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Snow Removal and Control. Proceedings of a Conference Gold, L. W.; Williams, G. P.

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CANADA

Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics

SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL

Proceedings of a Conference

held in Ottawa, 17-18 February 1964

Sponsored by the Subcommittee on Snow and Ice, NRC Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics

Technical Memorandum No. 83

Compiled by L. W. Gold and G. P. Williams

OTIAWA, OCTOBER 1964 PREFACE

Snow removal and ice control is an important and necessary activity for all transportation systems in Canada. There has been a continuing increase in the demand and cost for this service in association with economic growth and technological advances in transportation. As one step in a review of the problem, the Snow and Ice Subcommittee of the Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics, National Research Council, sponsored a conference in Ottawa, Febru• ary 17 and 18, 1964, on snow removal and ice control. The conference had three specific objectives: to determine and discuss the factors primarily responsible for the cost of snow removal and ice control; to begin to record in a form accessible to all the considerable experience that is already available in Canada on the problem; and, to delineate areas where research and development should be encouraged.

The conference was opened by Dr. B. G. Ballard, President of the National Research Council. Papers and discussion during the morning of the first day were devoted to weather and snow properties in relation to snow clearing. In the after• noon consideration was given to snow clearing and ice control in urban areas. The sessions on the second day were devoted to snow clearing and ice control on railways, highways and at airports. An ad hoc committee met on the second day to discuss the information presented on winter maintenance in urban areas and prepare recommendations for future action for the consideration of the Associate Committee. The papers, discussions and recommendations presented to the conference are contained in this report.

The Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics wishes to express its appreciation to the authors of papers, discussors, and all others who participated in the conference; to its Assistant Secretary Miss J. Butler, and to Misses M. A. Gerard, M. Cullen and Mr. R. Armour of the Division of Building Research, N.R.C., for assisting Messrs. Gold and Williams in the preparation of this Technical Memorandum. R. F. Legget Chairman Ottawa Associate Committee on Soil October 1964 and Snow Mechanics TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Conference Review. L. W. Gold . . . .._. __ .. .. _ 1 17 February MORNING SESSION Chairman - R. F. Legget, Chairman, Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics Snow Removal and Ice Control in Canada - with a note on snow and ice research. R. F. Legget and G. P. Williams __ . .______5 Meteorology of Snow and Ice. K. T. McLeod ...... _... 16 Characteristics of Snow and Ice Relevant to Snow Removal and Ice Control. L. W. Gold 22 Discussion of papers by McLeod and Gold. A. A. Johns .. .. __ .. .____ 29 General Discussion . . ------.. ._.._...... ______30 AFTERNOON SESSION Chairman - F. E. Ayers, Director, Planning and Works Department, City of Ottawa Snow Clearing in . J.-V. Arpin ------______33 Panel Discussion on Snow Removal and Ice Control in Urban Areas (a) Snow Removal and Ice Control, Edmonton. H. Gray 41 (b) Snow Removal and Ice Control, Fredericton. W. L. Barrett 46 (c) Snow Removal and Ice Control, Toronto. A. Douglas Ford .______49 (d) Snow Removal and Ice Control. Winnipeg. W. D. Hurst 53 18 February MORNING SESSION Chairman - R. Silversides, Woodland Development Engineer, Abitibi Power and Paper Company Limited C.N.'s Fight with Snow. E. T. Hurley and E. H. Fisher .______58 Discussion: J. Fox ------______- 61 Snow and Ice Control on the Provincial Highway System of . D. R. Brohm, W. G. Cooke, A. Leslie .______64 Discussion: M. Ostiguy ....-- .--- ..__ -----. ------.______79 R. A. Scott _.... ._. .______81 Winter Maintenance Practices in Canada - 1963. M. A. La Salle 85 General Discussion . ... ------.___ 87 AFTERNOON SESSION Snow Removal and Ice Control in the RCAF. S/Ldr. R. Greenhalgh . .______90 RCAF Snow Removal and Ice Control Procedures - the Development of Equipment and Techniques. FILt. J. C. Caird ---__.______93 Mechanical Equipment Trends in Airport Snow Removal at Department of Transport Airports. H. E. A. Devitt .. ._... .____ 97 Runway Snow Removal and Ice Control Methods at Airports maintained by Department of Transport. L. M. E. Hawkins . . . 101 General Discussion .._. .. ------______103 Final Discussion Period - Chairman: L. W. Gold 105 Appendix A - Registration List ...... ______107 CONFERENCE REVIEW by

L. W. GOLD, Chairman, Snow and Ice Subcommittee, ACSSM

The conference had three principal objectives: perature and wind speed during and subsequent to begin to define those factors primarily respon• to the storm. The importance of these factors is sible for the cost of snow removal and ice control; generally recognized, and most winter main• to begin to record in one place easily accessible tenance organizations have statistics concerning to all the considerable experience available on the them for their respective regions. It is recognized problem; and to begin to define areas where also that good weather forecasts are necessary for research and development should be encouraged. the efficient deployment of men and equipment. The following review of the conference has been Discussion following the paper by McLeod on prepared with regard to these objectives. weather in relation to snow removal and ice con• trol did bring out the fact, however, that most Snow removal and ice control is a service that organizations are not aware of the service pro• has grown rapidly in the past twenty years because vided by the Canadian Meteorological Service. of requirements of a growing economy and the One of the recommendations arising from the desire to use the automobile under all weather Conference was that a study be undertaken to conditions. In the paper by Legget and Williams, define what weather information is required for it is estimated that there are now about 40,000 the purpose of snow removal and ice control, and miles of urban from which must what can be provided by the Canadian Meteoro• be removed about 192 x l O" tons of snow each logical Service. winter; about 270,000 miles of surfaced highways from which must be removed about 1200 x 1O" Weather has had an influence on the develop• tons; about 60,000 miles of track from which ment of winter maintenance capability and prac• must be removed about 9 x l O" tons; and run• tices. For example, in temperate areas with ways equivalent to about 2,600 miles of two• medium to heavy total annual snowfall, salt is lane surfaced highway from which must be re• used extensively in combination with ploughing moved about 8 x 1Oll tons. They estimate that for snow removal and ice control. In regions the direct cost of winter maintenance service in normally too cold for salt to be effective, salt Canada is now between sixty to one hundred mixed with abrasives or abrasives only are used million dollars per year in public funds. This for ice control, and greater use appears to be estimate does not include capital investment, in• made of graders, particularly in urban areas, terest charges on investment, depreciation or the because of their planing ability. It has been found cost of private snow removal and ice control. good practice to remove snow as quickly as pos• Trends indicate that direct costs will double within sible after it falls to reduce the possibility of ice ten years. It is apparent that the magnitude and formation by traffic. This in turn has encouraged cost of snow removal and ice control in Canada investment in ploughs and plough attachments is sufficient to justify careful consideration of the rather than blowers for highway snow removal, factors responsible for that cost, and the encour• and established 30 to 40 miles as a practical agement of research and development directed to length of road that can be maintained by a patrol. reducing costs and maximizing efficiency. The paper by Brohm, Cooke and Leslie discusses the influence of weather on highway design. It is the weather and associated climate of Design has been modified over the years to mini• Canada, with its variation from one year to the mize snow accumulation and problems associated next and from one region to another, that makes winter maintenance necessary. Papers presented with melting snow. The 1963 Winter Main• to the Conference indicate that the following tenance Survey of the Canadian Good Roads characteristics of weather have a direct bearing Association pointed out that the "self clearing" on costs: the number of storms that occur; when ability obtained through design is a factor in the they occur; their duration; the amount of snow reduction that has occurred in the total mileage deposited; time between storms; and the tem- of highway snow fencing, and probably as well 1 in the lower winter maintenance costs for high• caused Montreal to specify in winter maintenance ways on the prairies. contracts that not only will streets and sidewalks be ploughed, but that the snow must be completely The Conference indicated that desired or re• removed within 72 hours after the termination of quired standards of snow removal and ice control a storm. Most cities and highway departments are an important factor in the development of have a master winter maintenance plan that de• winter maintenance capability. Automobiles re• signates the action to be taken under given wea• quire bare pavement for safe operation at normal ther conditions, and the priority and standard of speeds, particularly on high traffic density high• maintenance to be applied to various streets and ways. The papers by Greenhalgh and Devitt roads. emphasize that high speed jet aircraft have made bare pavement mandatory for runways. Fisher In addition to weather and standard of main• and Hurley point out that increasing automation tenance, the Conference indicated that availability in railway operations has created a real need of storage space for snow, interference due to for powerful, dependable all-weather switches, traffic, and logistics have had an important in• particularly for the large automatic classification fluence on cost and on the development of equip• yards that have been constructed in recent years. ment and practices. At airports there is usually Technological advances such as those associated adequate snow storage space adjacent to runways, with these examples demand a higher standard of minimum interference during snow removal and 'I winter maintenance and may, therefore, result in the requirement of rapid clearing. As described in increased costs. the papers by Caird and Hawkins, this has led to the evolution of highspeed ploughs and plough• One of the very difficult problems that face blower combination as well as rotary brooms to many responsible for snow removal and ice con• provide bare pavement. Highways also usually trol is to determine an acceptable balance between have adequate adjacent storage space and advan• the standards of winter maintenance required or tage can be taken of the snow-throwing character• desired, and the funds available - a balance that istics of ploughs as well as of wing attachments is often disturbed by the vagaries of weather. The for greater lateral displacement. Traffic is, how• budget for snow removal and ice control is usually ever, a factor, and attention must be given to established by legislation as part of the annual adequate warning and protecting devices for mo• maintenance budget. The report of the Canadian torists, as described by Brohm, Cooke and Leslie. Good Roads Association indicated that about one• In cities, traffic and parking are serious inter• third of the annual maintenance budget for high• ferences to snow removal and ice control, and ways is used for winter maintenance; for cities it probably increased costs by more than 20%. may be as high as 40%. The factors that affect Under these conditions it is not possible to take the cost of snow removal and ice control are not advantage of the high-speed characteristics of defined well enough at present to be used as a ploughs. The session on snow removal in urban basis for establishing and approving budgets. areas emphasized that the need to remove snow Barrett expressed concern that in many cases and the gradual disappearance of suitable dump where sources of funds are inflexible, a particu• areas has had a very significant influence on the larly bad winter can seriously reduce the money development of winter maintenance services in available for normal repair and reconstruction cities, and on costs. unless the standard of winter maintenance is reduced. One of the facts brought out by the Conference was the lack of information on costs, particularly Some organizations have, through experience, for specific operations. The estimates of Legget established standards or policies with respect to and Williams indicate that costs range from about snow removal and ice control that serve as a 2 to 5¢ per ton for snow removal from highways useful basis for preparing budgets. For example, and runways, to over $1.00 per ton for snow the Ontario Highway Department maintain bare removal from city streets. Montreal, with a total to center-bare, whenever possible, all surfaced of about 900 miles of street, 1,450 miles of side• highways with traffic density in excess of 500 walk and a daily automobile population of about vehicles per day; chemicals are used for ice control 400,000 vehicles, has probably the best record of when justified; high priority is given to roads snow removal and ice control costs availablefor carrying regular truck traffic and to high speed a city. Snow is ploughed and removed from streets throughways. Arpin states that publicreaction has' and sidewalks in Montreal at contract prices of 2 about 1.1¢ per lineal foot of street per 60 inches on the purchase and spreading of chemicals and of snowfall or about $9,000.00 per mile per 100 abrasives. Presently available chemicals cannot be inches of snow. This is equivalent to about 30 to used for controlling ice formation on runways. 40¢ per cu.yd., not much different from current Caird described a sand bonding technique devel• bid prices for hauling earth. The total cost of oped by the R.C.A.F. for ice control that has snow clearing in 1963 for Montreal was about proved satisfactory for emergency situations. $8,950,000.00, equivalent to about $20.00 per The Conference recognized the current lack of automobile or 1 to 2¢ per vehicle mile. Example knowledge in Canada on the use of chemicals. figures given by the Ontario Department of High• It recommended that studies be undertaken to ways were between $340.00 to $5,700.00 per mile determine the conditions most suitable for the use for highway snow removal in Ontario, or between of various chemicals available, and the rates at 0.05 to 0.87¢ per vehicle mile, depending on which they should be applied for given weather weather and traffic density. The Survey of the conditions. The possible deleterious effects of Canadian Good Roads Association indicated that chemicals was noted and it was recommended that average cost of winter maintenance for primary studies be undertaken on the damage to machines, highways was about $80.00 per mile on the structures and vegetation attributed to their use. prairies and about $400.00 per mile for the rest It was recommended as well that studies be under• of Canada excluding British Columbia. These taken to find cheap, effective and non-harmful figures indicate that the direct cost of snow re• methods of ice control. moval and ice control is not out of line with the cost of equivalent soil moving operations, and, on Concern was expressed over the high capital a vehicle mile basis, is probably less than 10% of investment that is often required to establish an the cost of driving an automobile. adequate winter maintenance program. Generally, snow removal equipment has a short-term use If a study is to be undertaken on ways of im• factor. To reduce capital investment, winter main• proving the efficiency of a service, and if one of tenance capability is often augmented by hiring the purposes of the study is to delineate areas construction equipment that otherwise would be requiring research and development, it would idle in winter. This sometimes leads to a difficult appear reasonable that one of the first steps should situation for the first storms of the season, partic• be to establish current costs. The Conference rec• ularly for cities, as construction equipment may ognized the lack of detailed information on costs still be on summer jobs and therefore not avail• and recommended that consideration be given to able. Fisher and Hurley noted the need for the the development of suitable systems for classifying development of less expensive attachments for accounts and recording costs. available power units so as to reduce capital One of the potential uses of a suitable account• investment. ing system would be to check efficiency by com• Although considerable experience was pre• paring the cost of particular operations with the sented to the Conference, it was considered that costs for previous years or for other organizations. a more extensive record of current practices of The information presented to the Conference in• snow removal and ice control, particularly in dicated, however, that careful consideration must cities, should be prepared. It was recommended as be given to weather and terrain when establishing well that studies be undertaken of ordinances, the basis for such comparisons. regulations and bylaws now in effect concerning It was acknowledged that ice formation pre• snow removal and ice control, and that an attempt sented one of the most severe winter maintenance be made to develop model ordinances, regulations problems. Chemicals provide the principal means and bylaws. It was recommended that studies for combatting ice in those areas where tempera• should be encouraged on new techniques and ture permits. For maximum effectiveness, chemi• equipment for winter maintenance, such as snow• cals must be applied to the pavement before the melting systems and the accumulation of weather ice forms. Salt consumption for ice control in data required for their design. One potentially Canada is now between 800,000 to 1,000,000 fruitful area of study that was delineated during discussion was town-planning and roadway design tons annually. In 1962-63, 52.5 % of the winter maintenance budget for the Department of High• to minimize future winter maintenance costs. ways of Ontario, and 44.4% of the budget for A large proportion of the annual costs of snow the Department of Highways of , was spent removal and ice control is expended on wages. 3 Organization, planning, training and communica• recorded, a number of problem areas were de• tions are, therefore, important factors in an effi• lineated and a good basis was established from cient winter maintenance program. The Report on which to consider these problems. The difficulties the Winter Roads Survey of the Canadian Good of providing an adequate standard of winter main• Roads Association suggests that the snow-removal tenance with given funds is not always appre• problem at present is not so much one of equip• ciated, particularly by the general public. The ment and materials as of personnel management. contributions presented to the Conference show that those responsible for winter maintenance are The Conference was a successful beginning of quite aware of the problems and are anxious to the definition of the snow removal and ice control find more satisfactory and efficient solutions to problem in Canada. Considerable experience was them.

4 SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL IN CANADA WITH A NOTE ON SNOW AND ICE RESEARCH bv R. F. Legget Director, Division of Building Research National Research Council and G. P. Williams Division of Building Research National Research Council

ABSTRACT RESUME Information publicly available on the cost of On analyse les donnees actuellement disponi• snow clearing in Canada is analysed. Unit costs, bles en ce qui concerne le cout de l'enlevement defined as the cost of removing one ton of freshly de la neige au Canada. Le cout unitaire, defini fallen snow, are estimated for airport runways, comme etant celui auquel donne lieu l'enlevernent highways, and urban streets. The range in total d'une tonne de neige fraichement tombee, est annual costs for removing snow and ice from evalue pour les pistes des aeroports, les auto• these transportation routes is also estimated. Snow routes et les rues des villes. On fait egalement removal cost trends are studied in relations to ex• une estimation de l'ordre de grandeur des frais panding transportation facilities and a mounting annuels d'enlevement de la neige et de la glace public demand for snow-free public transportation sur ces pistes, routes et rues. Les tendances du routes. The paper concludes with a short review cofit de l'enlevernent de la neige sont etudiees a of past and current snow and ice research activ• la lumiere des moyens modernes de transport et ities in Canada. des exigences du public qui souhaite de plus en plus avoir des voies de communication sans neige. Pour finir, on passe en revue les travaux de re• cherche effectues sur la neige et sur la glace au Canada.

One of the many popular descriptive names recognize the beauty suggested by "Our Lady of given to Canada, albeit not one of the most ac• the " before we get immersed in the mun• curate, is that first voiced by Rudyard Kipling in dane economics of snow removal and ice control. a poem seldom quoted, the last lines of which are: For it is the financial aspect of snow clearing ", The gates are mine to open, that has been the main spur to the organization As the gates are mine to close, of this meeting. We estimate that Canada will be And I abide by my Mother's House '. spending during this winter up to one hundred Said our Lady of the Snows. " million dollars of public funds and probably an equal amount from private funds merely for snow "Our Lady of the Snows"! We all know something removal and ice control on city streets and other of the odd misconceptions that are related to this transportation routes. This vast amount of money concept of a snowbound land. Today, however, represents a phenomenal increase in expenditure the poetic title is appropriate. We are met together to consider the mantle of snow that covers this during even so short a period as the last decade. land every winter, and in particular its partial And when this country is found to be spending removal to satisfy the needs of man. One can not one hundred million dollars of public money press too far the imagery of Kipling, for rather annually on an operation that is directly unpro• obvious reasons, but it is well that we should ductive, then it is clearly time to stop and take 5 TABLE 1 - FACTORS THAT AFFECT SNOW-CLEARING COSTS

FACTOR VARIABLES

----',--, Climatological Amount of snow, type of snow, duration and spacing of storms, temperature and wind conditions.

Geographical Area to be cleared (miles of track, runway, road), topography (ter- rain, facilities for snow storage, distance snow has to be moved).

..- - ", ---_...... _------'--.------_._._------_.._------Traffic Level of service (bare road, runway) intensity of traffic during storm, effect of parked cars, equipment. ------Legal Emergency regulations, towing of cars, etc. Efficiency of Operation Organization of men and equipment, use of weather forecasts. - Methods and Equipment Equipment available, rental charges, methods of clearing (chemical, thermal, mechanical).

