been established by the and chemical processes responsible for research community to help develop and earthquakes along major fault zones, is advance the observational needs of their clearly of global scientific interest. Through- science. NSF Science and Technology Cen- out the planning process leading to the ters, often multi-campus “institutions with- development the SAFOD project, the U.S. out walls,” have proven extremely success- scientific community has invited participa-

27 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ tion by scientists from around the world, InSAR is a technology that has recently principally through the International Conti- come of age for active tectonic studies, and nental Scientific Drilling Programme (ICDP). represents a major advance in spatially con- A proposal was submitted to NSF in Janu- tinuous geodesy. InSAR complements the ary 1999 to accomplish SAFOD goals. PBO suite of instruments; PBO provides USArray concepts were developed in a continuous time series at discrete locations series of workshops, including the 1994 while InSAR provides spatially continuous ILIAD Workshop (Investigations of Lithos- maps at discrete times. This complemen- phere Architecture and Development). Two tary nature is an essential reason for mak- workshops, in March and September of ing InSAR an integral part of EarthScope, 1999, established the specific scientific, with NASA as the lead agency. The priori- technical, and educational objectives of ties concerning the use of InSAR have been USArray. A report describing USArray’s examined in the course of a workshop held scientific rationale, defining its operational in June 2000. Participants at the workshop components, organizational partnerships, agreed that a mission featuring a single- and management structure, and develop- polarized L-band (24 cm wavelength) radar ing time lines for the acquisition of USArray with both left- and right-pointing capabil- instrumentation and their deployment, was ity, in a precisely controlled orbit, would submitted to NSF in December 1999. The offer the best opportunity for outstanding implementation plan and budget estimates scientific return. for USArray are based on results of the first USArray workshop. Two subsequent EarthScope as a Major USArray workshops have addressed refine- Research Equipment Initiative ments of the science and integration of In May 1999, discussions between NSF and USArray results with the other EarthScope ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ leaders from SAFOD, USArray, PBO, and elements. InSAR lead to the merging of these devel- PBO community support was demon- oping initiatives as a proposal for a single strated by a January 20, 1998 letter signed national program called EarthScope. An by eleven top U.S. Earth scientists urging EarthScope Working Group was formed the initiation of a program to investigate that has planned workshops, interacted plate-boundary processes. The first PBO with NSF and other federal agencies, de- workshop of October 1999 developed the veloped coordinated program plans, and scientific, technical, and educational objec- encouraged broad community support. tives of the PBO facility. The workshop had This Working Group is preparing for the 123 participants, representing a broad spec- transition to a more permanent manage- trum of Earth scientists from the U.S., ment structure under which the funded Canada, Mexico, Japan, and Australia. A EarthScope project would operate. workshop report was submitted to NSF EarthScope facility components have describing the scientific rationale of PBO, now been approved by NSF and the Na- defining its operational components, orga- tional Science Board for inclusion as a nizational partnerships, and management project in NSF’s Major Research Equipment structure, and developing time lines and (MRE) account. This account supports the budgets for PBO instrument acquisition and acquisition of facilities and equipment that deployment. A second PBO workshop was are beyond the resources of any individual held on October 2000, with 150 participants, Foundation directorate. Once EarthScope to refine the target areas. is approved by Congress as part of NSF’s