System of Cost Accounting Direct costs - inclusion of depreciation, capital investment, staff time, etc. Indirect costs - to assess properly the cost of snow clearing to a city, railway, highway or airport, indirect costs such as affect of traffic delays on transportation or business, or corrosion of vehicles, should be included. a very critical look at the operation in question. meeting will be given over to consideration of It is the purpose of this meeting to take just such research potential. a critical look. At the outset, it will be useful to be reminded The meeting has been organized under the of the relatively recent development of widespread auspices of the National Research Council through snow clearing as it is known today, and then to its Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mech• review together the justification of the overall anics. This Committee is charged with keeping figures already mentioned and their significance. under review the research needs of Canada in The historical picture can then be completed by relation to all aspects of its terrain. It therefore brief reference to the development of Canadian operates through active subcommittees on Soil snow and ice research work up to the present time. Mechanics, Muskeg, Permafrost, and, naturally, At the time of the first world war, most cities Snow and Ice, this last group being directly had to leave enough snow on their roads to pro• responsible for the programme. vide a good surface for sleighs. Ploughing, if any, was usually restricted to the business districts of Our gathering is therefore a research meeting, cities, or to streets used by street railways. By the objectives being to see if the expenditures that 1930, the increase in automobile traffic made it are necessary for snow clearing and ice control necessary to plough most city streets, but winter on transportation routes are being as efficiently maintenance of highways was still a "compara• utilized as they should be, to inquire as to needed tively new problem"." Sleigh traffic was still a research effort in this field and to consider what factor in rural areas and because of this it was still can and should be done to stimulate such research. necessary in many areas to leave four to five inches The National Research Council is naturally not of snow on top of paved highways." directly concerned with operations but rather with research. In this area of activity, as the meeting 1 Robbins, C. A. Winter Maintenance of Public High• will hear, operations are being efficiently handled ways. The Canadian Engineer, Vol. 63, No. 12, p. 109• by a variety of organizations. Descriptions of oper• 110, September 1932. 2 Gratton, A. Discussion of Paper "Winter Maintenance ations will provide a useful background to a dis• of Ontario Highways". The Canadian Engineer, Vol. 71, cussion of research needs; the conclusion of the No. 18, p. 12, November 3, 1936. 6 The importance of organization, preparedness, man hours, and the cost of truck rental. Costs, and communications for the success of a winter such as depreciation, the time spent by super• maintenance programme came to be generally vising engineering and maintenance staffs and the recognized at this time."> Abrasives were in interest lost on money invested, are usually not common use by 1936 and in some areas salt was reported. The indirect costs of snow clearing, such being added to them, primarily to keep them as deterioration of pavements and vehicles, are workable in cold weather. At most airports snow almost never considered. was then being compacted with drags or rollers to provide a satisfactory landing surface for air• In general, the information that is publicly craft. The first trials with blowers and ploughs available even on direct snow clearing costs in for runway snow removal took place at S1. Hubert Canada is most unsatisfactory. The results of an Airport, Montreal, in the winter of 1938-39.5 analysis, based upon the information that can be assembled must, therefore, be considered as a first Since the years of the second world war the approximation only of the current cost of snow ability to remove snow and control ice was devel• clearing in Canada. oped rapidly, particularly at the operational level. It is now possible for Highway Departments to SOURCES OF INFORMATION adopt a "bare roads" policy for highways, even in areas of heavy snowfall. The introduction of The information on snow clearing costs for jets has made "bare pavement" mandatory for airports was obtained from a paper by Rees G runways. Cities are now able to clear all their which tabulated the cost of removing snow in the main streets of snow within hours of a major 1959-60 winter from 43 airports in Canada storm. maintained by the Department of Transport Air Services. Because of the rapid increase in the size and scope of snow and ice control maintenance pro• Most of the information on the cost of snow grammes, there has been little opportunity for clearing from urban centres was obtained from those responsible for the programmes to undertake a survey conducted by Canadian Municipal Utili• research on techniques or equipment, or' to de• ties in 1961. 7 Some information on cost of velop records suitable for cost analysis of these snow clearing in Canadian cities in 1949 was winter operations. Because of the lack of suitable obtained from a survey conducted by the Ameri• cost records, it has proved to be difficult to de• can Public Works Association." velop even an overall picture of the total current cost of snow removal, but the attempt has been The main source of information on the cost of made with the following results. snow and ice control on Canadian highways was obtained from a survey conducted by the Cana• FACTORS AFFECTING dian Good Roads Association and reported in SNOW-CLEARING COSTS 1956. 9 This information was supplemented Before considering the results of this analysis, whenever possible by more up-to-date information the factors that determine snow clearing costs obtained from various journals. may be usefully listed. As shown in Table I, Some information on the cost of snow removal several variables affect snow clearing costs, making from Canadian railways was obtained from the it difficult to determine the true cost of snow Public Finance Transportation Division, Bureau clearing or to compare snow clearing costs be• of Statistics, but the published information avail• tween different organizations. Even a comparison able on the cost of removing snow from Canadian of annual costs for the same city can result in railways is slight. misleading information unless annual costs are compared on the same basis. 6 Rees, D. B. Clearing Snow Off Runways at High Speed. Paper prepared for presentation at the 1961 SAE Most cost reports include only obvious direct International Congress and Exposition of Automotive costs such as the cost of equipment operation, Engineering, January 1961. 7 Winter Maintenance of Urban Streets. Canadian Mu• nicipal Utilities Manual, Vol. 99, No.8, August 1961. 3 Robbins, C. A. Winter Maintenance of Ontario High• Way.I'. The Canadian Engineer, Vol. 71, No. 18, p. 7-11, 8 Report of American Public Works Association. Com• November 3, 1936. mittee on Street Cleaning and Snow Removal. Special 4 Snow Removal is Profitable. The Canadian Engineer. Reports Nos. 6 and 10, 1949-50. Vol. 77, No. 16, p. 18-24, October 18, 1938. 9 Mathieu, O. A. A Review of Current Practice for Snow 5 Snow Removal at Canada's Airports. The Canadian and lee Control. Proceedings of Canadian Good Roads Engineer, Vol. 75, No. 16, p. 15-18, October 17, 1939. Association, p. 247-259, October 1956.

7 COSTS Total Annual Costs Estimated Unit Costs The annual cost of removing snow from air• As a first general comparison, the cost of re• ports, highways, railways and urban centres in moving one ton of freshly-fallen snow from airport Canada will naturally vary from year to year, runways, highways, urban roads and railways was depending partly on variable amounts of the sea• estimated. The unit cost of snow removal from sonal snow. Without the necessary statistical airport runways was obtained by estimating the records, it is difficult to estimate this variation or total seasonal snowfall that had to be removed even to determine average annual snow-clearing from each airport runway area in the 1959-60 costs. With the information that is available, it is season, and dividing this by the total reported cost only possible to indicate the relative magnitudes of snow removal. For small airports, the cost of annual snow-clearing costs. ranged from 4-12¢/ton; for large airports, the Tn 1959-60, the reported cost of removing snow reported cost ranged from 6-36¢/ton. from 43 airports in Canada was about $500,000, The cost for removing a ton of snow from and the total amount of snow removed was esti• various cities in Canada was obtained by multi• mated to be 4 x 10D tons giving an average unit plying the estimated area of streets by the seasonal cost of 12.5¢/ton. This figure does not include the snowfall, and dividing this total by the reported cost of snow removed by the RCAF so that the annual cost for each city. The cost for small urban annual cost of removing snow from Canada's air• cities ranged from 5-30¢/ton; the cost for large ports is probably about $l,OOO,OOO/year. urban centres ranged from 30¢/ton to over $l/ton, or from 10-35¢/ cubic yard. It is of some The cost of removing snow from urban centres interest to note that current Ontario prices for was obtained by estimating that 40,000 miles of soil excavation are in the range of 35-40¢/ cubic urban roads in Canada require on the average yard. $500-$1000/mile for snow clearing. If the annual seasonal snowfall is estimated to be 70 inches, The range in unit costs for removing snow from the total seasonal snowfall removed from 40,000 highways was obtained by dividing the estimated miles of urban roads would be 192 x lOB tons at total snowfall per mile of highway (tons/mile) by an annual cost of $20-40 million, or an average the reported cost per mile. Unit costs ranged from unit cost of about 10-20¢/ton. 2-36¢/ton. The estimated range in unit costs are tabulated The annual cost of snow removal from urban in Table 2. (As there was insufficient information centres has been estimated to be $30 million 7 on the cost of snow clearing from railways, the which represents about 30 per cent of the reported range in unit cost for railways is not presented.) cost of maintaining all urban roads in Canada For comparison, the cost of melting a ton of snow in 1959 (repairs, cleaning, sanding, snow re• by heating with electricity or oil is also presented. moval)."? This heating cost does not include installation In Canada, there are about 270,000 miles of costs, and assumes that the only operating cost is surfaced highways. The reported cost of keeping the fuel required to melt completely a given weight these roads clear of snow range from a low of of snow at 100 per cent efficiency. $50/mile or less to a high of $1800/mile. If it is TABLE 2 - ESTIMATED RANGE IN COST assumed that on the average it requires $100• FOR REMOVING 1 TON OF 200/mile to keep these roads clear of snow, the SNOW total annual cost would be from $27-54 million. The amount of seasonal snowfall (70 inches as• Range in Cost for sumed average) falling on these roads represents SERVICE Removing 1 ton of about 1200 x lOB tons of snow. If this snow could snow (cents) ------be removed at an animal cost noted, the average Small Airports 4 - 12 unit cost of snow removal would be from Large Airports 6 - 36 2.2-4.5¢/ton. Highways 2 - 36 It is considered that the range in annual cost Small Urban Centres 5 - 30 Large Urban Centres 30 - 100 or more of clearing snow from highways is not unreason- Electricity 84 10 The Canada Year Book. Dominion Bureau of Sta• Oil 42 tistics, 1961, Queen's Printer.

8 '"f-- "" 50,000 f• - ｾ 40,000 f-

""ｾ 30,000f- ::< c-c 20,000 f- - ｾ o z

""ｾ 10,000 f• - o Fluctuation--J' m Budget ""ｾ ,-4------I U $300, 000 $1, 400, 000 z 5,000 f- -

:I: U Z IIII I 10 50 100 500 1000 5000 10,000 ANNUAL BUDGET, THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS Fig. 1. Relationship Between Amount of Snow Cleared from City Streets (Inch-Miles) and Snow Removal Budgets able because the reported cost of snow clearing tical analysis. Some of the information available for highways maintained by the Ontario Depart• on urban snow removal can be used to illustrate ment of Highways alone is about $14 million.'! the type of analysis which could be done if ade• An average annual cost of $27-54 million repre• quate cost records were available. sents from 13 to 26 per cent of the total money Using the results of the two surveys taken in spent on highway maintenance in Canada in 1959 and 1961 on the cost of snow clearing 1960.1° in cities," 8 general relationships between the The cost of removing snow, ice and sand from amount of snow (inch-miles) and annual snow the two major railways in Canada was reported to clearing budget were established (Fig. 1). The be about $7,000,000 in 1961. 12 It is estimated difference between the 1949 and 1961 curves is that an average seasonal snowfall of 70 inches partly due to the general increase in snow clearing falling on the 60,000 miles of track in Canada costs over this decade. Some of this difference can would be about 9 x 1O" tons. If the annual cost also be attributed to the fact that the 1949 data is assumed to range from $5-15 million, the includes predominantly American cities, and the unit cost of snow removal would range from 1961 curve is entirely Canadian cities. The Amer• 5.5-16.5¢/ton. ican cities are generally in regions of lighter snow• fall and milder temperatures where the same Table 3 summarizes the annual cost of snow amount of snow (inch-miles) can be removed at clearing in Canada. The total estimated cost, a lower total cost than in more northern areas. ranging from about $62-110 million per season, includes only public funds spent on snow clearing The considerable scatter to points on Fig. 1 is and does not include any indirect costs of snow to be expected as this relationship will depend on removal, nor the cost of private snow removal snow clearing methods, efficiency of operation, operations. type of streets - all the factors that affect re• ported snow clearing costs (Table 1). Each urban RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SNOWFALL centre will have special conditions and should be AMOUNTS AND SNOW CLEARING COSTS studied separately to establish the type of relation• The information available on snow clearing ship shown on Fig. 1. If such a relationship can costs in Canada is not suitable for detailed statis- be developed, it should be possible to estimate the seasonal fluctuation in snow budget from the ex• 11 Year-Round Preparedness Keeps Queen Province "Cold War Army" Fit for Service. Public Works in pected seasonal fluctuation in annual snowfall. Canada, Vol. 11, No.7, September 1963, 12 Estimate obtained from - Public Finance, Transporta• If, for example, it is assumed that the curve tion Division, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa, (1961) of Fig. 1 is valid for a city where the sea- 9 TABLE 3 - ESTIMATED ANNUAL COST OF SNOW CLEARING IN CANADA

Miles of Road Cost of Snow Clearing Tons of Snow SERVICE or Track (millions of dollars) Removed -----1--- I Roads I 270,000 27 - 54 1200 x 1()6 Urban Centres i 40,000 30 - 40 190 x 1()6 Railways 60,000 5 - 15 90 x 1()6 Airports Y2 - 1 4 x 106 sonal snowfall fluctuates from a minimum of 30 snow clearing in 1949-50 for these cities ranged inches to a maximum of 70 inches, then, if the from 50¢ to $2.50/capita. In 1960 the cost of street mileage remains constant at 600 miles, snow snow clearing at these same cities had risen to clearing costs can be expected to fluctuate $1-5/capita. If this same rate of increase con• from a minimum of $300,000 to a maximum tinues, the cost/capita in 1980 could range from of $1,400,000. $2-10.50/capita. At the same time, it is estimated that by 1980 the urban population will increase SNOW REMOVAL COST TRENDS to 21 million.!" If both the cost of snow clear• The total cost of clearing snow from highways, ing per capita and the total urban population urban areas, and airports has increased greatly in increase, the cost of urban snow removal will more Canada in recent years. This increase has been due than double in the next 15 years, approaching the to expanding transportation facilities and a mount• $100 million mark by 1980, this being for keeping ing public demand for snow-free roads and run• city streets alone clear of snow. ways. No figures are readily available on railroad It is to be expected that the cost of snow clear• costs but, presumably, the increase there has not ing on highways will also continue to increase. been so spectacular, since the railways have had It has been forecast that between 1954 and 1980 to provide good snow clearing facilities for many the number of passenger cars will increase by years. 226 per cent, and the number of commercial In 1931 the cost of snow clearing on Provin• vehicles by 155 per cent.l" The number of ve• cial highways in Ontario was estimated to be hicle-miles is expected to more than triple over $500,000 1 compared to a recent estimate of this same period. These expected increases will $14 million. In 1939 the reported cost of keeping mean an increased demand for more highways airports clear of snow in Canada was $30,000 5 and a high level of snow clearing services with compared to the estimated $1/2-1 million now resulting higher annual snow clearing costs. required. The cost of snow clearing in the City The cost of clearing snow from railway lines of Ottawa for the winter of 1916-17 was reported can be expected to change but little since the to be $20,000,13 rising to a reported $120• total mileage of track is not expected to increase 140,000 in 1939,14 while it is now around the markedly. The cost of snow clearing at airports million dollar mark. The cost of snow clearing will gradually increase as airports increase in in Montreal was high even in 1916 when it cost number and size. from $1000-2000/mile to keep the streets of this major business city open in wlnter.P In recent If we now consider the overall picture, it years, however, the cost of snow clearing in appears to be reasonably certain that the total Montreal is reported to be from $6000-7000/mile. cost of public snow clearing operations in Canada is going to double probably within the next ten Table 4 compares the reported annual snow years, if automobile traffic increases as now an• budgets of 1949 and 1960 for five Canadian ticipated by statisticians. Since we are spending centres. According to these records the cost of at the present time up to $100 million in public funds in this way each year and probably an 13 Hunter, L. M. Snow Clearing and Removal in Ottawa. The Canadian Engineer, Vol. 34, No.7, February 14, equal amount from private funds, the cause of 1918. our concern will be evident. 14 Aswkith, F. C. How Ottawa Handles Snow Problems. The Canadian Engineer, Vol. 77, No. 16, October 17, 1939. 16 Dube, Y., Howes, J. E., and McQueen, D. L. Housing 15 Mercier, P. E. Snow Removal in Montreal. The Cana• and Social Capital. Royal Commission on Canada's dian Engineer, Vol. 31, No.4, p. 71-72, July 27, 1916. Economic Prospects, January 1957, Queen's Printer.

10 TABLE 4 - SOME REPORTED ANNUAL SNOW BUDGETS 1949 AND 1960

ANNUAL SNOW CITY YEAR COST/MILE BUDGET

------MONTREAL 1949 2,000,000 3050 1960 6,000,000 6900 ------TORONTO , 1949 650,000 1100 1960 1,380,000 2400 iI i WINNIPEG 1949 180,000 410 1960 670,000 1090 ------GUELPH ! 1949 8,000 110 1960 76,000 970 ------MONCTON 1949 28,000 59 1960 235,000 2100

ICE CONTROL IS now using over 200,000 tons of chemicals It is difficult to separate the cost of snow clear• every year at a cost of about $2 million. The ing operations - the moving of snow from the City of Montreal has increased its use of chemicals location on to which it falls either to an adjacent in twelve years from 2,600 to 75,000 tons per location (as by plowing) or its complete removal year. If it is assumed the 75,000 tons is spread (as by trucking) - from ice control costs. Much uniformly over the 900 miles of streets, the rate of the increase in cost of snow clearing operations of application would be 83 tons/mile or 31 in Canada has been due to the growing public lbs./lineal ft. of street/winter season. Supporting demand for completely "bare streets" which has evidence of the increased use of chemicals for led to the widespread use of chemicals for the ice control comes from Great Britain, a country melting of ice on streets and highways caused not normally thought of in connection with winter by freezing rain or by the compacting effect of road problems, where one million tons of chemi• traffic upon freshly fallen snow. cals are being used in the United Kingdom during the present winter for this purpose ! The use of chemicals for this purpose is a matter of keen public controversy. Somewhat It is to be noted that figures normally cited for naturally, we wish to avoid futile arguments at the cost of chemical ice control are direct costs, a meeting such as this but the use of chemicals merely for the purchase of chemicals and their for ice control is a fact that must be faced. distribution on road surfaces. When indirect costs are considered, astronomical cost estimates can Here again the dearth of accurate statistics be produced which naturally lend themselves to makes it difficult to present very accurate evidence controversy. No such estimates will be attempted but even the scanty data that are available give but it must be recognized that the costs of extra cause for concern. In Canada it has been esti• road maintenance necessitated by the use of chem• mated that salt production has grown from 1.8 icals, of deterioration in pavements and million tons in 1957 to 3.3 million tons in 1962 17 bridges as a direct result of chemical action, and - in effect a doubling of the amount used in the above all of metallic corrosion directly attributable last five years. Much of this increase is due to to the use of chemicals for ice control (chiefly in the increased use of chemicals for ice control automobiles) is a formidable figure by any stand• on streets and roads. It is estimated that the ard and one that presents a ringing challenge. amount of salt used on streets and highways has grown from 390,000 tons in 1958 to an estimated SNOW AND ICE RESEARCH 850,000 tons in 1963.1 8 Ontario, for example, IN CANADA

17 Ripley, J. G. Damage Caused by De-Icing Chemicals. When it is recalled that the problem discussed Engineering and Contract Record, Vol. 76, No.1, is only one of the many ways in which snow and January 1963. t s Estimates obtained from March 14, 1964 issue of ice affect life in Canada, the question may very Financial Post. properly be asked - What is being done in 11 Canada to find out more about the properties of block of this material by Earl Mountbatten during snow and ice and their effect upon man-made the top level conference at the Chateau Frontenac, structures and normal daily operations? Snow , is one of the prize anecdotes of the and ice research has been officially recognized in war.23 Canada only in comparatively recent years. It will be useful, if only as background material It was the sudden development of later war• time problems relating to the operation of tracked for your discussions, to take a quick look at what has been and what is being done in this field. vehicles on mud (and later on snow) that led to the establishment in 1945 of the Associate Com• Down through the years, there have always mittee on Soil and Snow Mechanics. This name, been isolated individuals with inquiring minds so happily combining Soil Mechanics and Snow who, without the benefit of modern aids to re• Mechanics and initially disguising a high security search, have made pioneer studies in this as in investigation, was the inspiration of Dr. C. J. other fields. Typical is the work of Major Edward MacKenzie then President of N.R.C. With the Williams at Quebec City as early as 1784; his coming of peace, the Committee turned its atten• experiments were carefully recorded and make tion to civilian problems and a study of what was interesting reading even today. 1n A fascinating known about snow and ice had high priority. job, long waiting to be undertaken, is the study of early American scientific records for the many Switzerland in 1946 appeared to be the only further examples of this type of early research country in which snow and ice research was that almost certainly exist. already established. The senior author, therefore, had the privilege of being one of the first post• In the early years of this century, Professor war official Canadian visitors to Switzerland Howard T. Barnes of McGill University became when he went there in April 1946 primarily to interested in the problem of ice on the St. Law• visit the Swiss Snow and Ice Research Laboratory rence River and conducted many experiments located on the Weissfluhjoch at Davos-Dorf. with "thermit" that won him international recog• Standing in that fine laboratory, in its magnificent nition. He summarized much of his work in a mountain setting, and seeing the progress that book that was a pioneer in its field.20 Dean had even then been made in the study of snow Ernest Brown, also of McGill, conducted some and ice by this relatively small country, the author of the earliest Canadian experiments on the ventured to dream of what Canada would one strength of ice in a Montreal cold storage ware• day achieve in this same field. This splendid house, in connection with a study of ice pressure meeting of today is a fine step towards that ob• against dams.>' jective. Some of the first studies in Canada of snow Interest developed by the reports of Swiss as a material were made in connection with the activity brought back from that meeting led to the design of aircraft skis by our colleague George convening (by the Associate Committee) of the J. Klein, of the Division of Mechanical Engineer• first Canadian public conference on snow and ice ing, N.R.C., who is present at this meeting. This work was related to Canadian wartime activity research in September 1947 ＮＲｾ In those days as was also the most unusual snow and ice re• there was little progress to report; even the search work ever done in this country, the de• of Canada had not been properly mapped, velopment of "", ice reinforced with wood let alone studied. Sir Charles Wright, interna• fibres and intended for the construction of floating tionally famous if only as the Wright of "Wright self-refrigerating ice-fields." The testing of a and Priestley", authors of the great English pioneer text on , was present at the 19 Legget, R. F. Early Discoverers - Early Canadfan meeting and assisted in the wide-ranging discus• Experiments on Ice - (1784-85). Journal of Glaciol• ogy, Vol. 3, No. 24, October 1958. sions that eventually led to the listing of over one 20 Barnes, H. T. Ice Engineering. Montreal Renouf Pub• lishing Company, 1928. hundred research projects related to snow and 21 Brown, E. and Clarke, G. C. Ice Thrust in Connection ice that appeared to demand attention. Snow with Hydro-Electric Plant Design. Engineering Jour• nal, Vol. 15, No.1, p. 18-25, January 1932. clearing and ice control naturally figured pro• 22 Perutz, M. F. A Description of the Aircraft minently in this schedule. Carrier and the Bearing of the Mechanical Properties of Frozen Wood Pulp Upon Some Problems of Flow. Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 1. No.3, p. 95, 2:{ Lampe, D. Pyke; The Unknown Genius. Evans Broth• 1948. ers Limited, London, p. 224, 1959.

12 At about this time, the newly formed Division application of basic scientific studies to severely of Building Research of the National Research practical problems that eventually seemed to Council established its Snow and Ice Research demonstrate this significance. Typical examples section, in appreciation of the general importance are the work done by L. W. Gold, head of the of this field and of its special relevance to the Section, on the bearing strength of ice, work that building industry which it was to serve. (In this was applied by the Pulp and Paper Companies in context, the word 'building' comprehends all the relation to pulpwood storage on lakes and activities allied with construction, as implied by rivers," and that of P. A. Schaerer on avalanches, the word 'batiment' in our second language.) In his results being the basis for the design of all the order to have a firm foundation upon which to snow protection works in the Trans-Canada High• develop the work of this small group, the Council way through Rogers Pass and elsewhere.w invited Dr. Marcel de Ouervain (now Director of the Swiss Laboratory at Davos) to spend a year Under Mr. Gold's direction, much fundamental with the Division and to study Canadian snow work has also been done, notably into the phys• and ice problems. This he did, his report upon ical properties of ice,30 and the thermal regime "Snow and Ice Research in Canada" being a of the ground surface.F' It has been a great masterly, interesting and even entertaining re• encouragement to see this type of work get started view." If space permitted, Dr. de Ouervain could at Universities, notably at McGill under Dr. be quoted from his report on the subject matter of Pounder.P Professor Seheult at the University of this conference. Suffice to say that he urged New Brunswick has carried out snow studies in that attention should be given to the problems relation to over-snow travel in woods operations. you will be discussing. The Universities of British Columbia, Alberta and Toronto have all engaged in glacier research and Meantime, the Associate Committee had ini• this naturally leads to considerations of ice as a tiated and sponsored the Snow Survey of Canada, material. the observations for which were primarily taken by the staff of the Meteorological Branch of the In the last year or two there has been a signi• Department of Transport. A snow sampling kit, ficant increase in this type of activity. Dr. developed by Mr. Klein, was used in this survey Pounder's studies of are stimulating other and has also been widely used throughout the investigators in this field. Many of the major world." The Survey was an immense job that glaciers of Canada are now under regular ob• yielded invaluable information, some of which servation. Our colleagues in the Division of may be mentioned at this meeting. It has been Mechanical Engineering have studied ice condi• tions in the St. Lawrence River and also in an fully reported 27 and is being continued, on a modified scale, by the Meteorological Service Arctic Harbour; and under defence auspices, other more specialized investigations are in prog• itself. ress. Most of the work on the Survey, apart from It is satisfactory to be able to add that all this the actual field observations, was carried out by work is being carried out with reasonable liaison the staff of the DBR Snow and Ice Section. Excel• and co-ordination, as is so often a feature of lent though the work of this small group was, it Canadian research. The Working Group on Ice must be admitted that general recognition of the in Navigable of the Canadian Committee importance of this type of research work was on Oceanography, the Glacier and Hydrolo- slow in coming. It was, perhaps, the successful

28 Gold, L. W. Field Study on the Load Bearing Capacity 24 Proceedings of Conference on Snow and Ice. N.R.C.. of Ice Covers. Woodlands Review, Pulp and Paper Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics, Magazine of Canada, May 1960, Vol. 61, No.5. Technical Memorandum No. 10, 1947. 2[1 Schaerer, P. A. Planning Avalanche Defence Works 25 De Quervain, M. R. Snow and Ice Problems in Canada for the Trans-Canada Highway at Rogers Pass, B.C. and the U.S.A. N.R.C. Division of Building Research. The Engineering Journal, March 1962, Vol. 45, No.3, Technical Report No.5, February 1950. p. 31-38. 2il Klein, G. J., Pearce, D. C., and Gold, L. W. Method 00 Gold. L. W. Some Observations on the Dependence of Measuring the Significant Characteristics of a Snow of Strain on Stress for Ice. Canadian Journal of Cover. N.R.C. Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Physics, October 1958, Vol. 36, No. 10. Mechanics, Technical Memorandum No. 18, Novem• :n Pearce, D. C. and Gold, L. W. Observations of Ground ber 1950. Temperature and Heat Flow at Ottawa, Canada. 27 Gold, L. W. and Williams, G. P. Some Results of the Journal of Geophysical Research, September 1959, Snow Survey of Canada. National Research Council, Vol. 64, No.9, p. 1293-1298. Division of Building Research, Research Paper No. 38, 32 Ice Research Project - McGill University - Mac• June 1957. donald Physics Laboratory - Annual Report 1961.

13 gical Subcommittees of the Associate Committee be included the total cost would be very much on Geodesy and Geophysics, and the Subcom• more than this. Is the result worth it? Are the mittee responsible for this meeting, all have what economic benefits that derive from easy winter may be called "interlocking memberships" so that travel, and they are undoubted, commensurate in this very personal way all Canadian research with the expenditure? We do not know. workers in this important but specialized field of research are able to keep reasonably well informed We do know that the public, for their part, about each other's work. demand clear winter roads. Would this demand be the same if the public had to pay for this This is most desirable, not only because of the service directly instead of indirectly? Does the importance of the field being served but also ordinary winter driver between (say) Ottawa and because, in our opinion, the corner seems to have Toronto realize how much it has cost to make been turned with regard to the acceptance of his road clear for him. Could we help ourselves snow and ice research work in Canada. No more by knowing, for example, what snow clearing than this can be said for the volume of work done costs per vehicle mile on different types of roads? is still very small. There appears to be, however, We suspect that this would be a revealing set of an awareness of the need for research of this kind. figures. The interest shown in this meeting is warrant for thinking this, at least with regard to the associated And are we doing the job efficiently? Are there problems of snow clearing and ice control. You any standards against which snow clearing costs may be assured that any recommendations for can be judged? We have failed to discover any research that may develop from this meeting will that have validity. In fact, the dearth of accurate be given the most sympathetic attention by the information about snow clearing costs in general Associate Committee. is perhaps the main gap to be filled in the years immediately ahead if we may assume that the FINAL COMMENT time has come when research can make some contribution to this uniquely Canadian winter The stage has now been set, we hope, for your achievement that has developed so remarkably more detailed discussions. This introductory paper in the last decade. will probably be unique amongst the contributions to the conference in one respect at least - it has We have reviewed, in a very general way, the no "Conclusion". Nor should it have, since your main lines of snow and ice research in Canada deliberations will provide any conclusion that may up to this time. Now we must look ahead. The be necessary to what has been only a cursory objective of most applied research is to enable introduction to the vast subject you have met to operational services to be improved or maintained consider. at reduced cost. In snow clearing, research can We have seen, on the one hand, the outlines attempt to reduce costs in several ways - by of a major country-wide activity carried out each improved design of equipment, by development winter by a variety of excellent organizations, and improvement of thermal and chemical meth• through the medium of devoted workers utilizing ods, by improvement in planning and adminis• a wide variety of efficient machinery and equip• tration, by better weather forecasts, and by ment, giving us reasonably clear city streets, high• development of traffic regulations that will result ways that are now truly available for year-round in better use of snow clearing equipment. Espe• use, railways that defy the weather, and runways cially important is the co-ordination of research, that are almost always available for the use of and the dissemination of information that is civilian and military aircraft. One might say that available. On many aspects of snow clearing, the snow as an impediment to winter travel has there have been numerous investigations; the been beaten. problem is not to initiate new research projects but rather to make available the results of studies But at what cost? Up to a hundred million that have taken place. dollars from public funds alone with probably an equal amount from private industry and house• Judging from the published information that is holders making a total direct cost that approaches available on snow clearing costs, not much effort a quarter of a billion dollars annually. And if the has been expended by organizations on cost• principal indirect costs, such as overhead charges, analysis research, although some "cost-benefit" 14 studies have been started." With increasing special problems, such cost studies must, however, snow clearing costs and continued demand for be directed and planned to suit the needs of the better snow clearing services, this type of inves• particular organization involved. tigation should prove beneficial. As each city, Perhaps above all are the problems posed by highway department or other organizations has the use of chemicals for ice control, the solution to which will call for far more than the usual 33 Snow Removal and Ice Control in Urban Areas. Re• search Project No. 114, Progress Report No.3, Re• engineering approach, illustrating yet once again search Foundation, American Public Works Associa• the inter-disciplinary character of research even tion, October 1963. in such a field as this.

15 METEOROLOGY OF SNOW AND ICE by K. T. McLEOD Meteorological Branch Department of Transport

ABSTRACT RESUME Weather information required by winter main• On examine les donnees meteorologiques dont tenance organizations, such as time of arrival of ont besoin les organisations qui deblaient la neige storm, type of storm, estimated rate of snowfall, en hiver, comme le moment d'arrivee des tempe• windspeed, and temperature, is discussed. A gen• tes, le genre des tempetes, l'importance des chutes eral description is presented of the weather ob• de neige, la vitesse du vent, et la temperature. On servation network in Canada, and how forecasts presente une description generale du reseau des are prepared from these observations. A realistic stations d'observation meteorologique au Canada, appraisal is presented of present-day forecast et on indique comment les previsions sont prepa• capability. Some of the services that are available rees a partir des observations. On evalue les from the Canadian Weather Service are described. possibilites actuelles en matiere de previsions. Quelques-uns des services rendus par le Service meteorologique canadien sont decrits.

Reliable transportation has become an accepted The nature of the weather information needed necessity of Canada's way of life. Snow and ice by each type of removal operation may be out• present the major seasonal interference with lined in detail by other speakers or through dis• through passage on the main arteries of transport cussion, but since it is essential for us to know across Canada. A survey of the nature of snow what is needed, a brief resume of the assumed and ice control operations on urban routes and needs is presented here. Amendments, additions highways, on railways and airports, indicates that and corrections are invited. snow affects transport somewhat differently in We believe that advice or warnings are needed each type of operation. It is the purpose of this paper to outline briefly the part the Canadian several hours in advance covering the time of Weather Service can play in supporting snow arrival and the nature and rate of accumulation removal and ice control activities. Four topics of snow. Certain hours of the day seem to be will be considered : more critical than others, particularly for urban and airport operations, as are certain days of the ( 1) the weather information believed to be week, depending on the pattern of traffic. Since needed; control operations are carried out over a relatively wide area, with the exception of airport main• (2) weather information available for day-to• tenance, the type of snow conditions should be day operations; known for each of the main sections of the overall (3) weather information for planning, and operating areas. Details on the anticipated time design problems; of commencement of snowfall, the nature of the snow, whether dry, moist or wet, the rate of (4) relevant comment and future prospects. accumulation and time of ending is needed for each section. It would also be useful, particularly In commenting on these topics briefly, it is when manpower is diverted from other work, to hoped that some of your questions will be know the length of the interval until the next answered; the role of the meteorologist will be snowfall, and its general characteristics. clarified and the relationships between snow and ice and the combat operations will be brought Temperature seems to determine the type of into clearer focus. control action to be taken, and advice is needed 16 on both the trend of temperature changes and the techniques to be used. The period of greatest con• temperature values as they change. Certain tem• cern seems to be, in general, the next· six to ten peratures appear to be key values and it is hours, but tactical planning requires information important to know in advance when these tem• for a period covering up to several days. peratures will be experienced. Such key values Longer range planning for a season's operations include 0°, 10°, 24°, 25°, 28°, 32° and 36°P. presents a need for information on the overall An appropriate graphical or chart display of the severity of the next snow-season. It would un• time variations in temperature over the area of doubtedly be of considerable help to know the operations, high-lighting values known to be criti• dates on which significant snowfalls will occur and cal, would probably meet the need, but the form the duration of each, with advice on the amounts of such advice needs to be determined. Much of expected to fall over each of the operating areas. the importance of temperature information is tied While average seasonal conditions over past years to the possibility that snow, temperature, cloud are helpful, the character of each coming season and traffic conditions will combine to produce ice, is the unique problem for operational planning. which is a serious hazard in nearly all control operations. It is particularly serious on airports The design engineering, and estimates of long• serving jet and turbo-prop aircraft, and in railway term need for equipment, on the other hand, switching yards. require statistical weather data as a basis for analysis and evaluation, and a knowledge of the Although the various combinations of weather influence of local or site factors as a guide to elements, and the critical values of each that lead adjustments needed to the data provided so that to the formation of ice, seem to be fairly well it can be representative of each of the many local known and vary somewhat with each form of climates throughout an area of operations. transport, it seems that warnings of the likelihood of ice-forming combinations of weather would be Assuming such an appraisal of requirements particularly helpful. These combinations could, no for day-to-day operations is representative of real doubt, be specified for each type of transport. needs, to what extent is such information now The effect of on aircraft take-off is, for available? It is clear that forecasts of certain instance, so critical that prior information on weather elements are a primary need and that slush-forming weather conditions seems to be information on conditions as they are occurring especially important to airport maintenance. should be available. Information on past weather is needed from Wind is a nuisance. It leads to snow drifts, more time to time and should be supported by a form difficult working conditions and reduced efficiency, of consultation covering the reliability, represen• and by cutting down visibility creates hazardous tativeness and appropriateness of data provided, travelling and snow removal conditions. Prior for particular purposes. advice on the speed and direction of the wind and its gustiness, stressing certain values critical The ability to provide reliable forecasts is, as for particular activities, is needed, and should be in any field of prediction, related to the level of presented in such a form as will show the time adequacy of observational data, theory, analysis, variations over the area of operation. Information judgment and experience. To forecast the weather, may be needed only when wind conditions are it is essential that the present state of the atmos• within critical ranges. phere and of its phenomena be known and that the physical processes taking place can be de• The combined effect of several weather ele• scribed and explained quantitatively. The extent ments acts to control outdoor winter work. It to which the forecaster knows what the weather would appear to be useful to have a measure, is, and perhaps even more important, why it is, along the lines of the wind-chill factor, of the largely determines his ability to predict. combined influence of low temperature, wind and humidity. Our inconspicuous atmosphere commands in• creasing respect with increasing knowledge of its It seems apparent that, for day-to-day snow nature. Resting with an average weight of one ton removal and ice control operations, weather in• on each square foot of Canada's 3,850,000 sq. formation in appropriate detail, covering each of miles, and moving in giant rivers of wind at speeds the areas of concern should be available, especially frequently exceeding 150 m.p.h., our abstruse at the times decisions are made concerning man• atmosphere is a mass, and has forces of immense power and equipment for shifts, and the type of magnitude. 17 We know that the movement of the atmosphere Models have been drawn, as a physicist forms and development of all processes taking place in models of atoms and molecules he has never seen, it are determined by and are the result of the heat and similarly these models are found useful in gained from solar radiation by the earth and its explaining processes and predicting future states. atmosphere, and, in turn, by the heat radiated Theories and hypotheses have been developed and from the earth to the atmosphere, exchanged with tested so far as possible, on the limited data avail• it, and lost to outer space. The rate at which the able, and on laboratory samples of air. earth gains heat varies with the nature of its sur• The gaps in the observing networks require the face - type of soil, vegetation, open , snow• meteorologist to mentally fill in an assumed set cover - the presence of cloud, the amount of of weather conditions between stations, using his ozone in the atmosphere and the elevation of the knowledge of the influences of topographic fea• sun. The rate of loss of heat varies with the nature tures, and other influences. These gaps are being and temperature of the earth's surface, the amount filled slowly but surely. Weather radar, capable of of cloud and of water vapour in the air. displaying an image of the water content of the These many influences lead to horizontal tem• air within a useful range, but with certain limita• perature differences within the atmosphere. This tions, has added substantially to our data. And, is the driving force for most winds and weather more recently, weather satellites, which transmit systems. The continual formation and decay of televised pictures of cloud conditions and mea• these systems reflect the unceasing effort of the surements of infra-red radiation from altitudes of atmosphere to eliminate these temperature dif• several hundred miles, are beginning to fill the ferences. wide gaps in the world's weather watch. Auto• matic observing equipment, rockets, and constant• What of our ability to describe the present level, drifting balloon - carrying instruments, are weather conditions over Canada and over local also being developed and put to use. operating areas? Observations and descriptions of recent and In their efforts to observe the state of the at• current conditions of precipitation, temperature, mosphere and understand its nature, weathermen wind, cloud and other elements can, therefore, be throughout the world have established complex provided as reports for those places where networks of observing stations. These networks weather is observed, and as estimates of condi• are being continually improved, expanded and tions between observing stations. Weather radar, standardized. A network of 240 stations observes now installed at Vancouver, Toronto, London, the Canadian weather four times daily, records it, Ottawa, Montreal, Quebec and Gander airports and transmits reports over high-speed communica• give useful observations of probable precipitation. tions channels. Of these, 167 stations also take More powerful weather radar will be installed at weather observations every hour, day and night, Halifax, Toronto, Winnipeg and Edmonton by the and transmit their reports. The conditions in the summer of 1964, and will strengthen our ability upper air are observed by a network of 32 widely• to advise on snow, rain, cloud and ｾｷｩｮ､Ｎ spaced stations which send balloon-carried probes What of the next few hours? The weather fore• aloft twice daily to measure, and transmit reports caster, skillful in applying techniques and theory, by radio, of the temperature, pressure and mois• supported by high-speed computers with great po• ture. Winds are measured by tracking hydrogen• tential, but proven abilities only in a limited zone, filled balloons, either with theodolites or radar. has no magic in his methods. Forecasters would From these networks of observing stations and prefer to approach their job in a fully scientific weather reports, national and foreign, plotted on fashion - but this can not be done. The scientific charts and analyzed at intervals throughout each method demands three things. The first is a com• day and from inspection of the hourly reports, plete description of the present state of the atmos• the meteorologist endeavours to form a mental phere - the so-called initial state. The second is picture of the weather in our three-dimensional a set of rules or laws, known from experience to atmosphere. Out of continuing study and system• determine the ways in which the atmosphere can atic analysis has grown an image of organized change. Applying these rules leads to the third cloud and wind systems, of jet streams and pre• component - the future state of the atmosphere. cipitation patterns and of a layered atmosphere Our knowledge of the initial or present state of with complex exchanges of heat and energy. the atmosphere is far from satisfactory. Our rules 18 and laws describe only the large-scale motions and "Forecasts for periods of more than one weather systems. Small-scale systems - the size month in advance must be considered as experi• that are of particular importance to snow clear• mental. Although promising research is in pro• ing - often slip through our observing net and gress, skill has not yet been demonstrated. Until go undetected by our laws of large-scale motion. such weather outlooks are of proven value, useful climatological information can be pro• Precipitation is perhaps the most difficult of all vided in their stead." elements to forecast, and, at present, no national weather service is known to be preparing forecasts While it is tempting to comment with glowing of precipitation using quantitative methods. The terms on recent advances in the science and the Japanese weather service is testing a technique applications of meteorology, and to consider the which applies computer prediction to the layer remarkable success of numerical weather predic• above 5,000 feet and forecasters add the effects tion with high-speed computers and the high hopes of topography in the air layer below. A Canadian of earth-circling weather satellites as a spectacular technique recently developed applies quantitative breakthrough with consequences of great practical procedures to the entire precipitation producing significance, improvements in weather services to layer and will be in use later in 1964. After that meet your needs will undoubtedly inch forward time, all field offices will be provided with a basic slowly but decisively. quantitative precipitation forecast as guidance in Measurements of snowfall, however conscien• meeting local needs. tiously they may be made, are subject to inherent Knowledge of the physics of clouds and atmos• weaknesses. Stick-depth snow measurements, in pheric processes is increasing steadily and more which the average of several readings is used, are representative models are being developed, each only modestly representative of local conditions adding to the forecasters ability to describe, un• because of the tendencies to drift and blow clean. derstand and predict the weather. What is the Specially-shielded snow gauges work well, but the present level of capability? This is a fair question, wind and turbulence effects reduce their efficiency. but the period over which useful predictions can Furthermore, the spatial variations in total amount be provided varies with the complexity of the and rate of snowfall arising from the precipitation situation and rate at which conditions are processes, and demonstrated by dense small area changing. A realistic appraisal of forecasting networks, make single measurements only partially capability is given in a statement recently issued representative of local conditions. by the American Meteorological Society which The need for long-range forecasts, covering a reads as follows : month, a season, or a year, seems clear. Despite "For periods up to 24 hours, skillful weather concentrated efforts to find a scientific solution forecasts of considerable usefulness are pos• to the long-range forecast problem, the gaps in our sible. Within this interval detailed weather and ability to observe and describe our atmosphere, weather changes can be predicted. Hour-to-hour and to understand its physical processes, limit our variations can be predicted during the early part ability to predict its future status. As the accuracy of the period. and reliability of forecasts fall off, there must, therefore, be an increasing dependence on the "For periods extending to about 72 hours, statistical application of past weather data. Engi• weather forecasts of moderate skill and useful• neers, when considering the influence of weather ness are possible. Within this interval, useful in basic design, will always have to rely on sta• predictions of general trends and weather tistical analyses of climatological data. They changes can be made. should also be knowledgeable on the influences of local site factors as they modify the representa• "Average weather conditions for periods of tive data available and determine the many local about a week can be predicted with reasonable climates throughout an area of operations. skill. Beyond 3 days, skill in day-ta-day predic• tions is small. In its efforts to provide an adequate range of climatological references, with data arranged and "Average temperature conditions for periods displayed in the manner believed to be most ap• up to a month can be predicted with some skill. propriate for ready application, the Climatology Day-ta-day or week-to-week forecasts within Division of the Canadian Weather Service has this time period have not demonstrated skill. produced a considerable number of references 19 and issues bulletins at regular intervals. The Divi• havior, and be able to predict its development. sion is prepared to provide tabulations of cli• There is, therefore, as Dr. Thomas Malone, Presi• matological data, specially suited to particular dent of the American Meteorological Society, has problems, descriptive material and advice on the stated, "a small chance that we may be able to application of climatological data insofar as pos• learn how to control local weather effectively or sible. A publication*, "Snowfall in Canada", has even modify climate." been prepared for the Conference. What of the roles of the public service and the Climatological references are listed in the pub• private meteorologist? The tremendous cost of lication and provide information on such aspects weather observing programs, of national and in• of snow as mean dates of first and last snow cover ternational high-speed communications channels, of one inch or more, mean depths of snow cover and the orderly storage and processing of millions on particular dates, mean maximum snow depth, of reports of past weather, make these operations number of days with snow cover of one inch or a national responsibility. The issue of warnings of more, and mean dates of first and last . To weather that may adversely affect the safety of meet particular needs, the dates of snowstorms life and property, and distribution of weather and amounts of snowfall can be provided, with information and forecasts for the economic benefit frequency distributions of snowstorms of various of the nation, are responsibilities that fall naturally amounts. to the national weather service. At the same time, many industrial corporations and private indivi• Meteorological staff at Headquarters or in field duals would profit from individualized weather offices may undertake to provide direct support services in the same manner as professional servi• for an investigation or an engineering design prob• ces are provided by the private practising lawyer, lem. One such study was undertaken by our physician, or engineer. Until such professional Halifax Weather Office to assist in the design of meteorological services are adequate for the na• an electrical snow removal installation for side• tional need, the Canadian Weather Service will walks. This report reviews the history of Halifax endeavour to assist, to the extent that such indi• snowfall over a period of twelve , gives a vidualized services do not interfere with regular frequency distribution of all falls of 4 inches or programs of services for the public welfare. The more, and points up relationships that were be• public weather service and the consulting meteor• lieved to be significant to the design problem. ologist must work, therefore, as a team, directing In considering the most effective type of snow their efforts to appropriate areas of need and com• removal and ice control procedures, it seems clear plementing each other in logical fashion. that programmes will profit from having all the useful weather information possible. Two further Canada, for provision of weather services, has questions may arise. These concern the extent to been divided into six regions. Every airport and which man can and may be able to control weather city, every highway and railway lies in one or conditions to minimize problems and the manner more of these regions. Enquiry concerning past, in which public and private meteorological serv• present, and future weather can be directed to, can be of assistance. and problems discussed with, the appropriate Re• The practical control of weather on a small gional Meteorologist, who will determine how scale has long been accomplished by the use of assistance can best be provided. The addresses for devices such as fire pots and giant fans to prevent the Regional Meteorologists are as follows : frost damage in orchards, windbreaks, and green• Regional Director, Air Services, houses to protect crops and plants. Large-scale Attention: Regional Meteorologist, control, which a number of years ago seemed to be just around the corner, has proven to be as Federal Building, elusive as long range forecasts. The reason has 9820 - 107 Street, become increasingly clear. Before we can learn EDMONTON, Alberta. to control the broad-scale weather, we must first Regional Director, Air Services, acquire the ability to observe and describe the Attention : Regional Meteorologist, state of the atmosphere, to understand its be- Regional Administration Building, "' Thomas, M. K. Snowfall in Canada. Circular 3977, Montreal International Airport, TEC 503, January 24, 1964, Meteorological Branch, Department of Transport. DORVAL, Quebec. 20 Regional Director, Air Services, The degree of detail that can be provided on Attention: Regional Meteorologist, local variations in observed and forecast snowfall 739 West Hastings Street, will vary with the density of the observing net• VANCOUVER 1, B.C. works, the availability of weather radar, the com• plexity of the current weather situation and the Regional Director, Air Services, nature of the local influences. Each influence, such Attention: Regional Meteorologist, as open water, hilly terrain with slope, altitude P. O. Box 42, and valley effects, forests and cities with their MONCTON, N.B. heat, wind and humidity modifying effects, creates Regional Director, Air Services, local weather conditions differing to some extent from those elsewhere and determined exactly by Attention: Regional Meteorologist, the nature of the influence. 25 St. Clair Avenue East, TORONTO, Ontario. Although the tendency is to rely on the reports of weather conditions and the forecasts provided Regional Director, Air Services, by Weather Offices, time and attention given by Attention: Regional Meteorologist, anyone to a study of the manner in which topo• 502 Winnipeg General Post Office, graphy and diurnal factors control the local WINNIPEG 1, Manitoba. weather would yield dividends in new knowledge and interest, and in improved ability to anticipate The Canadian Weather Service now has 52 the local weather conditions and changes of daily Weather Offices, each with a capability of pro• concern. viding a range of services, including reports of We believe that strengthening our associations observed snow, wind, temperature and other ele• with groups such as you who are so involved with ments, advice on general weather conditions as weather conditions, and sharing information with they are believed to be throughout a wide area, you on operations, problem areas and progress and forecasts of future conditions covering a pe• will inevitably profit both you who combat snow riod of 24 to 36 hours. Additional Weather Offices and ice and ourselves who maintain a constant are planned, and the forecast period will be weather watch and try to provide those advisory extended. services that will best meet your needs.