28 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ budget, the Foundation will issue project Interagency Coordination. An Inter- solicitations for EarthScope elements agency Committee will provide funding co- USArray, SAFOD, and PBO. Under this so- ordination and define the responsibilities licitation, proposals will be submitted for of federal partnerships in support of the initial construction and acquisition EarthScope. This committee will also estab- phases as well as the operation and main- lish the broad goals for the project and the tenance over the facility’s first ten years. An guidelines under which it will operate. overall management plan for EarthScope Oversight. A high-level Community Sci- integration is designed to closely coordi- ence Council will interact with the funding nate and integrate with other EarthScope agencies and EarthScope Coordinating elements and with the national and inter- Committee (next page) to provide scientific national Earth sciences research and edu- direction, review technical accomplish- cational communities. ments, and evaluate EarthScope’s success in achieving its scientific objectives. Science Support Facility Operations. Implementation of In a manner consistent with their usual EarthScope facilities will be carried out by modes of research funding, NSF and other organizations with proven capabilities in agencies will issue Program Announce- operating large, complex observational sys- ments to support the science activities us- tems. ing EarthScope data. NSF expects to make Fiscal Reporting and Controls. The facil- individual-investigator and group grants for ity operators will be funded through coop- all aspects related to the science and inte- erative agreements with NSF that define gration of EarthScope data, educational and specific tasks to be carried out with outreach activities, and planning and sci- EarthScope support. These cooperative ence-coordination activities. Planning and agreements provide the legal and fiscal ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ coordination will involve participation by a controls to ensure effective and appropri- Figure 20. Proposed struc- broad segment of the U.S. scientific com- ate use of federal funds. The tasks as de- ture for oversight and man- munity in EarthScope working groups and fined under the cooperative agreements are agement of EarthScope fa- workshops. cilities.

Management Structure Interagency Coordinating Group Community The proposed oversight and management NSF USGS NASA DOE Science structure of EarthScope facilities is shown Council in Figure 20. This management structure is intended to combine consensus-building, Oversight, Review & grass-roots direction from the research Community Input community with a strong, centralized man- EarthScope agement structure and financial oversight SAFOD and control from NSF, the primary funding EarthScope Coordinating agency. The management structure should Committee USArray be able to formulate priorities and guide Operations & overall facility operations, consistent with PBO Science Coordination & decisions of a broad community and guid- Planning Facility Funding & Fiscal Control ance from the funding agencies. InSAR The key elements provided by this man- Operations Coordination agement structure are:

29 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ established by NSF based on input from the will represent governance and the other, op- user community and in collaboration with erations. The four at-large members will facility operators. ensure an appropriate multidisciplinary bal- Management, Coordination, and Com- ance with respect to EarthScope objectives. munity Input. The EarthScope Coordinat- The committee will be tasked to: ing Committee, with representatives from • provide coordination among facility com- the research community and facility opera- ponents; tors, will be a primary conduit for commu- • facilitate science and science integration; nity input to EarthScope management and • conduct workshops for the EarthScope key to the success of both EarthScope fa- community at large; cilities operations and its scientific objec- • foster education and outreach activities; tives. The committee will be composed of • act as a sounding board for, and provide two members from each of the EarthScope a mechanism for input to, the funding facility components, to be selected by each agencies; of their governing entities, plus four at-large • coordinate and oversee the reporting and members to be selected by the committee. review processes; It is anticipated that of the two members • encourage interagency coordination of from each of the facility components, one EarthScope-related activities.

National and International Partnerships

EarthScope is a multi-agency, national pro- education, public policy, and resource as- gram with important roles being played by sessment. Much of the data and results

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ NSF, USGS, NASA, DOE, and NOAA. Part- from EarthScope will be of interest to state nerships are being developed with state geologists in hazard evaluation (seismic, agencies, regional seismic networks, orga- volcanic, landslides), and assessment of nizations in Mexico and Canada, and the mineral and water resources. Lithospheric ICDP. EarthScope activities are built on a imaging will add to our fundamental knowl- number of existing interactions between edge about Earth structure and provide data university research groups and federal directly to, and benefit from, state geologi- agencies and a wide range of current and cal mapping projects. EarthScope—espe- planned research projects involving numer- cially as manifested in USArray and PBO— ous scientists at national and international is intended to provide an evolving regional institutions. In particular, resources from framework for a broad spectrum of Earth Earth observing and monitoring programs science investigations. at the USGS and NASA will be extensively The PBO array will depend on regional used to maximize EarthScope’s scientific networks being installed or already in place: return. 400 continuous GPS and 45 borehole As PBO instruments are installed and strainmeters. Their installation was done USArray systematically traverses the con- under support by NSF, USGS, NASA, and tinent, there will be numerous opportuni- the W.M. Keck Foundation. Support for op- ties for a wide variety of interactions be- eration and maintenance of these systems tween academic researchers and federal is currently done through a partnership of and state agencies involved in research, NSF, USGS, and NASA, and will continue