21 CHARACTERISTICS OF SNOW AND ICE RELEVANT TO SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL by L. W. GOLD Division of Building Research National Research Council

ABSTRACT The characteristics of snow and ice storms that On enumere les caracteristiques des tempetes de are considered pertinent for the design and oper• neige et de glace qui conviennent a la mise en ation of a snow removal and ice control capability ceuvre des moyens destines a l'enlevement de la are listed. Properties of snow and ice that can neige et au traitement de la glace. On examine les have an influence on the development and use proprietes de la neige et de la glace qui peuvent of equipment and techniques, such as the de• avoir une influence sur les engins et sur les pro• pendence of strength of snow on specific weight, cedes employes (par exemple, la resistance de la temperature and time, and the coefficient of neige dans certaines conditions de poids, de tem• friction between ice and tires, are presented and perature et de temps ou le coefficient de friction discussed. entre la glace et les pneus).

As early as 1932, Mr. C. A. Robbins, Resident the characteristics of these materials and the part Engineer, Department of Public Highways of that these characteristics play in determining the Ontario, made the statement that "increase in cost. It is the purpose of this paper to direct atten• traffic from year to year is an assurance that tion to certain characteristics of snow and ice that winter roads are no longer a luxury but a neces• should be considered when developing or improv• sity".' With the passage of time, this fact has ing snow removal and ice control operations, and become even more apparent, not only for high• to present some of the properties of these mate• ways, but for city streets, railways, and airports rials that influence the design and development of as well. Furthermore, the increase in traffic den• equipment and techniques. sity and developments in the automobile and air• craft industries have made it necessary to raise CHARACTERISTICS OF SNOW the standards of removal to ensure a safe road AND ICE STORMS or runway surface. Snow and ice are products of weather. As such, The cost of snow removal and ice control is their characteristics are subject to the same varia• now a major part of annual maintenance budgets. bility as the weather elements. Those who have Rising costs are one of the factors causing those direct responsibility for snow removal and ice responsible for winter maintenance to give greater control are aware of this, and the development attention to possible ways of increasing efficiency. of winter maintenance programs has been greatly It is important that these people have available for influenced by experiences of this variability. their consideration all the information required to Through this experience, it has been possible, base the development of their ability to remove quite often by trial and error, to maintain an snow and control ice on a sound knowledge of the acceptable balance between the demands of the factors that determine costs, and the capabilities transportation system or the public for a parti• and limitations of equipment and techniques. cular standard, and the money available for pro• viding that standard. Through this experience, it Since it is snow and ice that make the winter maintenance operation necessary, it is important has been recognized as well that statistics for a as well that these people have an appreciation of particular area on the following snow and characteristics would provide useful data

1 Robbins, C. A. Winter Maintenance of Public High• for the development and modification of programs ways. The Can. Eng., September 1932, p. 109-110. in the future: ------, 22 (I) total winter snowfall, i.e. average and The foregoing characteristics of snow and ice extreme values; have been listed because it is these attributes that probably have the greatest direct bearing on the (2) frequency and duration of snow or ice costs of snow removal and ice control. Since these storms, preferably by months; factors were considered in detail in the previous (3) frequency of snowfall or ice storms of paper, they will be given no further consideration given amounts; here. The remainder of the paper will be devoted to the properties of snow and ice. (4) frequency of given snowfall or icing rates and associated total amounts; and Modification of present techniques and equip• ment that result from a consideration of the pro• (5) temperature during snow or ice storms. perties of snow and ice, for example, improving Some of this information is available from the the efficiency of snow ploughs or blowers, will Meteorological Branch of the Department of probably have a secondary influence on costs in Transport, as described in the paper by Mcl.eod." comparison with the influence of the charac• It may be necessary to encourage special studies, teristics of snow and ice storms. In other words, such as that by Strong for Gander, Newfoundland, it is not so much the properties of snow and ice to obtain the information in the detail required that determine the cost, but rather the fact that for a specific area," these materials are present and must be removed as quickly as possible. Although only a small per• It is now generally recognized that organization, centage reduction in costs may be realized by preparedness and good communication are essen• designing techniques and equipment to work more tial for a successful snow removal and ice control efficiently in snow, since the overall cost of snow• operation 4, 5. Accurate weather forecasts and clearing is high, even a small percentage of that information on snowfall and icing rates during a cost is worthy of consideration. storm can make a very real contribution to the efficient use of men and equipment in a well• SNOW AND ICE PROPERTIES organized snow removal operation. Some of this There are two approaches that can be used to information is available from the public fore• prepare for traffic a surface upon which snow has caster, but it would be useful if his forecast or fallen or ice has formed. One approach is to observations could be supplemented with more modify the snow or ice in a way suitable for detailed information on the traffic, for example, by compacting the snow (a) probable time of commencement of snow• or spreading abrasives on the ice. The second is fall or ice storm; to remove the snow or ice completely, either mechanically with a plough or blower, or by (b) estimate of expected amounts of snow or melting. In practice, these two approaches may ice; be combined, the degree of combination depend• (c) snowfall or icing rates as storm progresses; ing on the circumstances and the standard desired. (d) temperature and wind speed during and Snow Compaction subsequent to storm. In former years, the compaction of snow to To obtain this information in the detail re• a density sufficient to carry traffic was common. quired for operational decisions, it may be neces• Roads and runways prepared in this way are sary to organize a network of reporting stations suitable if the traffic density is not great, loads that will supplement the public forecast, particu• are not excessive, and the air temperature does larly if the area to be covered is so large that local not normally go above the melting point for variations in intensity occur. periods of time long enough to affect seriously the load-carrying qualities of the compacted snow. Snow, covered roads are still common today. In 2 McLeod, K. T. Meteorology of Snow and lee. NRC, Associate Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics, some cases, particularly for "off, road" transporta• Technical Memorandum No. 83, September 1964. tion, the snow is compacted only. In other cases, 3 Strong, G. S. Heavy Snowfalls at Gander, Newfound• land. CIR 3905, Meteorological Branch, Department for example, on many highways and city streets, of Transport, October 9, 1963. much of the snow is removed by a plough or 4 Davidson, W. D. Ways to Win the Snow Battle this Year. Civic Administration, 1963, Vol. 15, No. 10, blower, and the remainder is compacted by the p. 53-55. traffic. To carry automobile traffic, snow should 5 Public Works in Canada. Vol. 11, No.7, 1963, p. 26. have a specific weight of greater than 30 lbs/ft", 23 and to carry trucks, greater than 35 lbs/ft". Den• 1000 c----,------,----,-----,--.,.---.,..----, sities adequate for truck traffic are difficult to achieve without special equipment, except for 500 those cases where most of the snow is removed by plough or blower and the remainder is com• I I ICE pacted by the traffic.6 I 100 I I I Snow Removal I 50 I I Snow in its natural state has one of the widest I I relative range in specific weight of any material I responsible for engineering problems. New snow I :z: I weighs between 4 and 10 lb/ft", but may be as t-- 10 I 2' '"W I light as 2 to 3 lb/ft". Once deposited, natural cc I ｾ 5 I processes cause the density to increase gradually. I '"2' I By late winter, a snow cover one to two feet deep :z: I

25 lb/ft" by the time of the melting period in 'i·0 spring. The specific weight of snow falling on perennial snow or ice bodies, such as glaciers, will gradually increase under overburden pressures and temperature changes to that of ice, about 0'1 57 lb/ft". a 10 20 30 40 50 60 7C SPECIFIC WEIGHT, LB/FT 3

The strength of snow has an even greater range Fig. 1. Approximate Dependence of Average Strength of possible values. Not only does the strength of of Natural Snow on Specific Weight snow depend on the specific weight, but also on the degree of bonding between individual snow weather during and subsequent to deposition. grains and the temperature. Snow is normally at Large specific weight values for new snow are a temperature within 60°F of that at which it usually associated with high temperatures, particu• melts. Within this temperature range, the sharp larly if it is high enough to cause melting. High• projections of snowflakes sublimate quite rapidly strength new snow is usually associated with and bonds between grains form readily. The higher drifting conditions during deposition. the temperature, the greater the rate of sublima• tion and the more readily will bonds form. The Although the strength of new snow is very low, greater the specific weight, the greater is the it does increase rapidly with increasing specific possible number of bonds between grains. The weight. Furthermore, when snow is compacted, lower the temperature, the greater is the strength particularly if it is mixed during the process, it of ice and, therefore, of the bond between grains. will gain additional strength with time due to the growth of bonds between particles. This is a factor Loose snow grains have a natural maximum that should be kept in mind, for although snow specific weight of about 30 lb/ft", For specific may be easily moved on the first pass of a plough, weight less than that value, the snow structure it is usually much more difficult to move after it will collapse when the compressive strength is has been disturbed. In Fig. 1 is presented informa• exceeded. To obtain a specific weight greater than tion on the dependence of the compressive that value by compressing, the snow grains must strength of snow on specific weight. In Fig. 2 is deform. Snow associated with major snowfalls presented typical examples of the increase with usually has a specific weight of about 6 Ib/ft". time in the strength of snow compacted to given The collapse strength of snow of this specific specific weights. weight is between 4 and 200 lb/ft", indicating the very sensitive dependence of strength on the Snow is usually not removed in chunks, but rather crushed or disintegrated by a plough or the (\Wuori, A. F. Snow Stabilization Studies. Ice and Snow, feeding mechanism of a blower. To break up the Properties, Processes and Application, MIT Press, snow structure in this way requires work to be 1963. done. The amount of work necessary is highly 24 200 r--,------r-----,-----r--r---r-..,....---,

7 - I o z ; 100 - 6 o z :i: CO ｾ U a:: u.J 3: oL------l_---l._---.l.._---L_...... I...._....I-_...l..-_ o o 4 ｾ 4 TIM£. DAYS

() Kihlgren, B. Snow Plough Investigations. Rep. 38, 7 Butkovitch, T. R. 1956. Strength Studies of High• Statens Vagenstitut, Stockholm, 1961 (in Swedish with Density Snows. U.S.A. SIPRE, Corps of Engineers, English summary). Research Report No. 18. to Croce, K, Measurements Relative to Performance and 8 Poitras, G. and Walker, L. B. The Design and Devel• Efficiency of Snow Removal Machines for Highways. opment of Mechanical Snow Removal Equipment. Basis of Design and Construction Portschrittsberichte Soc. Automotive Eng., Montreal Meeting, June, 1963. Aus Dem Strassen und Tiefbau, Vol. 4, 1950.

25 The work required to compact snow increases very quickly with increasing specific weight. This fact is shown in Fig. 4 where the approximate work required to increase the specific weight of snow by 1 lb/It" is plotted against specific weight.

ｾ The compressive strength used in the calculations w W .> > was that which would be expected for loose snow. cc ::> ::> '"u u Shown also in Fig. 4 is the approximate work 102 103.., 0 >- >- required to increase the specific weight from u, u, <, <, co co 25 lb/ft" to the given specific weight plotted. For -' --' , I a truck of volume 12 cu.yds, Fig. 4 shows that it >- >- "- u, would require about 173 horsepower to increase w W z z 0 0 the specific weight from 25 to 35 lb/ft" in 5 C> C> 2 seconds. It was assumed that 5 seconds was a '" 10 10 ｾ '"0 0 reasonable estimate of the time that would be '" '" available for this purpose during the loading of a truck. To increase the specific weight from 25 to 40 lb/ft" in the same time would require about 568 horsepower. It is apparent that the work re•

'--...l..----'-----'-_-'----'----..L_'---'-----'-----'-_L-J 10 quired to increase the specific weight of snow o 10 20 30 40 50 60 loaded into a truck would probably cost more SPECIFIC WEIGHT, LB/FT 3 than the benefit thereby derived. Fig. 4. Approximate Work Done per Foots to Increase Specific Weight of Snow of Given Specific Weight 1 Ib/ft3 Because it requires appreciable work to com• pact snow once the specific weight exceeds about unfortunately, the results of these studies a re 30 lb/ft", the design of a plough or blower should not readily available to Canadian engineers. be such as to ensure that the specific weight will not be increased beyond 25 to 30 lb/It" during If snow is removed mechanically, it must be the moving of the snow. The design must, there• stored somewhere until it melts or evaporates. For fore, be such as to put most of the available work highways, railways and airport runways, there is into lifting the snow and giving it sufficient kinetic usually sufficient storage space adjacent to the energy to displace it the required distance. As area to be cleared and the transfer is accomplished mentioned earlier, the factors of greatest signifi• with a plough or blower only. This convenience cance in determining the efficiency by which this is reflected in the cost which, for such situations, can be done are shape and arrangement of plough is between 2 to 20 cents per ton. If the storage blade and blower components, speed, and friction area is not so conveniently located, the snow must between the snow and the plough or blower be hauled, and now the cost may increase to as surfaces. high as $1.00 per ton or greater. When hauling snow, it is usually not weight that limits the size Friction of the load, but rather volume. This suggests that Ice has unique frictional properties that are it might be economical to compact the snow in disturbing to the motorist but a great appeal to some way. Snow that is loaded into a truck by a the skier, skater and curler. The coefficient of blower will have a specific weight of about sliding friction (the ratio between the normal load 30 lb/ft" and, in addition, will be quite fluid. and the drag force between the tire and road This specific weight is about equal to the maxi• surface) depends on the tire, load and temperature. mum that can be obtained without plastically de• For wet ice, it is about 0.05 and for ice or snow forming the snow grains. at temperatures below OaF, about 0.25 11, 12. In contrast, the coefficient of sliding friction for a tire 11 Annual Report of the National Swedish Road Research on concrete or asphalt it between 0.55 and 1.0 Institute. Rep. 40A, Statens Vaginstitut, Stockholm, 11. 13. Bonding sand to the ice or snow surface 1962, 25-27 (in English). 12 Holmer, B. and Antvik, G. Determining and Reporting will increase the coefficient of friction to about the Braking Qualities of ley or Snow-Covered Run• 0.35. 12 There appears to be little information ways. Presented SAE International Congress, Detroit, Michigan, 1963. readily available to Canadian engineers on the 13 Woods, K. B. Highway Engineering Handbook. Me• frictional characteristics of snow and ice-covered Graw Hill Co., 1960. surfaces for various types of traffic before and 26 after the application of abrasives. The distance If it is not possible to obtain sufficient heat required to stop a vehicle travelling at a given from the atmosphere, then it may be obtained speed on an ice or packed snow road is between from available fuels or other sources. Since the 3 and 10 times that required if it were travelling price of fuels or the cost of other heat sources is on a paved road. readily determined, and since mechanical en• gineers can give a good estimate of the thermal Adhesion efficiency and cost of installations designed to Ice adheres very well to most . Studies melt snow at specified rates, it is possible to make a cost-benefit analysis of such systems if the neces• by Rarety and Tabor 14 and Lacks and Frei• sary information on snowfall rates and amounts berger 15 show that the adhesive strength of ice to steel, copper and aluminum is between 80 is available. Field experience is demonstrating, in and 120 psi. These strengths are approaching that some cases without the aid of a cost-benefit of the tensile strength of ice, and, in fact, failure analysis, that snow melting systems can compete was often observed to occur within the ice rather economically under some circumstances with the than at the ice- interface. Similar strengths traditional loading and hauling method. Some of can be expected for ice adhering to rough surfaces this experience has been published. 16. 17 such as concrete or asphalt. Adhesive strengths of Snow Drifting less than 50 psi are observed between ice and most plastics. There is a need for the development of This conference is concerned primarily with a suitable material or coating material with good the handling of snow and ice after it has been wearing and strength properties to which ice and deposited. In some cases, it may be profitable snow will not strongly adhere and which has a low through the use of fences or similarly acting con• coefficient of friction for these materials. structions, to reduce the amount of snow that must be handled. Some facts about snow may be Melting useful in the design of such defences. It requires 144 Btu to melt one pound of snow Snow will begin to drift when the wind speed or ice. This is a physical fact that cannot be cir• exceeds about 8 mph. The amount of snow that cumvented. The problem is to find the cheapest the wind can carry within a given volume of air way to supply the 144 Btu per lb. depends upon the wind speed and height above ground. Observations have shown that up to 95 The cheapest method of supplying heat is to per cent of the weight of snow suspended in the allow nature to provide it either through solar air is within one foot of the snow surface. Russian radiation or sensible heat from the atmosphere. investigations have shown that the rate at which For melting to occur, however, the rate at which snow is moved by the wind is dependent upon this heat is supplied must be more than sufficient the wind speed according to the following em• to raise the temperature of the snow to the melting pirical equation: point. Under normal conditions, the average air temperature in winter is so low that this rate does Q = 0.0016 V 3.5 - 1.6 not occur to any significant extent except in fall where Q is the rate at which snow is carried and spring, and even then it may still be too low by wind with a speed of V mph in lh/rnin/Iinear ft to melt the snow or ice as rapidly as desired. It perpendicular to the wind direction. is possible by the use of chemicals to lower the melting temperature of snow or ice and in this way Snow will be deposited at sites where the wind obtain some melting under normal winter condi• speed is reduced and eroded at sites where the wind speed increases. Snow fences or similar tions. It is not necessary for the chemicals to melt shelters produce a local reduction in wind speed snow or ice completely to obtain bare pavement, and thereby cause the wind to drop an appreciable but rather to keep them in a slush or soft condi• amount of its snow load before reaching the area tion so that traffic can displace them to the side of the road. 16 White, B. G. Literature Survey of Papers Dealing with the Use of Heat for Keeping Roads, Sidewalks and Parking Areas Free from Snow and Ice. NRC, Di• 14 Raraty, L. E. and Tabor, D. The Adhesion and vision of Building Research, Bibliography No.8, Strength Properties of Ice. Proc, Royal Soc. A., 1958, Ottawa, 1957. Vol. 245, p. 184-201. 17 Price, W. I. J. Modern Trends in Winter Road Main• 15 Lacks, H. and Frieberger, A. Ice Adhesion Studies. tenance. Paper presented to Institute of Highway Bureau of Ships Journal, Dec. 1959, p. 10-11. Engineering, London, 1960. 27 being protected. 18· 19. 20. The proper design Snow and ice are products of weather, and, of roads can result in the wind speed being in• as such, their characteristics are subject to varia• creased locally, or ensure that it does not decrease, bility in the same way as the weather elements. and in this way reduce the amount of drifting Snow can have a specific weight varying from about 2 lb/ft" for very light new snow to about snow deposited. 21 57 lb/ft" for ice. The strength properties of snow SNOW CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN are subject to even greater variability, for not only do they increase with increasing specific weight, The increasing demand for snow removal and but, because they are sensitive to past weather, ice control and the associated increasing costs is can vary by a factor of at least 100 for a given causing greater consideration to be given to the specific weight. The compressive strength of new problem at the design stage. This is particularly snow is between 0.01 to 1.5 psi and snow of true for highways where proper elevation, shoulder specific weight 25 lb/ft" between 0.3 to 300 psi. width, embankment slopes, etc., have significantly The work necessary to disaggregate and compact reduced winter maintenance costs. It is probable snow is quite small for specific weights below that, in the future, increasing consideration will about 25 lb/ft", but increases very rapidly with be given to snow removal and ice control in the specific weight above that value. Once disturbed, design of airports, railways, city streets and park• snow will harden quite rapidly, the rate and final ing areas. Adequate information on snow and ice strength depending in part on the temperature storm characteristics will be required for the nec• and degree of compaction. These properties of essary cost-benefit analyses for such projects. In snow indicate that snow removal should be carried response to this need, it would be advisable to out as soon as possible after the snow falls, the ensure now that the necessary observations are design of equipment should be such as to compact being taken so that the required data will be the snow the minimum amount prior to its de• available. position in a truck or storage area, and that, if possible, the snow should be handled only once. SUMMARY In addition to specific weight and strength and The characteristics of snowfalls and icing storms the effect of agitation and past weather, particu• such as annual totals, frequency and duration of larly temperature, on these properties, the follow• storms of given amounts, snowfall and icing rates, ing properties of snow and ice should be appre• temperatures during storms, etc., are the factors ciated as well : concerning snow and ice that probably have the greatest bearing on the design, development and 1. The coefficient of friction between a tire and operation of a winter maintenance organization. a snow or ice surface is between 1/2 and The physical properties of snow and ice probably 1/10 that between a tire and a paved sur• have a secondary influence on the design and face; development of snow removal and ice control capability, but it is important that anyone con• 2. It requires 144 Btu to melt one pound of ice, cerned with increasing the efficiency of snow a fact that cannot be circumvented; removal and ice control equipment and techniques 3. Ice can adhere to many metals, asphalt, should have an appreciation of them. concrete and stone, with a strength that ex• ceeds the strength of the ice overlying the tS Komarov, A. A. Some Rules on the Migration and bonded surface; Deposition of Snow in Western Siberia and ｴｾ･ｩｲ Application to Control Measures. NRC, Techmcal Translation No. 1094, Ottawa, 1963. 4. Snow will begin to drift when the wind speed 19 Pugh, H. W. D. Snow Fences. Road Research Tech. exceeds about 8 mph. The amount of snow Paper No. 19, Dept. Scientific and Industrial Res. Great Britain, 1950. carried by the wind depends on the wind 20 Price, W. I. J. The Effect of the Characteristics of speed and at sites where the wind speed is Snow Fences on the Quantity and Shape of Deposited Snow. Int. Un. Geod. and Geophys., Int. Assoc. Sci. reduced, deposition will occur, and where Hydrol, General Assembly, Helsinki, 1960, 89-98. it is increased, erosion can take place. Most 21 Finney, E. A. Snow Drift Control by Highway Design. Eng. Exp. Station Bull., 15, No.2. Michigan Eng. of the drifting snow remains within one foot Exp. Station, 1939. of the snow surface. 28 DISCUSSION of