30 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ as a contribution to PBO. A further NASA community is also developing a 2-km-deep contribution is support of the International pilot hole near the main SAFOD site. In ad- GPS Service (IGS), which provides precise dition to serving as an instrument test site, satellite positions essential for PBO data this pilot hole will facilitate precise earth- analysis. The PBO community has been quake hypocenter determinations that will working with NOAA/National Geodetic Sur- guide subsequent SAFOD investigations vey to formally develop GPS references as and coring in the active fault zone. The pi- legal benchmarks for the surveying com- lot-hole project is being carried out in part- munity in regions of active crustal defor- nership with the USGS and the ICDP. mation such as southern California. This SAFOD will be closely integrated with the invaluable civil-use concept will be applied extensive seismological and geodetic ob- to the entire PBO GPS array. servation systems deployed by the USGS USArray scientific goals complement the at the surface in the region. Together, initiative underway at the USGS to install SAFOD and existing USGS facilities at the ANSS. The USGS is developing ANSS to surface will result in an unparalleled and meet its mission in earthquake-hazard as- comprehensive monitoring system. sessment and mitigation. A significant com- While EarthScope is focused primarily on ponent of ANSS focuses on urban areas the development of facilities to probe the with high seismic hazard. USArray goals continental lithosphere of the United States, are to illuminate structure and understand the structures and processes to be studied dynamics of the lithosphere and deeper are not limited by geographical or political mantle, which requires densification of the borders. Discussions have been initiated USGS National Seismic Network and uni- with Canada and Mexico to extend the ob- form coverage of the continent. There is servations north and south of the U.S. bor- clear synergy between ANSS and USArray. der and links to the ocean community are ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ The coordination between ANSS and being pursued to provide offshore obser- USArray will create a single, integrated net- vations on the continental shelf and be- work of ~115 high-quality, permanent yond. The Canadian Earth science commu- broadband seismic stations across the nity is completing a national project, country to meet the goals of both constitu- Lithoprobe, that has served, in part, as a encies. All data from this integrated net- model for EarthScope. Collaborative U.S.- work will be available in a single data Canadian projects were carried out as part stream to both communities. Coordination of Lithoprobe and provide a basis for fu- of these two initiatives is an excellent ex- ture interactions. A recently funded project, ample of interagency cooperation and cost “POLARIS,” is based on scientific targets sharing and continues the longstanding and technologies that are similar to working relationship between NSF and the USArray and discussions have already USGS on permanent seismic stations. been held to combine resources and merge The SAFOD community has been work- observations. Observations in Canada will ing with USGS, LLNL, DOE, and ICDP to be essential to a full study of the western develop a prototype downhole instrument North America plate boundary and Cana- package that will be an integrated multiple dian representatives have been included in sensor system within a single re-deployable the planning workshops for PBO. module. A 3-km hole in Long Valley, Cali- fornia will be used as a test bed for downhole instrument development. The SAFOD