"METEOROLOGY OF SNOW AND IcE" and

"CHARACTERISTICS OF SNOW AND ICE RELEVANT TO SNOW REMOVAL AND IcE CONTROL"

A. A. JOHNS*: Trace; Amt. of rain, Trace to 14"; Amt. of As the information contained in these papers snow flurries 14". directly concerns the operation of snow and ice Winds light becoming east 20 by evening, control in urban areas, I found much of direct southeast tonight and west by noon tomorrow. interest to me. High today - mid 30 Mr. McLeod pointed out the detailed weather information required for carrying out snow and Low tonight - 30° ice control, which can be divided into three cate• High tomorrow - mid 30 gories - meteorological data, long-range fore• casting, and daily weather forecasts. This detailed weather information is used to alert crews in preparing for snow and ice control The meteorological data, which include annual and to decide on the type of operation that will snowfall, precipitation, average temperature, num• be carried out. Substantial savings in snow and ice ber and amount of snowfalls, are available from control can be obtained if the weather informa• the Canadian Weather Service. This information tion contains sufficient detail to decide whether or is needed for the long-range planning of men and not a full-scale plowing operation should be equipment, which is reviewed each summer by carried out or a full-scale salting operation. the City of Ottawa prior to the winter season. Weekly long-range forecasts are also required The information given by Mr. McLeod that the during the winter season for the planning of future Canadian Weather Service can provide tabulations operations, particularly during the weekends. of climatological data, specially suited to particu• The most important weather information for lar problems, will be welcomed by all munici• snow and ice control is the daily forecasts required palities. for day-to-day operations. Possibly many munici• Mr. Gold, in his paper, indicated that snow and palities have felt that the Canadian Weather Serv• ice control forms a major portion of many annual ice's detailed forecasting services were only avail• maintenance budgets and for the City of Ottawa, able to Airports and aircraft and they will welcome comprises approximately 1;3 of the total main• the information that this is also available to tenance budget and over Y2 of the street main• municipalities. Ottawa now obtains this informa• tenance costs. In 1955 approximately 56,000 tion from weather consultants who submit twice• vehicles were registered in the City of Ottawa and daily forecasts at 9:00 a.m. and 4:30 p.m., which by 1962 this figure has more than doubled to ap• covers the time of starting and ending of snowfall, proximately 117,000 registered vehicles. In addi• ice or precipitation, the amount expected, wind tion, 100,000 vehicles moved in and out of the velocity and temperature. If there is any significant City of Ottawa during a twenty-four hour day, change in these forecasts, the changes are obtained plus an additional 68,000 vehicles which cross at any time in the day or night. the bridges of the Ottawa River within the City A typical forecast received at 9: 00 a.m., Jan- each day. Notwithstanding the large maintenance uary 24, 1964 reads as follows : expenditures in this field, the amount of research Variable cloudiness today and cloudy tonight on new techniques or developments is limited and with a period of wet snow and possible freezing it is gratifying to find a central co-ordinating drizzle beginning 12 midnight to 3 a.rn. and agency like the Snow and Ice Subcommittee of changing to rain between 4 and 7 a.m. and back the National Research Council which has taken to snow flurries between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. an interest in this problem. The characteristics of Amt. of wet snow 14" to Y2"; Amt. of drizzle, snow and ice, detailed in the paper by Mr. Gold, are important to all people involved in snow and '" Affiliations and addresses are given in Appendix A to these Proceedings. ice control. 29 In Ottawa, a combination of the two approaches sidewalks tractors and sidewalk wheeled tractors for combatting snow and ice is used, by mechani• with hydraulic pressure on the plough blade as cally removing as much of the snow as possible well as an hydraulically operated scraper blade on all streets, after which the snow is eliminated at the rear of these tractors. Even with this type completely on major thoroughfares through the of equipment, it is still necessary to strip side• use of chemicals, and controlled on residential walks by hand in the business areas. streets by the spreading of abrasives, where com• Further to the information on snow drifting plete elimination of snow or ice is not required. when the wind speed exceeds 8 miles per hour, In a normal year, snow removal forms a major I would point out that an excellent publication on part of the costs in this field and the removal of this subject was made by T. R. Schneider, a Swiss snow by melting is of interest to all municipalities. highway expert, on snow drifts and winter ice on In this regard, Ottawa has recorded the weight of roads, which was translated and is available from snow removed over the last two years, which has the National Research Council. averaged 37 Ib/ft" and has varied from a low of I would agree with Mr. Gold that the properties 30 lbs to a high of 41 lb/ft". Detailed costs are of snow indicate that snow removal should be also kept on the costs of snow removal, which has carried out as soon as possible after a snowfall, averaged 75 cents per ton for the complete cost but this is a slower process than ploughing and of snow removal, including disposal at the dump the time interval involved in snow removal permits sites. snow to compact on the streets. There still remains several fields in snow and In conclusion, I would urge that studies be ice that have not yet been solved, one of which made of snow and ice control, which would in• would be the effective ploughing of sidewalks to clude an evaluation of the present techniques, in keep layers of snow and ice to a reasonable depth order that municipalities may be assured that they of 1 or 2". Various types of equipment are used are carrying out the most efficient methods pos• in Ottawa for this purpose, including track-type sible in the field of snow and ice control.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

W. K. LOMBARD : energy source for less than 20¢ per ton. This can be converted to less than 1O¢ per cubic yard on We believe that it would be interesting for the a volume basis. members of this conference to know that the amount of heat actually necessary to melt a pound L. W. GOLD: of snow with fuel-fired snow melting equipment is quite a bit less than the theoretical figure of I think the figure of 144 Btu to melt one pound 144 Btu/lb as given by Mr. Gold. We have found of snow is still correct. If it is found technically in our experience, and this has been confirmed possible to dispose of one pound of snow as slush by many of the users of our snow melting equip• by supplying to it 100 Btu, then, of course, ad• ment, that the actual requirement for disposing vantage should be taken of this ability. of snow can be as little as 100 Btu/lb. The reason for this is that a large percentage of the snow E. C. WALTON: placed into a melter can be carried out as slush I wonder whether Mr. McLeod's remarks and, thus, does not need to be completely melted. should be interpreted to constitute an invitation Any typical storm sewer system is completely to various municipalities to make more extensive capable of handling a mixture of water and slush use of the service offered by the local meteoro• and, thus, a melter can be sized to operate on logical offices for detailed local information of this basis, which gives a substantially lower oper• impending weather conditions. From our experi• ating costs to melting as compared to the theo• ence in the Metropolitan Toronto area, present retical. weather forecasting information is quite general This allows a correction to be made in the and applies to relatively large regions and is, figure of 42¢ per ton for melting with fuel oil therefore, of very limited use when determining as noted in Dr. Legget's paper. We, as well as the action needed to combat snow and ice prob• many of our customers, have found that snow lems. There is a feeling that there is a great need can be consistently melted with fuel oil as the for more specialized weather forecasting informa- 30 non available to local municipalities from the We, as an industry, follow closely developments public weather forecasting operation. Up to now in the ice control field and sincerely seek answers there has been a strong reluctance on the part of to the numerous complaints, rightly or wrongly, our Council, and I am sure on the part of Coun• directed against salt. cils of other municipalities, to engage the services In the matter of car corrosion, we acknowledge of private weather forecasting specialists. that salt is a contributing factor, but in the envi• ronment of a large city where most cars are K. T. McLEOD: concentrated it can be one of the lesser factors, I would like to make the following comments with atmospheric pollutants and abrasives, among with regard to the question implied in Mr. others, having very significant effects. Tests have Walton's remarks. The weather forecasting in• been made on various corrosion inhibitors, but formation is quite general in the forecasts dis• none has been found to be more than partially tributed to the press and other news media, and effective and only a couple of communities in intentionally so. This is aimed at the general pub• Canada feel that their high cost is warranted. lic, who can be served by this kind of forecasting We feel that the ultimate answer to the car corro• information, in which a board range of needs sion problem is in the hands of the car manufac• are met to a reasonable degree. However, such turers, and we have been pleased to note increas• information does not constitute the total capa• ing use of resistant materials in auto construction. bility of our Weather Forecasting System, and At a seminar of the Society of Automotive En• more specialized weather services are available to gineers in Hamilton, Ontario, last fall on Auto those who have needs not met in a satisfactory Corrosion, there was a general recognition of the manner by the general public forecasts. More fact that salt is necessary to meet today's winter specialized weather services can be prepared and traffic needs and that the industry must design made available by the Canadian Weather Service their products to stand up to these normal (salty) on its own initiative, but it is much more logical conditions. The majority of speakers at the meet• if those representing the major industries and the ing told what their companies were doing to im• Canadian economy would determine their needs prove the resistance of their vehicles to corrosive and present requests for the information they need. elements. I got a real lift from this meeting as These requests should be given in a realistic state• there was evident a positive movement in the auto ment, which is neither over-simplified nor exag• industry to design their products for today's con• gerated. With such realistic statements it is pos• ditions. We appreciate the approach used by such sible for the Canadian Weather Service to make manufacturers as American Motors in their ad• constructive plans and, by working in a co• vertising where they say "if your car is corroding, operative and mutually useful manner with the don't blame salt, your car should be built to major users of weather services, to effect a gradual withstand it and other destructive elements". improvement in the support which the Canadian In the matter of damage to concrete, Dr. Legget Weather Service can provide. I am sure that the co-authored a report in the February, 1960 issue businessmen who manage the operations in these of Roads & Engineering Construction that points large areas of need realize full well that some time a way to a solution to this problem. This calls for is necessary to plan extensions or new services, an improvement in the quality of materials and but only by having a realistic appraisal of the need workmanship in concrete to easily attainable can effective planning for the future take place. levels. Further, it may well be that services are now avail• There were some wide variations in what was able which are not, in fact, being used. This, un• considered to be the lowest temperature at which fortunately, appears to be the case. salt should be used. We concur with the thinking D. B. HYLAND : of one of the contributors, Mr. Brohm of the Department of Highways of Ontario, and would The ice control market has become a major place a lower limit of OaF, but would specify this one for the salt industry during the past decade, as surface temperature rather than air tempera• so it was with some concern that we listened to ture. We are aware of many instances where salt numerous people at the meeting expressing a has been used successfully at air temperatures rather negative attitude toward ice control salt, below zero, where available earth or solar heat and we sensed a general wish that there was put the surface of the road at a temperature where something else that could be used instead of salt. salt could do its job. Each case must be examined 31 under the existing conditions, however, and the 1963-64 is estimated to be from 900,000 to proper chemical in the proper amount applied. 1,000,000 tons. The actual amount of salt used for ice control will vary from winter to winter C. D. LORD* (Discussion submitted after depending on weather conditions. Conference) Common practice in the salt industry is to refer From records of tenders, we are able to estim• to sodium chloride as salt and to calcium chloride ate the amount of salt required for ice control in as calcium. The estimate of 900,000 to 1,000,000 Canada during the past winter. In the 1963-64 tons for ice control is for sodium chloride. The season, tender calls for salt from the provinces amount of calcium chloride used is much less. were: Ontario, 223,000 tons, Quebec, 155,000 For example, in the 1960-61 winter, the Ontario tons, and lesser figures for the other eight provin• Department of Highways used for ice control cial road departments, totalling about 450,000 162,000 tons of sodium chloride, compared to tons. It is estimated that municipal demand, e.g., their year book figure of 74 tons of calcium Montreal 75,000 tons, City and Metro Toronto chloride. 48,000 tons, and others, approximately equals that of the provinces. Thus, the total amount of '" Highway and Chemical Sales. The Canadian Salt salt required for ice control in the winter of Co. Ltd.

32 SNOW CLEARING IN MONTREAL by J.-V. ARPIN Director, Roads Department, City of Montreal

ABSTRACT RESUME Montreal has close to 900 miles of street, 200 Montreal possede environ 900 milles de rues, miles of lane and 1,450 miles of sidewalks. The 200 milles d'allees et 1,450 milles de trottoirs. cost of snow removal in 1963 was $8,950,000. Le cout de l'enlevement de la neige en 1963 a ete The need for a good weather forecast is discussed. de $8,950,000. On indique combien il est neces• A description is given of the practice used for ice saire d'avoir de bonnes previsions meteorologi• control and snow removal in Montreal. It is esti• ques. On decrit la methode employee pour le mated that parking increases snow removal costs traitement de la glace et pour l'enlevernent de la by as much as 20 per cent. The disposal of neige a Montreal. On estime que le stationnement ploughed snow is a major problem. Information augmente les cofits d'enlevement de la neige d'en• is presented on costs and on the contract system viron 20 pour cent. Un grave problerne se pose used in Montreal. Suggestions are given as to quand il s'agit de decider ce que ron doit faire areas requiring research. de la neige enlevee. On donne des precisions sur les cofrts et sur le systeme de contrat utilise a Montreal. On suggere de faire des recherches dans certains domaines.

We, of the Roads Department of the City of 350,000 automobiles, 300,000 in 10,500 buses Montreal, arc pleased to see the National Re• and 43,000 in 32,000 trucks. All told, close to search Council take interest in snow clearing 400,000 trips are made every day in this area. problems. It is, therefore, with pleasure that I These statistics show the magnitude of the task accepted Mr. L. W. Gold's invitation to present of keeping traffic moving even during the worst this paper on Snow Clearing in Montreal. storms. For an annual precipitation of 40 to 60 Methods initiated through the years were tried inches of snow, at temperatures close to the and adopted, when suitable, when the snow season freezing point, the job does not present too much came upon us. In the rush to get the work done, difficulty, but when it is 120 inches, at tempera• the use of equipment and manpower was not tures ranging from 30° F to _11 0 F, as was the always orthodox. No sooner did April come than case last winter in Montreal, then problems are spring cleaning was the next rush job, then street of prime importance. repairs. The first thing you knew, you were again I would not like to repeat here what the City battling snow storms and the merry-go-round of Montreal has to contend with regarding snow started all over. and will refer you to the talk I was privileged to As the years went by, things did not improve. give in February 1962, before the Eastern Snow The tremendous strides of the automotive industry Conference in New Haven, Conn. (copies avail• in the past 30 years have literally paved our streets able.)! For the information of this audience, with cars. 270,000 vehicles are registered within may I only state that our Great City has close to our City limits, and 150,000 additional ones move 900 miles of streets, 200 miles of lanes and 1,450 in and out. Today, motorists expect to drive to work in the morning on a bare pavement after a miles of sidewalks. A 10-inch snow storm requires night storm. 3,000 pieces of equipment and 3,500 men, and

The centre of our City is over-run each day by 1 I.-V. Arpin. The Snow Problem in Montreal. East• a million people, 600,000 of whom travel in ern Snow Conference, February 1962. 33 last year we hauled away 12 million cu.yds. of to vacant land, until loading gangs are ready to snow or 1,200,000 truck loads. start their schedules. In the case of heavy storms - over 10 inches - loading will start on certain I agree that more thought should be given to streets before the end of precipitation (business the proper use of equipment, materials, and men streets). For storms over 4 inches, snow clearing to find better ways to do the job faster and more operations are an around-the-clock job. economically. The Forecast Division of the Department of Different factors are manifold in battling a snow Transport is our watch dog! They give us the storm, as they imply weather conditions governing warning signal and their expert handling of standard methods of spreading, materials used, weather data, transferred onto weather charts, ploughing and loading. Parking will be, in all makes them as intriguing as an Elliot Ness plot cases, our main problem. about a low villain! The precision they attain is We dread the first major storm. We are aware no doubt partly heavenly for the Tiros Satellite of the fact that only half the equipment to be must have helped in knowing more about cloud rented is available, for it is still used on summer movement and heat exchange between the earth work and, therefore, out of immediate reach, and and the upper atmosphere. What will it be when we do not forget that the manner in which the they are given information from the future Nimbus first serious storm of the season is tackled has Satellite? a lasting effect on the minds of our citizens We study the daily chart very closely and call throughout the winter months. the forecaster when things look bad. He will pa• THE WEATHER FORECAST tiently give us additional information and proba• bilities. With this, we are ready to make the first Assuming that winter preparations have been move, that is, to prepare the spreaders and call checked and rechecked, that you have made your in rented trucks. They will be loaded with salt or test run and all is well, when does one give the go a mixture of salt and 1;4 in. stone, depending on ahead signal in the event of a coming storm? temperature and time, and sent out on their re• The amount of snow that is predicted will de• spective runs, patrolling them until the snow starts. termine, to a great extent, the action to be taken. SPREADING Of course, other considerations enter the picture, such as ambient and pavement temperatures, wind When a storm is imminent, you should not risk velocity and time. a late start on spreading. Your timing makes the Precipitations of less than 2 inches, which difference between success and failure. 2 This is normally demand spreading only, rarely require particularly true if a storm should start just prior ploughing, except when accompanied by high to the rush hours. If you do not get to your slopes winds. In certain areas of the City, bad drifting immediately, you may not be able to reach them may take place, and in other areas, the wind will for a long time and will witness the worst tie-ups blow snow off from the top of buildings and it from a distance. The same danger exists at inter• will pile up on streets. Under these conditions, sections, with more serious consequences, such any official amount of measured snow that has as collisions. fallen on the City must be increased by 30% to Time and temperature are of prime importance represent the estimated amount to be removed. in the spreading operation. During the day, when Very often, for unforeseen reasons, the precipita• traffic is heavy, salt provides the best results when tion will continue beyond the 2-inch forecast, and the temperature is not too far below the freezing ploughing is necessary. This unexpected increase point. Should it be lower than 20 degrees F, then may cause some delay; that is why we can not a mixture of salt and 1;4 in. stone is recommended. afford to take a chance and any amount predicted When the temperature drops below 10 degrees F, will force us to be on stand-by for ploughing. abrasives alone should be used. This rule of thumb Over 2 inches, all streets are ploughed and, is in accordance with the predicted melting capa• irrespective of the precipitation, ploughing will city table for coarse crushed rock salt, given in continue until the end of the storm or, beyond reference 2 that, if drifting occurs. 2 D. R. Brohm and H. M. Edwards. The Use of No sooner has precipitation stopped than all Chemicals in Winter Maintenance. Canadian Murrie• blowers are out to transfer the snow from the curb icipal Utilities, August 1963. 34 When ambient temperature was close to or We still do a lot of hand spreading from the above the freezing point, the rate of precipitation rear of open trucks. We, nevertheless, can cover low, and pavement had absorbed heat previously, all City intersections in a relatively short time. we have disposed of a six inch snowfall with salt alone; of course these storms are exceptional. I must admit that our control of the amount of The more serious storms come at temperatures salt spread has been somewhat neglected and left below 25 0 F. Night storms call for a first light more or less to the judgment of the section fore• spreading followed by alternate ploughing and man. The report of the Swiss Snow and Avalanche spreading. This method is particularly useful on Research Institute, so ably translated by D. A. hills and keeps traffic moving. Sinclair of this Council, has brought to mind a number of points, although we have not yet done Materials something about it (3). The valuable information 1. Salt - We have been using rock salt of contained in this report pertaining to spreading two types to the following sieve analysis. of salt and abrasives has made it evident that the control of quantities under different hour and Percentage retained temperature conditions will greatly influence cost. Sieve type A type B 2. Sand - This material answers the following %" nil nil sieve analysis : No. 4 (Tyler) 15-30 nil Sieve Percentage retained No. 8 (Tyler) 60-90 45-65 ¥s" 0 No. 28 (Tyler) 95-100 95-100 No. 14 (Tyler) 18% min. Type B was found to react faster, but this year No. 48 (Tyler) 75% min. the mine was selling it at a higher price. We No. 100 (Tyler) 90% min. decided on Type A and found that successive handlings from the mine to our storage increased It is used mostly to sand sidewalks and cross• the fines and made it acceptable in actual use. walks. In the event of freezing rain, it would be spread with salt on the pavement. We have stock• From a mere 2,600 tons used twelve years ago, piled close to 50,000 tons in the open. we purchased 75,000 tons this year. Sixty percent of this quantity is under cover and the balance is We do mechanical spreading of sand on side• stockpiled in the open. Different types of covers walks using a hopper spreader with distribution were studied and one is presently being tried. rollers. It is hitched to a sidewalk wheel tractor. The cover is applied by first mixing a wood Nevertheless, this operation is still mostly done pulp with water and spraying it through a butterfly by hand. Open trucks, loaded with sand, supply nozzle. The water drains away and leaves a pulp two men who scoop a shovel full of sand. hold it mat. When the cover has dried, it is again sprayed up waist high with the left hand, and with a with .an asphaltic or latex emulsion. wooden spatula in the right hand, fan out the sand over the sidewalk as they walk along. For For control purposes, we have left a stockpile the second consecutive winter, we have done away of 2,500 tons unprotected, with the assurance with continuous sanding and have resorted to spot from the supplier that it was treated against sanding at considerable saving. caking. (Manganese Hexaferrocyanide-Greenish color). Before we covered our stockpiles, they 3. 1,4 in. Stone - Prior to the advent of na• were left exposed to nearly continuous rain for tural gas, we obtained a considerable amount one week. Humidity tests were run on them (20,000 tons) of cinders from a manufactured gas before covering with the following results: plant. This material was an ideal abrasive, but Humidity at delivery: less than 0.1 % gave a dirty appearance to our streets. Crushed Humidity after rain: 1.3% to 2.4% stone does give excellent results, even when used General spreading instructions call for light sparingly. It is still active in three inches of snow. repeated applications. Negligence to check the Curiously enough, it will wear out the neck of a opening at the delivery gate of the spreader or blower shoot in no time. We use approximately its maladjustment may be the cause for excessive 20,000 tons which are delivered to us on request, use of salt. •. by the quarry. 35 Equipment Of all our streets, one-fifth, or 180 miles, have no parking, two-fifths, or 360 miles, have parking The mechanical hopper type pavement spreader on one side and 360 miles of street offer parking is the ideal machine to spread quickly and eco• on both sides. Unfortunately, narrow streets offer nomically. We use the rear delivery type spreader. two-way parking. During weekends, almost all We own 29 vehicles that cover one-fourth of our streets have two-way parking. requirements. They are used on hills, on arteries, and are concentrated in the business and con• One-way parking will increase ploughing by gested areas. All secondary streets are hand 20% and two-way parking by 40%. spread by both City and rented trucks. On narrow streets, we plough a centre path and Ploughing wait until parking moves before reploughing. By this time, we may be ready to load and the loading At any temperature, if the rate of precipitation gang will do the final ploughing to prepare the is high, ploughing must start sooner because snow windrows to load with blowers. before you get to the last street of any particular Our off-street parking facilities represent only route, the snow may have accumulated to a dan• 40% of our requirements, including residences gerous depth. In daytime, during heavy traffic with driveways. This means that 170,000 vehicles hours, ploughing will be done along secondary use the streets at all times for parking. Such streets, while at other times, it will be done along obstructions to our work become more evident the main arteries to complete the work in sec• during loading operations. ondary streets. At night, the main arteries are ploughed first LOADING as light traffic does not keep the snow down to Contractors will plough and remove the snow an acceptable depth; then the secondary streets from 43 % of our streets. Our Department does are done; and if snow keeps falling during the the other 57 %. operation, the main arteries will be ploughed once more before morning traffic hours. Tandem Specifications stipulate that the contractor must ploughing on arteries is requisite to bring the complete his work within 72 hours after the end snow windrow to the curb in one pass. Single of precipitation. This binds him to mobilize a large ploughing will only cause traffic to bring the snow proportion of available trucks and leaves us with back into the centre of the street and you have a serious shortage. We must therefore wait until to repeat the ploughing uselessly. Ploughs should they complete their work before additional trucks be followed by a spreader to keep slopes and become available for us. This delay is serious and intersections safe and clean. is the source of many complaints. Ploughing must be completed twelve hours after Only a few years ago, we blew snow on vacant the storm has subsided. Towards the end of the lots and back of the sidewalks on 300 miles of season, if, for economical reasons, the snow is not street. Citizens will no longer stand for this and removed on secondary streets, we must repeat the request complete removal and the additional cost operation after putting up snow removal signs. is as high as 4 to 1. Although this operation seems On narrow streets, cars usually park in the snow• the simplest, it is by far the most difficult under bank and when leaving will pull some snow out our conditions. Curbs lines with cars must be towards the centre of the street. This repeated reached. To do this, moveable snow removal signs action will soon leave the street clogged up and are placed on the snowbanks indicating day or reploughing is therefore necessary. This is an night loading. In all cases, signs must be put up expensive operation because cars that do not at least four hours before loading starts. In par• follow parking prohibitions are towed away. ticular, for night loading, the signs must be up Furthermore, ploughing is a relatively fast opera• not later than 4 :00 p.m., so that motorists driving tion and streets must be free of cars far enough to that part of the City will know that work is ahead of the ploughs. to be done on one side of the street and that park• ing is prohibited on that side. PARKING In the more congested areas of the City, signs Snow clearing's worst enemy is parking. I would are too often ignored so we must move in first, venture to say that it increases our ploughing costs half an hour before snow preparation for loading by as much as 20%. and use our two-tone-horn to notify motorists that 36 snow removal equipment is on its way. After such Finally, the public's continuous insistence for notification, we proceed with the removal of the cleared pavement forced us to cover more areas, cars with tow trucks and with the help of police• and now, it is getting total snow removal and men who issue $5.00 tickets and witness towing paying for it. to prevent claims. On the hour, these constables This difficult financial situation was taken care report towed-away cars to the nearest station or of by budgeting a certain amount, and any addi• by emergency telephones. tional cost (resulting from a difficult winter) was The efficiency of a loading gang depends on charged to the next fiscal year. This is no doubt the speed with which snow is prepared for loading, a clever way to avoid a tax increase. the distance its trucks must travel to the snow Montreal's snow budget has increased over the dump and, of course, the availability of trucks. years from $4,000,000 in 1953 to $8,950,000 The driver's and the shoot operator's skill on the last year. Twelve years ago, we did complete snow blower contribute a great deal to an efficient removal on arteries only in a week's time with operation. occasional removal on one side on secondary SNOW DISPOSAL narrow streets, and strictly blowing in residential streets, as this was possible. Now we must remove Undoubtedly, snow disposal is our major prob• all the snow from all streets within 72 hours. lem. How does one dispose of 12 million cubic Furthermore, from a 60-hour week, we must ob• yards of snow when vacant land is nearly non• serve the 40-hour week, and our labor contract existent, when approaches to the St. Lawrence demands that Saturday and Sunday holidays be river are very few and 1,000 loads of snow must taken consecutively. Saturday is time-and-a-half, be hauled away per hour? At the beginning of Sunday is double-time, Christmas and New Year the season, our dumps may be adequate but as amount to triple-time each. This means that during the dump areas narrow down, due to snow accu• the holiday period our personnel is being paid at mulation, the 75 crawler tractors (280 h.p.) can time-and-a-half, four days out of seven, if we not maintain the clearing, and serious delays include all overtime done over and above normal occur. working hours during the week. Some snow is disposed of down the trunk For the winter of 1962-63, we have established sewers, but this is always a dangerous operation sample cost data for snow clearing by City crews that may cause back pressure if the sewer is and compared it with contractor work. It is given blocked. Access to the sewer manholes is difficult here only as an indication of total costs. They may during the day because we interfere with traffic; be considerably influenced by weather conditions at night, a substantial reduction in flow in these depending on whether the winter is mild, medium sewers makes the operation risky and slow. or cold, and of course, on precipitation. COST DATA The following costs have been computed in dollars per mile of street per year, for 100 inches The degree of snow clearing is a legislative of snow (Table I). decision. It is governed by what the citizens want and to what extent they are prepared to pay. WORK BY CONTRACT A large number of municipalities are limited in When snow clearing was done in a limited way, their budget and must, by necessity, restrict snow the City could cope with the situation with its own clearing operations to the essential. equipment, and would rent additional machines We were in such a position during many years as required. Gradually, the public demanded a until it became apparent that begging for credits more complete job and the amount of rented during the last half of the season, at each snow equipment increased to such an extent that control storm, was irritating our Administrators and stop was difficult. It became evident that giving some and start operations were very costly. One serious of the work out to contractors was the answer. consequence was that snowbanks froze on the spot In 1956, tenders were called for snow clearing and, when thaws came, flooding of both pavement in certain areas of the City, on a one-year basis. and sidewalk was a common sight, and further• They were of different types : more, when credits became available, snowbanks had hardened and subsequent removal caused (a) Ploughing of pavement and sidewalk and considerable damage to the equipment. removal of snow; 37 (b) Ploughing of pavement; pavement ploughing and 40% of sidewalk plough• ing and snow removal. (c) Ploughing of pavement and sidewalk; This season, tenders were called again for Type (d) Total snow clearing from City owned A only throughout the City. Due to an excep• parking lots. tionally severe winter last year, a considerable This choice of work was offered to attract as increase in price was anticipated. To offset this many contractors as possible, and to see how they possibility, the yearly contract period was short• would perform. Types C and D did not do too ened (25th November to 15th March) as against well. To reduce the risk involved in a one-year previous contracts that started on November 1st contract, it was decided to offer work on a three• and ended on April 31st. Furthermore, the basis year basis and only Types A and B were given. of the contract was a maximum precipitation of Type A was given in the business and congested 60 inches during the period. Additional precipita• sections of the City, and Type B was offered in tion over and above 60 inches during the period the residential areas. will be paid at the rate of 1.5 cents per inch per linear foot. The average contract is for 33,000 This distribution of work was certainly an im• linear feet. provement, but it still did not meet the increasing demand for complete removal. In 1960, new Although the risk was reduced, prices were tenders were called and contractors did 70% of high. Of the 134 contracts offered, 76 bids were

TABLE I

Excluding work Contractors Contractors City crews between storms 1962-63 1963-64 1962-63 20% less ＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭｾ I Cost of spreading I $1,523.11 $1,218.49 Ploughing pavement $ 560.27 $ 720.72 888.20 710.56 Ploughing sidewalk 2/sides 301.69 388.03 478.26 381.60 Loading and Hauling 6,033.72 7,761.60 9,565.97 7,652.78 Disposal (dumps) 1,297.11

TABLE II

YEARS

------I······· .---..-----.- ..ｾＭＭＭＭ ._-----..

Types of contracts 1956 1957 1958 I 1959 1960 1960-63 1961-64 1963-66 - '-·---i ._------1 _2 Ploughing pavement 0.271 0.264 0.176 ｾ 0.135 0.122 0.102 only I Ploughing pavement 0.402 0.300 0.240 I 0.178 0.173 - - - & sidewalk i Ploughing, Loading, I Hauling for 0.564 0.423 0.356 0.308 - - - - parking lots (City)! I Loading & Hauling 1.410 2.380 1.927 1.477 1.22 -- - Ploughing pavement, I Loading & Hauling - 2.800 2.246 - - - - _:I Ploughing pavement & I sidewalk -- - 1.349 1.308 1.306 I - - Loading & Hauling I 1.067

Notes to Table II : Average annual tender price for different snow clearing operations, in dollars, per linear foot of street - (November 1st to April 30th). 1 In dollars, per square yard - 2 (November 25th to March 15th) - 3 Tender price for max. 60 in. - Premium of $0.015 per inch per li.ft. of street, above 60 inches. 38 received. Twenty-eight were accepted and the would put a dollar value on the population's loss balance rejected. Contractors had submitted no of time, loss of business, irritation, high blood bids in the business and congested areas of the pressure and maybe heart failures, for cars that City. They went for easier work in the residential line the curb are snowed in by ploughing, and districts. On a second call for tenders, we elimin• their owners must shovel them out. ated this easy work to bring back the contractors Montreal's off-street parking has seen some where they were needed most, that is, in the improvement in the last few years. The municipal centre of the City. authorities have made available to the public, at Table II gives a summary of the price pattern. reasonable cost, a considerable number of tem• porary parking lots on land residues obtained There is no doubt considerable room for im• by expropriation in carrying out an extensive provement in our cost accounting methods and urban renovation program. I agree with Mr. Davidson's approach on the subject," His fifteen factors affecting snow re• We would like to see better law enforcement moval costs are certainly food for thought and it of parking regulations. It is also evident that the is imperative that we proceed in that direction. $5.00 fine is no deterrent. This amount should at least be doubled. FIELDS FOR IMPROVEMENT AND RESEARCH If ploughing and loading operations seem to Getting rid of the snow as it falls, or better be standardized, snow disposal in certain large still, stopping it from falling would be the ultimate cities creates a major problem. As dumping places achievement. The first suggestion is already a fact become non-existent, we still must dispose of from by way of heating the pavement, but for econom• 7 to 12 million cubic yards of snow each year, or ical reasons, it is of very limited application.5 1,000 loads per hour during removal time, which we have set a 72 hours after the end of a storm. As a counterpart, treatment of bituminous sur• It is evident that hauling distances must be short• faces with an additive may be worthwhile in• ened and a place to dump the snow must be found vestigating. I am thinking of electro-chemical within these limits. reactions set up by incorporating a mixture of two or more suitable metals of definite shape and If mobile snow melters were of sufficient ca• size in the bituminous surface treatment, in the pacity, they would be the ideal answer to our presence of an electrolyte, such as a brine solu• problem. The equipment that we have tried was tion (spreading of salt)." one-quarter of the capacity of a blower. It cannot be increased in size and maintain the required My second thought was on cloud insemination mobility, unless another source of energy is found. with silver iodide. I know little of the reverse of the process used by the rain makers! I can Our present thought on the subject is the use just picture a dozen spray planes, flying back and of stationary melters of large capacity. We have forth ahead of a coming storm over the City to one in operation this year, which takes a minimum stop precipitation! of 560 tons per hour. Twenty-three of these units would be required to meet our needs. If snow clearing operation costs in a large city are to be cut without reducing the extent of the The few places 4 with open wharf where we service, the parking problem must be solved. I can still dump snow into the river are the best, would venture to say that parking adds close to until the ice moves in. When this happens we a million dollars to our snow costs, and who must dump the snow on the pier and then blow it on the ice. The dumping speed is thus reduced 3 T. R. Schneider. Snowdrifts and winter ice on roads. by two-thirds. National Research Council Tech. Translation No. 1038 (Abbreviated version of this report appeared We have tried to keep the wharf edges clear in Canadian Municipalities, August 1963.) The Calculation of the amount of salt required of ice by using an ice eroding mechanism. It to melt ice and snow on highways. N.R.C. T.T. 1004. consists of a 6 in. propeller attached to a 10 HP 4 W. D. Davidson. Ways to win the Snow battle this 0 year. Civic Administration, October 1963. electric motor (60 vertical movement), which, 5 AI. Kurtz (correspondent). Toronto tries shifting in tum, is fixed to a vertical shaft (1800 horizontal snow with heated pavement. Engineering and Con• tract record, November 1963. movement). o W. D. Mogerman. Thermo-electricity - Its dis• covery and progress. Engineering Digest, Vol. 8, The equipment (3 units) was put in after the No. II, November 1962. ice had formed and it barely left a 3 ft. hole 39 open, although the ice below the surface was levels of the hierarchy, good planning made eroded to a diameter of about 10 feet. The trial a priority and adequate controls a necessity. was abandoned after a one-month run. The The Department that has the responsibility for Bubbling system was considered, but after check• snow clearing must consider it a challenge and ing the temperature gradient, it was found to be the engineers, technicians and foremen must act practically nil. as leaders in this field of maintenance. They must In a City as large as ours, snow clearing can seek to bring together and use men, equipment, no longer be thought about as the season ap• materials and time to give the citizens what they proaches. It is a 10 million dollar business, and want at the lowest possible cost. The task is not should be considered as such. We must become an easy one. It is hard work, sometimes heart• cost conscious if we are to improve methods. breaking, but it is a career that energetic men The public invests in this undertaking and must should follow with pride and great satisfaction." get maximum return and assurance of all pos• sible safety measures. Efficiency will improve only 7 Luther Gulick. Political and Administrative Leader• if a proper training program is initiated at all ship, Public Management, November 1963.

40 PANEL DISCUSSION

(a) SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL, EDMONTON by

H. GRAY Engineering Department City of Edmonton

ABSTRACT RESUME Edmonton has about 660 miles of roadway and Edmonton possede environ 660 milles de routes 1,000 miles of sidewalk. The cost of snow re• 1,000 milles de trottoirs. Le cout de l'enleve• moval in 1962 was $718,000. Information is ment de la neige en 1962 a ete de $718,000. presented on practices used for snow removal Des renseignements sont donnes quant aux me• and ice control in Edmonton. Considerable use thodes employees pour enlever la neige et pour is made of graders with wings. Greatest icing traiter la glace it Edmonton. On emploie beau• problems are experienced when the temperature coup les niveleuses munies d'ailettes. Les plus is too low for salt to be effective. Snow is com• grands problemes de glace se posent lorsque la pacted after heavy storms on residential streets temperature est trop basse pour que les sels soient and lanes. efficaces. Dans les rues et dans les allees resi• dentielles, la neige est compacte apres chaque grosse ternpete.