31 Budget and Planning○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Overview

The tables (opposite page) provide an over- SAFOD planning has been underway for view of estimated EarthScope costs to be approximately ten years through a series supported by NSF for equipment, installa- of community workshops, proposals, pan- tion, operations, and science support. As els, and expert evaluations. These events described below, these estimates are based have been open to all scientists with an in- on planning activities and input from the terest in deep fault observations. The sci- university research community and the ex- entific drilling community, including tensive experience of NSF-supported facili- DOSECC, USGS, DOE, and ICDP, has exten- ties programs in geophysical instrumenta- sive experience in successfully managing tion and data management. The core other deep-drilling projects such as Cajon equipment and operational costs are iden- Pass, California, and the current Hawaii tified as supported by the NSF Major Re- Drilling Project. The cost and technical fea- search Equipment program. The budget for sibility of the SAFOD drilling plan has been ongoing operations and science support reviewed and approved by an independent would be provided by the NSF Earth Sci- technical drilling expert. ences Division and Geosciences Director- PBO planning has been underway for ate. The budgets indicated for EarthScope- approximately four years with workshops related science support are consistent with representing a broad spectrum of Earth sci- the recommendations of the recent Na- entists from the United States, Canada, tional Academy report on “Basic Research Mexico, Japan, and Australia. These work- Opportunities in Earth Science” (NRC, shops addressed the specific scientific, 2001). technical, and educational objectives of ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ USArray planning began over six years PBO and generated the fundamental sci- ago and the portable seismic instrument de- ence plan as a critical element of the velopment and techniques have been un- EarthScope effort. Detailed reports describ- der development for eleven years. All of this ing the scientific rationale of PBO, defining has been done through the NSF-supported its operational components, organizational university consortium, IRIS. IRIS’s 96 mem- partnerships and management structure, ber institutions include virtually all the U.S. and developing time lines for the acquisi- academic institutions with significant re- tion of PBO instrumentation and its deploy- search and education programs in seismol- ment have been submitted to NSF. Budget ogy. Keys to USArray’s success will be the estimates are based on the results of PBO community’s development of instrumenta- workshops and the community’s experi- tion and reference networks, data manage- ence in pilot projects using GPS and bore- ment facilities and software, and manage- hole strain measuring systems. ment experience in fielding and InSAR planning has just begun with dis- maintaining large portable seismic arrays. cussions between NSF and NASA, in con- Three major community workshops have sultation with the space geodetic commu- developed seismic and cross-discipline sci- nity for a dedicated InSAR mission. A ence plans. proposal to NASA’s Earth Systems Science Pathfinder Program is being prepared for submission in early 2002.

32 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Constant FY2001 M$

EarthScope Costs YR1 YR2 YR3 YR4 YR5 YRs6-10 Total

NSF Major Research Equipment Request ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

USArray 14.16 21.52 16.87 10.96 63.51 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

PBO 13.78 19.06 20.91 19.03 18.50 91.28 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

SAFOD 4.67 9.12 0.31 3.26 17.36 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ MRE Totals 32.61 49.70 38.09 33.25 18.50 172.15

Operations 0.25 1.22 2.45 3.95 8.83 55.00 71.70

Science & 5.70 10.00 9.50 10.60 11.30 65.00 112.10 Management

Total 38.56 60.92 50.04 47.80 38.63 120.00 355.95

MRE Facilities – Cost Detail Costs in FY01 K$

Type Quantity Unit Cost Cost Total Cost ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

PBO Strainmeters 200 51 10,200 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

GPS Continuous 875 26 22,750 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

GPS Survey 100 15 1,500 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Installation 56,830 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 91,280

USArray Permanent NSN 25 50 1,250 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Permanent GSN 10 190 1,900 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Transportable 400 50 20,000 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Flexible, BB 400 31 12,400 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Flexible, SP 2,000 6 11,800 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Installation 16,160 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 63,510

SAFOD Drilling 15,800 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Downhole Instruments 1,560 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 17,360 Total MRE Cost 172,150

33 Appendix○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ 1 Implementation Milestones

Pre-EarthScope Phase (Year 0)

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Year 0 • Community planning workshops for the selection of permanent sites and geologic targets. • NSF issues project solicitation; proposal review; approval and awards for EarthScope acquisition and operation. NSF awards cooperative agreements. • NSF issues first annual Program Announcement and competition for science aspects of EarthScope.

MRE Phase (Years 1-5)

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Year 1 • Compete and award contracts for broadband and short-period seismic systems. • Community planning on permanent seismic sites and first array deployment. • San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth main hole drilling contract competed and awarded. Drilling begins at end of year. • Downhole monitoring equipment constructed. • Acquisition begins for GPS and borehole strain systems. • Airborne○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ imaging of potential study sites. • Delivery of 50 portable GPS systems. • Delivery and installation of 100 GPS and 20 borehole-strain systems.