Edmonton at 53 0 35' North latitude is the most Average annual wind speed of 8.9 miles per northerly city of its size in Canada. Its protected hour is among the lower winds reported on the position in the rain shadow area of the Rocky Prairies. Mountains results in an annual precipitation of The North Saskatchewan River traverses the only 18.25 inches - 65 % of this falls during City from southwest to northeast in a "U"-shaped the growing season of spring and summer and valley that averages two hundred feet in depth this supplies sufficient moisture for successful and one-half mile wide. farming. ICE CONTROL AND SNOW REMOVAL The climate is described as a cold temperate IN EDMONTON climate but is not as severe as might be expected in a continental climate at 53°N. The warm Winter street maintenance in Edmonton is chinook winds which modify the long winter just divided into two well-defined operations: first in east of the Rocky Mountains have a modifying importance is ice control which is carried out as influence on the temperature. The effect of these required on an emergent basis. The second opera• winds is to cause many cycles of thawing and tion, snow removal, is being done at present on freezing at Edmonton during a winter. Some main arteries to maintain safe lane widths and winters are quite mild with recurring chinooks; elsewhere as a service demanded by the public. other winters may witness only a few chinooks. Like all other cities in Canada, Edmonton has The average winter temperature is 13.rp. Low experienced an increased snow control budget in oP temperatures of -30 occur on the average the past ten years. In 1953, the money spent for of three to four times each winter. Extremely low snow and ice control was $156,000. This rose oP temperatures of _40 or less occur once every to a high of $718,000 in 1962. During this three winters. period, we had an increase in vehicle registration Depth of snow on the ground averages seven from 50,900 vehicles to 125,000 vehicles. inches by mid-winter and seldom exceeds fourteen The following is a short summary of weather inches in the City area. and vital statistics of Edmonton presented at this 41 time so that during the paper, comparisons can For day shift operation, we divide the City be drawn between Edmonton and your own cities. into four districts of roughly equal area under the direction of a district foreman. Equipment Snowfall: is allotted according 'to the number of hills and 70 year average 52.6 inches major arteries within the district. The total basic 10 year average 51 inches day crew of eighty-eight men is divided among High for past 10 years 73.4 inches (1962) the four districts. For night shift operation, we Low for past 10 years 38.6 inches use only our main yard as a base because it is Mean Temperatures: Oct. +41.2°F central to all hills and areas of greatest traffic Nov. +24.5°F density. These shifts consist of sixteen men and Dec. +13.3°F are supervised by a sub-foreman. During snow Jan. + 6.6°F storms, we supplement our night crews with men Feb. +11.2°F from our day crews by calling them out before the March +22.1°F regular starting time of 8: 00 A.M. according to April +39.5°F the severity of the storm. When our basic force is being utilized to a maximum, we call on men Our first snow storms usually occur in October from other departments. To date, it has not been and extend intermittently through to the following necessary to call for men or contractors outside April. Snow storms rarely exceed five inches but of City forces to assist in sanding operations. Our they can extend over a period of a week of inter• labor contracts call for double time for men mittent flurries. called out before the starting time of their regular Population of Greater Edmonton = 360,000 shift and time and one-half for overtime after Area (City) = 69 Square Miles the regular eight hour shift or over forty hours per week. The maximum rate paid at any time, Total Roadways = 660 Miles including statutory holidays is double time. Main Arteries = 150 Miles Bus Routes = 109 miles (included in main Our basic equipment for winter operations con• arteries) sists of eight hopper-type sanders with two man Sidewalks = 1,000 miles. crews. These units cast the sand in front of the rear wheels of the truck by means of a separate Our snow and ice control organization is the motor-driven spreader mechanism. We have responsibility of the Roadway Maintenance En• found that power take-off driven equipment does gineer under the direction of the City Engineer. not give the necessary spread control on hills. Forces used for this work are employed in Road• The sanders are supplemented by dump trucks way Maintenance during the summer months so for hand casting as required up to a maximum that transition from summer to winter is relatively of twenty units. Snow ploughing is handled by easy. In fact, it very often happens that an twenty-one Motor Patrol graders in the 125 H.P. operator may find himself spreading sand one class. Three of these machines are fitted with day and sweeping it up the next. V-plows and wings. Sidewalk ploughing is done The operation is geared to our main topo• by five small track-type tractors, three jeeps and graphical feature - the North Saskatchewan one farm tractor equipped with half tracks. This River valley, which divides the City almost in latter tractor is strictly experimental for the pur• half. In this valley, are five major traffic arteries pose of retiring the cat-type tractors which are that carry a total of 119,600 vehicles per day. not sufficiently mobile for our large area. Our two Morning rush hour traffic has a temporary rate snow blowers are in the 50 H.P. class and are of 203,000 vehicles per day. There is a total of used for emergency only. To ensure that they are seven miles of hills leading to five cross-river in working order when required, they are used bridges with grades varying from 5% to 16%, for routine snow removal on bridges and hills in as well as many other steep hillside roadways. open areas. We do not use special mechanical equipment for sanding walks. Our operating procedure is based on the premise that we must have men on shift at the All district foremen's trucks, spreaders, and four beginning of a storm. This, we consider to be utility trucks are radio equipped. We installed the critical period especially when the snow begins radios in two graders in 1959 to facilitate com• early in the morning, before or during the rush munication but the noise factor and radio troubles hour traffic. forced us to abandon the idea for the present. 42 Since our sanding trucks are required for dual we feel that a rigid set of instructions would function, we begin mounting the sanding hoppers hamper rather than assist our operations which on September 15th and have all eight mounted are very flexible through radio control. by October 30th. The three V-plow graders and The prime sanding material we rely on is a one blower are also mounted and operative by natural coarse sand that is mined forty miles October 30th. from the City. This sand costs $2.60 per cubic At the commencement of any storm, the sand• yard delivered to our yards. The following is the ing equipment operations follow a priority rating specification for this sand: as follows: Sieve Size % by Weight Passing 1. Cross River Hills 2. Bus Routes 'h" 100 3. Other Main Arteries %" 90 - 100 4. Hillside High Density Residential #4 58 - 90 5. Sidewalks #10 31 - 80 6. Residential Intersections. #20 17 - 48 0-8 For the duration of a storm, one-half of the #40 sand used is spread on our seven miles of cross• #100 0-2 river hills. The major part of the remaining half #200 0-1 is spread only at traffic lights, on bus routes and From experience, we have found that these major arteries, as well as on bus stops, traffic rigid specifications keep the sand stockpiles relati• interchanges, school zones and other major inter• vely free from freezing in low temperatures at a sections. Only at the end of a storm do we com• moisture content of 3%. We do not mix sand plete residential intersections and sidewalk sand• and salt in the stockpile, mainly due to the cost ing, which are also serviced on a priority basis of salt, and also because during the colder tem• from high to low pedestrian traffic densities. One peratures we do not use salt for ice control. Each exception to our standard priority procedure is year, we find we have to relax the specifications during freezing rains, of which we usually have of the sand due to a general depletion of the two or three per season. In this case, we give supply of cleaner sand in the area. We do not sidewalks an equal priority to streets by adding heat the sand for street sanding but prefer to use manpower from other departments, and also a swamper on all trucks to keep the sand flowing equipment to our forces. Another exception to smoothly. To cut this area of cost, we have ex• this procedure is in the major commercial area perimented with various vibrators this past winter where beat men on foot give continual service and we now propose to fit all hoppers with a to all sidewalks and crosswalks. Also, a mobile satisfactory system to keep the sand flowingfreely. crew of fifteen men remove snow and sand from Sand for sidewalks is dried and kept heated for all wooden steps, sidehill sidewalks and bridges. use without salt. As an additional emergency service, we provide over one hundred sand boxes located on strategic During the past three years, a crushed rock with intersections, subways and secondary hills. These a maximum size of 'h" has been available. This are intended to be used by the public but, in material is a by-product of a crushed stone manu• extreme cases, can be manned by City forces. facturing process and has been sold to us at rates To date, we have not been forced to use these competitive to coarse sand. We find this product emergency measures so we have no way of vastly superior to sand especially in the heavier measuring their effectiveness. falls of snow. Its one disadvantage is the greater wear and damage caused to asphalt pavements. Sanding only is carried out during a storm until The grading of this product is almost identical the snow begins to hamper the effectiveness of to the coarse sand. Our total consumption of the operation. Generally, this point is reached abrasives for the 1962-63 season was 36,000 when the fall of snow approximates a depth of two cubic yards. inches, but we find that it can vary considerably with each storm. No set rules are laid down for For our chemical additives, we rely completely operating procedure so that each storm can be on sodium chloride. This salt is a deep well prod• handled according to circumstances or complica• uct, fused and crushed to the following specifica• tions, such as traffic flow and time of day. In fact, tions: 43 Sieve Size % by Weight Passing Snow removal is carried out under our own supervision either by blowing to vacant or park %" 100% land, or loading and hauling to a dump. City• #4 75 - 100 owned equipment for snow removal consists of #8 80% Max. two belt loaders, two snow blowers and twenty #30 25% Max. 15 cubic yard trucks which are utilized when they are not engaged spreading sand. All additional The cost of this salt with 1% rust inhibitor equipment is hired on an hourly basis. added, delivered to our yards in carload lots, is $37 per ton. This high price discourages the use The general procedure used for snow loading of salt as a prime ice control material. At present, is to windrow the snow either to the centre or to the salt is delivered only in 100 lb. bags, but our the curb lanes of the street and load it into single suppliers inform us that, by public demand, bulk axle trucks with a belt loader. Snow removal salt will be available soon at a substantial reduc• priorities follow the general form of the sanding tion in price. priorities. Our main concern for loading snow is the main business avenues in the City centre One hundred pounds of salt is added to one which are cleaned up immediately after a storm. cubic yard of sand at the truck hopper. During No time limit is imposed on arteries or bus runs extreme icing near the freezing point, we add in less congested areas of the City. In fact, over two hundred pounds per cubic yard of sand. At the past three years, we have been able to organize temperatures below 10°F., we use only sand, since and allocate our forces to maintain a continuous salt used below this temperature causes an in• snow removal operation from January 15th to creased ice build-up. This is most noticeable on March 15th. Snow loading costs for the winter sunny days when the temperature of the asphalt of 1962-63 were thirty-one cents per cubic yard. pavement is above the air temperature. Our yearly For comparison purposes, it should be noted here consumption of salt has been 1400 tons for the that the snow picked up weighs, on the average, past three years. eight hundred pounds per cubic yard. One disad• vantage to this approach to snow loading is the We have used small quantities of calcium chlo• difficulty encountered with ice in the gutter when ride during the past several seasons on an experi• we experience alternate periods of warm and cold mental basis. The results to date show that at the weather. There are scarifier marks on our pave• temperature where calcium chloride becomes more ment which testify to the tenacity with which ice effective than salt, the problem of pavement adheres to pavement during cold weather. Need• becomes extreme. During a sunny day at -20°F., less to say, damaged curbs and broken graders are calcium chloride has been observed to melt thin a normal result. layers of snow on asphalt pavement, but imme• diately after the sun has set, we are left with the We have attempted to use snow blowers for problem of glare ice on the bare pavement. With snow loading but, due to high breakage, we prefer this disadvantage and a cost of eighty dollars a to use the belt loader. Its rate of loading is slower ton, it appears that we will be using salt exclusi• but the overall cost is less. The belt loader has vely for some time to come. the advantage that only one traffic lane is required for loading. To sum up our icing problem, it is during the periods when salt is not effective that we expe• We are now using a front end loader equipped rience our greatest expenditure of sand with very with a side dumping bucket for loading snow in little result. When cold temperatures extend over the less congested areas of the City. We prefer a long period, the problem of obtaining bare pave• this machine in cold weather due to fewer delays ment, which traffic conditions require, is through resulting from breakage. In heavy accumulations the slow process of wearing out the ice with rock of snow, its rate of loading is comparable to the chips. During periods of severe icing at tempera• belt loader. Where it can be used without a grader tures close to the freezing point, our traction prob• for windrowing, the overall cost of the loading lems may be more severe and more likely to cause operation is greatly reduced. traffic tie-ups, but their duration at most is the Snow dumps are gradually decreasing in number matter of a few hours; whereas chronic cold as former waste areas are seeded to grass and weather icing can last for weeks with its resultant landscaped. We are fortunate in that the greater drain on the budget. part of snow removed in the downtown area can 44 be disposed of in the river. At this dump, we have rely on them more in the future for emergency open water due to to proximity of the City Power snow ploughing equipment. Plant boiler water discharge so that all snow is Snow fences are only used to a limited degree. dumped directly into open water. At all other This winter, we have erected three thousand feet dumps, a dozer must be used to pile snow into of fence located in various residential sections of relatively small areas. In 1962-63, we used twelve the City which is requested by petition from local snow dumps but only three of these are per• citizens. manent. Edmonton has not had an extreme fall of snow In areas where we have vacant land or park since November, 1942, when about twenty inches land, we remove the snow with snow blowers. fell with drifting winds, so it is not deemed The particular models we use are not high ca• appropriate or economical to own equipment to pacity blowers but we find them less subject to handle all the situations which could arise. We breakdown than other models we have used. The have a listing of all privately-owned equipment normal procedure is to windrow the snow close to available in the City which would have to be the curb and blow it just behind the walk. Keeping utilized in an extreme situation. For an operation the snow as close to the walk as possible was a of this scope to work successfully, we would re• request of the Parks Department who objetced to quire accurate advance warning of an approaching the damage done to shrubs and grass on boulevard storm or traffic stoppages would occur due to the and park areas. slowness at which a "once in 20 year" organiza• No snow is removed from residential areas. tion would function. In high density areas, where there are boulevards, The local weather office co-operates with us we plough the snow behind the curb. In all new fully, warning us of approaching storms or unusual areas, curbline walks are being constructed which conditions. For routine information, we phone prohibits snow ploughing. In light snowfalls, the twice-daily when required, before the rush hour residential traffic packs the snow satisfactorily. periods, to get the latest information that may After heavy storms, we use tournapulls to pack all affect our operation for the next four hours. residential lanes and streets. Since the lanes are Parking remains one of our biggest headaches. more easily blocked, it is our practice to pack On streets not permanently "signed" for no park• all lanes as a first priority. Using this system, the ing, we place temporary signs twelve hours before spring thaw requires the grading of all residential the start of the snow removal operation com• streets to remove potholes and speed the thawing mences. Any cars remaining at that time are of the snow. Where snow is ploughed to the curb, removed by a private towing service supervised by the Police Department. our operators are instructed to clear driveways entering the road. In looking to the future, I believe we will have to accelerate our investigations into more ad• Since a recent amalgamation of rural areas, we vanced methods of ice control and snow removal have used three grader mounted V-plows and in order to keep ahead of the growing demands wings for keeping rural roads clear of snow. From for our services and, at the same time, reduce the this experience with these machines, we intend to costs.

45 (b) SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL, FREDERICTON by W. L. BARRETT Engineering Department City of Fredericton

ABSTRACT RESUME Fredericton has about 65 miles of streets and Fredericton possede environ 65 milles de rues 45 miles of sidewalk. The cost of removing 90 et 45 milles de trottoirs. Le cout de l'enlevement inches of snow in 1962 was $90,000. A descrip• de 90 pouces de neige en 1962 a ete de $90,000. tion is given of snow removal and ice control prac• On donne une description des methodes employees tices. Salt is used on main routes and sloping pour enlever la neige et pour traiter la glace. Le streets, but its use in business sections has been sel est employe sur les routes principales et sur discontinued. Costs are affected not only by the les rues en pente mais on ne l'emploie plus dans amount of snow but by the time interval between les zones commerciales. Les couts sont affectes snowfalls. Concern is expressed over the amount non seulement par la quantite de la neige mais of annual maintenance budget expended on winter aussi par l'intervalle de temps ecoule entre les maintenance. chutes de neige. On manifeste de l'inquietude de• vant les depenses annuelles occasionnees par l'en• tretien des rues en hiver.

It is indeed a pnvilege and pleasure for me to is a very difficult area for definite forecasts, due be invited to serve as a panelist on this very im• to the influence of the cold Arctic winds from portant subject, "Snow Removal and Ice Control." the North affecting the Gulf Stream winds from the South, with the result that forecasts may I trust that we shall gain much knowledge predict 10-12 inches of snow and we receive two from the experience of others and from the results and then again, as occurred recently, snow of studies being carried out by the National Re• flurries, followed by rain, was forecast and the search Council. end result was 16 inches of snow accompanied Snow Removal and Ice Control, being an ex• by high winds and drifting. pensive operation, may also be classed as an im• portant operation, since in this modern day and We, therefore, find ourselves as second guessers age the importance of a project appears to be to the weatherman and prepare for the most measured by the money expended on same. pessimistic when he is optimistic and vice-versa. We realize, of course, that weather forecasting LOCATION is a very necessary service and certainly do not The City of Fredericton, with a population of suggest that we could get along without it. It just 20,000 people, is the capital of the Province of happens that we are located in an area where the New Brunswick, situated on the Saint John River, weatherman has a problem forecasting other than some 64 miles inland from the Bay of Fundy, probabilities, due to the factors as previously which forms part of the Eastern Seaboard. mentioned. WEATHER FORECAST Snowfall The location of Fredericton geographically During the winter months these weather fronts makes it very vulnerable to the effects of low may deposit one to eighteen inches of snow on pressure weather originating in the mid-western the area during a twenty-four hour period and states or along the eastern seaboard of the United snowfall for the past ten years has ranged from States. a low of 60 inches in 1953 to a high of 136 I am given to understand by the local weather• inches, in 1955, average snowfall being ninety• man that this particular area of New Brunswick eight inches over the ten year period. 46 SNOW REMOVAL COSTS vehicle per person. This, you must admit, is a very high proportion of motor vehicles per person. When costs are analized, however, it is not so much the amount of snow that has fallen during CREW ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT the year, but rather each snowfall plus the time The City is divided by the Saint John River available to clean up and prepare for the next one, into the proportion of approximately one-fifth of both in the renewing of operator's energy and, the total mileage of roads, streets and sidewalks most important, the proper maintenance of equip• on the north side to four-fifths on the south side. ment, especially snowblowers. We must acknowl• edge the fact that this equipment cannot be For purposes of snow removal and ice control, operated twenty-four hours per day, day in and the City is divided into four sections, under one day out - it must be serviced. General Foreman. Each section has one grader with snow ring, one jeep sidewalk plough and one Yet, on the other hand, the snow must be re• truck, together with a crew of three men for moved and major servicing of equipment is post• sanding operations at intersections and on side• poned, waiting for a break in the weather. Nine walks. times out of ten, the machine breaks before the weather breaks, so that we must service the ma• A mechanical hopper-type sand spreader and chine at a resultant higher cost and do without three snowblowers operate when and where di• the production of the machine at a time when it rected, supplementing the section crews and was felt it could not be spared from service. equipment. The cost of snow removal and ice control in When the snowfall is too great for normal the City of Fredericton for the year 1963 was sidewalk ploughing by jeep plows, small bull• $169,000.00, with a total snowfall of 106 inches dozers are used, together with snowblowers. The as compared to $90,000.00 for 1962, with a total blowers are used where there is space to blow snowfall of 90 inches. The increased cost can be the snow between the sidewalk and curb or on attributed to the fact that during one period in private property. the month of January, we had snow nine days The aim of our snow removal program has out of ten. February, four days out of five for been to give the highest standard of service to one period. March, ten days out of thirteen for the public at the least possible cost. one period. To keep costs within a practical limit, the main The frequency of the storms resulted in crews business sections of the City are the only areas and machinery working twenty-four hours per where we have complete snow removal with snow• day, at overtime rates for the operators after blowers and/or hand shovelling. Other streets in eight hours, and poor maintenance of machinery, the City are widened by snowblowers when the with resultant break-downs and costly repairs. streets become narrow and hazardous. The truck STREET AND SIDEWALK MlLEAGE loads of snow are disposed of on river bank dump• ing areas, with bulldozers maintaining a cleared Fredericton has a total of 65 miles of roads space at the dumping areas. and streets and 45 miles of sidewalks, with grades ranging from 0.3 % on the Fredericton flat to SALTING AND SANDING 13% on the slopes to the south and north of Approximately 6,000 yards of sand of grada• the Saint John River Valley. tion ｾＢ minus is used during the winter months Trans-Canada Highway has been constructed as an abrasive for motor vehicles and pedestrian along the summit of the slopes on the south side, traffic. thus all access to the Trans-Canada Highway is The sand is distributed by a mechanical via streets that have a maximum of 10% grades. spreader on the streets, augmented by sanding It is along and adjacent to these access streets that crews, in an emergency situation, such as a the City growth is taking place. freezing rain or prior to peak hour traffic. The Our problem, therefore, is assuming greater sand is spread by hand on icy sidewalks and is proportions each year with an increase in popula• only used where required, in the interest of econ• tion and higher registration of motor vehicles. omy. The registration of motor vehicles in the City in Salt is used on the main routes and sloping 1963 totalled 6,600, which represents 1;3 of a streets on rising temperatures only, due to the 47 fact that salt compounds an icy condition on the application of this policy and one must be falling temperatures. constantly reminding others to ensure that this policy is carried out. We have as yet no facilities for stockpiling salt, therefore, forty-ton cars of bagged salt are pur• We have the reputation of administering the chased as required, with approximately five car• best snow removal program in the Maritimes. We loads being used during a normal season. are the first to admit, however, that other cities in the Maritimes have their problems of narrow In the interest of public relations, the use of streets and steeper grades to conted with, as well salt in the business section has been discontinued, as higher traffic density, which is not taken into except in an emergency situation. Pedestrian account when assessed by the travelling public. traffic at intersections carries the salt to the side• walks and into the stores, resulting in very un• Snow removal and ice control can be planned pleasant floor surface conditions. on engineering principles, once a policy has been established by the elected representatives as to Salt on main routes is applied through a home• how much of the tax dollar should be allotted to made hopper mounted in a truck body to which snow control. is attached a 2-inch flexible hose. The salt is applied near the rear wheels of the truck, resulting With the trend at all government levels to in a concentrated windrow of salt in the centre satisfy the requests of the taxpayer, in my opinion, of the travelled way, which we have found to be more research must be carried out at an acceler• much more effective than a blanket-type spread, ated rate to find a lower cost method of com• particularly at marginal temperatures, for the batting the winter elements. Otherwise, our melting action of the salt. The rate of application current budgets for the year will be expended is controlled by the slope of the hose through on snow control. This, in turn, will affect the which the salt is applied and is adjusted to suit temperature and the amount of snow or ice to maintenance budgets for paved streets, sidewalks be melted. and gravelled roads, thus less money will be ex• pended on these items, resulting in deterioration In summary, the snow removal and ice control of these services. problem in Fredericton is relatively no different in Fredericton than in other municipalities in I find the subject matter of this panel most Canada with comparable snowfall and prevailing interesting and appropriate at this time and wish temperatures. to congratulate the National Research Council for Our policy, as mentioned previously, is the the formation of a Snow and Ice Committee to highest standard of service within practical limits study this problem. Let us hope that they will for the least cost to the taxpayer. As you are all have a more economical solution to the problem aware, however. the human element enters into soon.