• NSF conducts first annual review of EarthScope.

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Year 2 • Delivery and installation of 50 transportable array sites. • Delivery of 500 flexible pool short period systems. • Delivery and installation of 5 GSN and 10 NSN permanent stations (in cooperation with ANSS). • Main hole completed at San Andreas Fault Observatory. Downhole monitoring instrumentation installed. • Airborne imaging of potential study sites. • Delivery and installation of 175 GPS and 30 borehole-strain systems. • Delivery and deployment of 50 portable GPS systems. • NSF conducts annual review of project status.

34 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

MRE Phase (Years 1-5) continued...

Year 3 • Delivery and installation of 200 transportable array sites. • Delivery of flexible pool systems: 200 broadband and 1000 short period seismic systems. • Delivery and installation of 5 GSN and 10 NSN permanent stations (in cooperation with ANSS). • San Andreas Fault site characterization studies carried out. • Delivery and installation of 200 GPS and 50 borehole-strain systems. • Deployment of 50 portable GPS systems.

• NSF conducts annual review of project status.

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Year 4 • Delivery of 150 and installation of 200 transportable array sites. • Delivery of flexible pool systems: 200 broadband and 500 short period. • Delivery and installation of 5 NSN permanent stations (in cooperation with ANSS). • Use site characterization and monitoring data to chose four coring intervals at depth in San Andreas Fault Observatory. Commence coring operations. • Delivery and installation of 200 GPS and 50 borehole-strain systems.

• NSF conducts annual review of project status. ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Year 5 • Redeployment of USArray. • Install permanent monitoring instrumentation in four core intervals and main hole of San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth. • Delivery and installation of 200 GPS and 50 borehole-strain systems. • NSF conducts annual review of project status.

Operational Phase (Years 6-10) ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

Years 6-10 • Redeployment of USArray on a continual basis. • Complete analysis of San Andreas Fault cores, cuttings and logs. Continue monitoring at depth. • Ongoing operation and maintenance of the PBO. • NSF conducts biennial reviews of project status.

35 Suggested○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ Reading

Ekstrom, G., G. Humphreys, A. Levander, Silver, P., Y, Bock, D.C. Agnew, T. Henyey, USArray—Probing a continent, IRIS A. T. Linde, T. V. McEvilly, J-B Minster, B. newsletter, 16, 2 and 4-6, 1998. Romanowicz, I.S. Sacks, R.B. Smith, S.C. Levander, A. G. Humphreys, G. Ekstrom, A. Solomon, S.A. Stein, A Plate Boundary Meltzer, P. Shearer, Proposed project Observatory, IRIS newsletter, 16, 3 and would give unprecedented look under 7-9, 1998. North America, EOS Trans. Amer. USArray Steering Committee, A. Meltzer et Geophys. Union, 80, 245, 250-251, 1999. al., The USArray Initiative, GSA Today, National Research Council, Basic Research 9, 8-10, 1999. Opportunities in Earth Science, National www.earthscope.org/linkpubs.html Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 154 pp., 2001.

Acronyms

ANSS ...... Advanced National Seismic System

○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ DOE...... Department of Energy DOSECC ...... Drilling, Observation, and Sampling of the Earth’s Continental Crust GPS ...... Global Positioning System GSN ...... Global Seismic Network ICDP ...... International Continental Scientific Drilling Programme IGS ...... International GPS Service InSAR...... Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar IRIS ...... Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology LLNL ...... Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory NASA ...... National Aeronautics and Space Administration NEHRP ...... National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program NSF ...... National Science Foundation NSN ...... National Seismic Network PBO ...... Plate Boundary Observatory SAFOD ...... San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth SCEC ...... Southern California Earthquake Center SCIGN ...... Southern California Integrated GPS Network UNAVCO...... University NAVSTAR Consortium USArray...... United States Seismic Array USGS ...... United States Geological Survey

36 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

37 ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○ ○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○○

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