48 (c) SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL, TORONTO

by A. D. FORD City of Toronto

ABSTRACT RESUME Principal factors that determine cost of winter On enumere les facteurs principaux qui deter• maintenance in urban areas are listed. Legislation, minent Ie cofit de l'entretien des rues en hiver. now under consideration, to control traffic during On decrit les lois actuellement a l'etude visant snow emergency period is described. Information a reduire la circulation durant les chutes de neige. is presented on current snow removal and ice On donne des precisions sur les methodes actuel• control practices in Toronto. lement employees aToronto pour enlever la neige et traiter la glace.

The principal factors that determine the cost no consequence, as temperatures can vary widely of snow removal and ice control in an urban at that time and a few hours of warm sunshine centre are: can dispose of a fall before it becomes a snow removal problem. It is important, however, to I. The amount of precipitation, the length of keep all catch basins clear during this period in the winter, and the prevailing temperatures; order to reduce the hazards of flooding. 2. The width of streets to be cleared; In Toronto, because of its size, (35 square 3. Priority and extent of the work; miles) we have found it both physically and economically impossible to provide snow re• 4. Regulations governing the parking of motor moval operations in all sections of the City at the vehicles; same time. Our work is, therefore, systematically 5. The attitude of local government officials planned on a priority basis with important public and residents regarding snow removal; service and congested traffic areas receiving atten• tion first. For example: hospital, fire-hall and 6. Mechanical equipment; funeral home entrances and exits; street intersec• 7. The quantity and cost of a suitable de-icing tions, crosswalks, pedestrian overpasses and other agent; vital locations are cleared before other routine 8. Topography of the area. procedures are carried out. I am sure that everyone here will agree that Snow is completely removed from curb to curb a heavy snowfall in the early part of the winter (sometimes a little of the curbing too) on all main is a much more costly and serious occurrence arteries within the City as well as from all the than a similar incident taking place near the end streets in the downtown business section. Plough• of the season. ing only is carried out on the remaining mileage. Low temperatures during December and Jan• The ploughing and removal of snow from the side• uary are normally more or less constant and a walks is the responsibility of the householders at snowfall during this period has little chance of present, but the City is contemplating taking over melting. It is necessary, therefore, to remove the this chore eventually. snow after each fall in order to prevent subsequent We have found that rock salt will dissipate a storms adding to an accumulation that could delay snowfall of up to three inches, depending of snow removal operations and, consequently, im• courses on the temperature, but for heavy or pede traffic. sustained snowfalls which exceed the melting On the other hand, a heavy snowfall during power of the salt, the ploughs are ordered into the latter part of the winter may be of little or action. 49 We also have an emergency plan which we 2. On the sides of all other streets adjacent to call "The Blitz". This operation is only placed the odd municipal numbers for the first 36 in action when a storm is of severe proportions. hours of the emergency period; and When this occurs, our forces are concentrated 3. On the sides of all other streets adjacent to in the downtown business core first. The snow the even municipal numbers for the second is ploughed into windrows and the snowblowers, 36 hours of the emergency period. each loading about 35 trucks of 5-ton capacity, The official named in the proposed bylaw would clear the area from curb to curb in one night's announce the time and date of the commencement operation. As many as 400 trucks have been and the termination of the emergency period by pressed into service for this "Blitz". While the announcements on radio and television stations central clearing operation is proceeding, ploughs and/or in the daily newspapers. Such announce• and front-end loaders are utilized on other ments would constitute notice to the general thoroughfares. Upon completion of the "Blitz", public. A minimum penalty of $10.00 would be the work crews radiate in their respective areas imposed for any violation of these parking pro• until all streets are open and cleared. This opera• hibitions. tion, while expensive, is absolutely necessary if our pavements, which are the life lines of the As previously mentioned, this report received City, are to be kept open for the safe and efficient favourable comment by the Board and also in the movement of people and goods. daily newspapers. I am convinced that if our work An average snowfall, when the large blowers of clearing Toronto's streets of ice and snow is are not required, is cleared from the downtown to proceed on an efficient basis and if costs are to area in one night and all main traffic routes by be held within reasonable limits, this legislation front-end loaders within 48 hours. must be adopted - the sooner the better. There is virtually no emergency legislation in I would venture to say that our policy govern• Toronto governing the parking of motor vehicles ing the purchase of mechanical equipment is during snowstorms; there is no doubt also that more or less the same as that employed by any because of this our work is hampered and often City of comparable size. Equipment is purchased drastically curtailed especially during the day. initially with a view to its utilization during all This means that the bulk of snow clearing services seasons of the year. must be undertaken at night. For example, flushing units are mounted for I am glad to say that the picture is gradually the winter season with underbody graders and changing and that there has been a noticeable heavy duty front-end ploughs. These units are difference in the attitude of our elected officials invaluable for ploughing and scarifying ice on and the public with regard to the parked car multi-lane thoroughfares. Refuse collection vehi• problem. cles are equipped with plough frames, and it is Recently, a report to the Board of Control a simple matter to attach ploughs as conditions recommending the establishment of snow routes warrant. and requesting authority to declare a state of The versatility of jeeps is well known. In emergency during particularly heavy storms, was Toronto, in addition to their normal function of well received and is being given further considera• transporting supervisory personnel, they are fitted tion at this time. The report recommended the enactment of legislation which would permit the with snow plough blades and used for clearing declaration of a state of emergency following a sidewalks on bridges, sidewalks adjacent to park snowfall of three inches or more in a preceding lands, intersections, crosswalks and various areas eight-hour period as established by the Meteoro• requiring light-duty ploughing. logical Branch, Department of Transport, record• Front-end loaders are indispensable for loading ings. This Declaration would create an emergency street debris after mechanical sweeping and also period of 72 hours during which parking regula• tions would be suspended and parking prohibited for loading snow during removal operations. as follows: Three Athey Loaders were purchased last fall for loading snow and have proved very successful. 1. On all streets which are designated snow re• moval routes between the hours of 10: 00 Snow blowers and salt spreaders are about the p.m. and 7: 00 a.m. of the following day; only specialized pieces of equipment used by the 50 City in its snow removal and ice control opera• barked on a program for the construction of snow tions. While the initial outlay for this equipment melting pits and the results of their operation is high, there is no suitable alternative at the will, no doubt, play an influential role in the moment. Fortunately, we have an excellent main• development of similar installations in Cities faced tenance program which has prolonged the life of with an ever-increasing shortage of snow dumping this equipment to a point far beyond normal areas. expectations. I should mention here, too, that In conclusion, it can be said that having regard costs have been reduced further by equipping our for vehicular traffic, transportation systems and salt spreaders with ploughs. Under normal condi• the general movement of pedestrian traffic, there tions these vehicles often replace refuse collection is now a universal demand for streets to be kept trucks on ploughing schedules. This eliminates the safe for travel the year round. necessity of hiring vehicles for refuse collection work when the City's refuse vehicles might other• To this end, the City of Toronto is dedicated wise be engaged ploughing. through the efforts of their employees, to con• stantly improve or develop new snow fighting In cases of emergency, the City's equipment techniques which will eventually lead to the defeat can usually be augmented by hiring equipment of our common enemy - the snow flake. from local contractors. A central registry office is maintained by the Department for this purpose The following is a summary of snow removal and a uniform rental scale has been developed equipment, information on the cost of snow which ensures that the City receives full value removal and other data for the City of Toronto. for its dollar. SUMMARY OF EQUIPMENT AND COST We have found by experimenting that the de• OF OPERAnONS, ETC. icing agent best suited to our City's climate and traffic conditions is CC grade rock salt. The City Snow Ploughing Equipment annually purchases 30,000 tons of rock salt during 86 Angle Snowploughs (including 4 wing the summer and stores it in covered sheds for use ploughs) during the winter season. In my opinion, this is the 12 Jeeps equipped with blades best and cheapest material available for de-icing 9 Flushers equipped with heavy-duty angle and, although there has been much unfavourable ploughs (Including 4 with underbody graders) comment regarding its use, I know of no suitable 3 Bulldozers substitute at the moment. No doubt the future holds much promise in this regard. 110 I have heard Toronto described as flat! Na• Snow Removal Equipment turally, I always take this to be an inaccurate 7 Tractors with Blades description of its topography. We do have several 28 Front-end Loaders on rubber rather lovely valleys and some of our hills, while 6 Snowblowers not exactly mountains, are steep enough to se• 3 Snowloaders riously affect traffic, if not given priority salting and ploughing. For this reason we give them spe• 44 cial attention during inclement weather. A number Ice Control Equipment of salt trucks are assigned to patrol them con• 44 Towed Spreaders with Independent Spreader stantly and 500 lb. capacity salt boxes are placed Motors on hills and patrolmen hand spread the salt to 31 Motorized Salt Spreader Trucks keep icy conditions from forming. Special atten• tion is also given to main intersections, crosswalks, 75 stop streets and curves. Total Ice and Snow Removal Equipment = 229 Snow dumps are at a premium in certain sec• COST OF OPERATIONS - 1963 tions of Toronto, and consideration is being given Snow Removal to the use of snow melting pits to offset the long Wages $296,205.49 hauls now necessary to the only areas available Rental of City-own- for snow dumping purposes, which are located ed Equipment 72,947.52 along the City's waterfront. It is my understand• Hired Equipment __ 131,468.82 ing that the City of Montreal has already em- $ 500,621.83 51 Salting other Divisions on a seasonal Wages _ $240,419.98 basis) Rental of City-own- Total number of employees en• ed Equipment _ 64,172.63 gaged in snow and ice removal Hired Equipment __ 5,200.77 operations _ 578 Salt _ 234,308.16 (augmented as required by per• Material and sonnel from the refuse collection Supplies _ 4,349.71 $ 548,451.25 service) Population (1963) 642,235 Total Cost of Operations $1,049,073.08 Total miles of streets __ 580 OTHER DATA Total miles of main arteries on Total accumulative snowfall during which snow is completely re• past winter season _ (1962) 62.7" moved from curb and treated with salt __ 300 Total number of regular employees 1,264 (augmented by 204 employees Total amount of salt used in temporarily transferred from 1962 (Approx.) 25,000 tons

52 (d) SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL, WINNIPEG by

W. D. HURST City Engineer, City of Winnipeg

ABSTRACT RESUME Winnipeg has about 390 miles of street, 230 Winnipeg possede environ 390 milles de rues, miles of lane and 610 miles of sidewalk. Cost of 230 milles d'allees et 610 milles de trottoirs. Le removing snow in heavy snowfall per year is about cout de l'enlevement de la neige lors d'une an• $1,200,000. A description is given of current nee de grandes tempetes de neige s'eleve environ snow removal and ice control practices in Win• $1,200,000. On decrit les methodes actuellement nipeg. The City clears sidewalks in front of employees a Winnipeg pour enlever la neige et residences. Discussion is presented on the use pour traiter la glace. La ville nettoie les trottoirs of a special gate to keep snow out of driveways devant les residences. II est egalement question during ploughing. d'employer des barrieres speciales sur les chasse• neige pour empecher la neige qu'on enleve d'aller dans les allees de garage.

It is a pleasure indeed for me to address this dump trucks, rented from local contractors for meeting on a subject with as wide an interest as short periods following a heavy snowfall. Snow Clearing and Ice Control. We, too, dread the first major storm of the On listening to the remarks so ably presented season for we may be sure that nearly all our by Mr. Arpin, I was duly impressed with the rented equipment is out of the City on summer magnitude and diversity of problems encountered construction or maintenance work. As a result, in the City of Montreal, and cannot but help we only do a fair job. This is inevitably followed feel that many of these problems reflect the prob• by newspaper editorials, crank calls to the Mayor lems that will be met by the now smaller cities and Alderman, all with the same theme that we of Canada as they continue to grow through the don't know our business. years. The City is divided into five major and two By comparison, the City of Winnipeg, with a sub-districts for snow clearing purposes. The work population of 256,000, with 390 miles of streets, is organized and supervised by an administrative 610 miles of sidewalks and 230 miles of lanes, head and two supervisors, with foremen control• is a smaller community. Nevertheless, like other ling the detail work at district level. cities which have felt the growing pains of the traffic problem, we too have difficulties with snow The service includes ploughing all streets, lanes clearing. The two are inseparably linked. Winni• and sidewalks. Residential areas are not ploughed peg's snowfall averages 51 inches per year but when snowfall is less than 2 inches unless they with a lower moisture content than Montreal. are drifted. Arterials, however, would be con• Costs of ploughing and partial removal vary sidered heavy and would be ploughed. Unless from $300,000 for seasons of light snowfall to streets are closing in, we try to hold off ploughing $1,200,000 for seasons of heavy snowfall (99 until snowfall ceases to eliminate need for re• inches) . ploughing. Mr. Arpin has told us that in the case of heavy storms, loading will start before the end Winnipeg owns 11 motorgraders, 30 caterpillar• of precipitation. This, too, often happens in type sidewalk for walks of restricted width, 14 Winnipeg but not by choice. It occurs because mechanical spreaders for spreading abrasives, 3 one snowfall often follows another. snowblower type loaders, and 1 conveyor loader. To this equipment is added approximately 35 We employ only 2 shifts on streets and side• motorgraders, 20 front-end loaders and about 60 walks, with 1 shift, 4 to 11 p.m. on lanes. 53 Ploughing is completed within 72 hours and is the snow ploughing period. The opening of lanes carried out by departmental forces with addition has been very popular with the residents, particu• of hired contractors' equipment. Only the hauling larly when it does not include the piling of volumes is contracted out. of snow against garage doors, fences and gates. We are fortunate in Winnipeg that it is not The evolution of present-day snow clearing has, common practice to use streets as garages. for the most part, grown around the standard material moving machines, motor-graders, bucket We have one policy in Winnipeg that is rather loaders, trucks, etc. True, some specialized equip• different from some other cities and that is, we ment such as blower loaders and snow melters ask the public not to clear the sidewalk in front have been developed, but in general, adaptations of their premises - "Please wait, the City will have been made to year-round equipment to meet be along and will plough it for you". We plough the specific needs of snow clearing. sidewalks because our Council and our citizens believe it is a modern-day necessity. One only has One such adaptation is being given careful to read of the coronaries that occur each year study in the City of Winnipeg at the present time, when the householder who is unaccustomed to that is, the development of a practical snow gate hard manual labor (and the clearing of sidewalks which can be attached to any motorgrader to involves hard labor) is given the job of clearing prevent snow from being left in the entrances to his walk by bylaw. In my opinion, such bylaws (private) service driveways. (In Winnipeg service are archaic, they ought to be repealed and city driveways are known as approaches.) The need forces, with modern mechanical equipment, be for such a device is universal but the practical given the job. There is also less danger of traps problems encountered are many. The model now being created for the unwary when one person being tested is mounted on the circle of the motor• cleans the walk in front of his premises and his grader which, unfortunately, prevents any appre• neighbor fails to do so. Not only is some elderly ciable change in the angle of the blade. With light person saved a fall but the City is saved involve• snow this is not serious, and the gate works mod• ment in a law suit. erately well, but with normal to heavy snowfalls when a much sharper angle is needed to discharge Approximately 40 miles of paved streets are the larger volume of snow, the present model loaded and the snow hauled to one of three leaves much to be desired and lowers the efficiency dumps, two of which are located on the banks of of operation. the Red River, and the third on the bank of a small stream running through the western section With the gate installed on the machine, whether of the City (Omand's Creek) . Sidewalks are in use or not, it is not possible to angle the blade inspected as conditions warrant, and on the basis to the left side of the machine which is a necessity of reports received, are subsequently sanded to on divided streets, one-way streets, and on all provide maximum safety for those using the walks. streets when loading. For many years, the City ploughed only The use of the gate will produce a slow-down "exposed" lanes, or alleys as they are sometimes of the ploughing operation by at least 15%. called, but due to the difficulty or differentiating We are not sure whether it will be possible to between exposed and non-exposed lanes when all adapt the gate to all makes and models of graders. are blocked with snow, this limitation of the service was dropped, and since 1958, all lanes Due to the relatively few hours of use during have been opened. The process is more one of anyone snow clearing season, a high rental rate levelling and packing than of ploughing, as the will be necessary in order to encourage the owners work is done with front-end loaders using the of rented equipment to install the gate and have bucket as a blade. These machines, normally used it available for the first snowfall. to clear street intersections during the regular A similar design has been worked out by the ploughing shifts, are transferred to lanes in the National Research Council, adapting the gate to between-shift hours of 5:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m., the truck mounted one-way plough. This plough, and normally complete the opening of lanes well of course, operates with fixed angle, and the prob• in advance of the street ploughing in each area. lems which are apparent with the motorgrader do This practice has greatly reduced parking prob• not apply to the one-way plough. In congested lems on residential streets as easy access to the areas, however, light snows are soon packed into garages has encouraged off-street parking during ice and the planing action provided by the motor- 54 grader is essential to providing safe travel on city The Engineering Department of the City of streets. For this reason, the City of Winnipeg has Winnipeg has contracted to do snow clearing and adopted the motorgrader as a standard unit for ice control work for the Metropolitan Corporation general ploughing purposes. The one-way plough, of Greater Winnipeg on their streets within the with gate, should find wide use in suburban and City boundaries. The transfer of approximately rural areas. 95 miles of arterial streets to Metro has had little effect on the service as roughly the same opera• It is quite possible that when our present in• tional practices exist now as were in effect at the vestigation of the snow gate is completed, we will time of Metro's inception. One notable exception find that the most reliable and most economical is the widespread use of straight salt. The Metro• method of keeping driveways open is with the politan Corporation has adopted a firm policy on bucket loader. Be that as it may, the search for new and better methods of snow clearing will con• the use of salt in spite of a pronounced and un• tinue and not, I hope, without success. popular reaction from the public against its use. On City of Winnipeg streets, the use of pure salt I was very interested in Mr. Arpin's "built up" is not permitted but rather we are limited to salt pile cover using wood pulp in solution adding a maximum of 10% of salt by weight to followed by spraying of an application of latex our abrasives. During suitable temperature pe• or asphalt. I congratulate him on his Department's ingenuity. I suppose the cover is stripped back riods, we have used Urea. as the salt is used. Snow clearing is carried out in all cities much With respect to new devices, I agree that there in the same way, each modifying the methods to is an urgent need for good calibration of spreaders. meet its own needs and resources. In the few We, too, still find necessity for hand and spot minutes at my disposal, I have outlined some of sanding of sidewalks - it is a very selective the salient features of snow clearing in the City method. of Winnipeg.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

D. C. WAGNER *: ices of both United States and Canada; (3) Current Practices and Procedures in which a Admiral Chester A. Kunz, who is associated subcommittee headed by Mr. Hurst it at work; with me on this project, and I, appreciate (4) Laws, Ordinances and Regulations, and on very much your invitation to us to attend this this we will have drafts of model ordinances Conference. Already we have learned a great prepared by the National Institute of Municipal deal and are well repaid for the time and effort Law Officers; and (5) New Techniques in in making the trip to Ottawa. which we are exploring new devices, new meth• The APWA Snow Removal and Ice Control ods and their effectiveness and application and research project is being financed by contribu• part of this phase is under contract with Uni• tions from six states and some seventy (70) versity of the City of New York. cities, eight of which are in Canada. There is We are planning a Snow Conference in Phila• a steering committee which includes your delphia April 1-3 at which we expect some Mr. William D. Hurst, Winnipeg, and an ad• officials from Canadian cities. I trust you will visory committee which includes your Mr. Gold, not mind if we borrow some ideas we are Mr. Ford of Toronto, and Mr. MacDonald of picking up here to help us make our con• Edmonton. ference successful. We have divided our research into five areas of study: (1) Benefits-Cost which is being W. D. HURST: studied under a contract with the Engineering (In answer to a question concerning the use of Experiment Station, Ohio State University; (2) urea, Mr. Hurst made the following comments.) Climatological Data and Services in which we are assisted greatly by the official weather serv- In 1957 urea was first tested in Winnipeg as an 'anchoring' agent for sand used as a street * Director of the project on Snow Removal and Ice Control in Urban Areas, American Public Works abrasive. It was mixed at the rate of 50 lb. per Association, was invited to speak about that project. cu. yd. of sand and was spread at bridge ap- 55 proaches. After some experience, this quantity with a steam line. No advantage has been ob• was doubled to 100 lb. per cu. yd. and this served as a result of use of same. mixture remained standard for several years and was used at all bridges and subways until D. R.EVANS: 1963. The International Bridge Authority of Mi• Urea, as it is known, has a relatively high chigan, who maintains the two-mile bridge eutectic temperature (+12OF), and has about between Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Sault one-half the capacity of rock salt to melt ice Ste. Marie, Ontario, over the St. Mary's River, at 32°F. We might reasonably conclude then, conducted experiments in the 1963-64 winter and our experiments tended to confirm this, on the use of hot sand. This was necessary that it took about twice as much of the com• because extremely icy conditions are found on pound to do the same work as sodium chloride. occasion on this bridge, and the use of sodium chloride or calcium chloride could not be con• Its greatest value was in the fact of its non• sidered. Experiments conducted in the winter ionizing characteristics which we were satisfied of 1963-64 involved the use of sand, heated would result in a lower degree of corrosion of in the dryer of a regular asphalt plant, in excess steel structures. The cost of the material in of 200 0 Fahrenheit. Sand is taken from the Winnipeg ran to $7.49 per 100 lb. It came asphalt plant dryer and distributed with a bagged in the form of pellets. Representations conventional-type mechanical sander. The use were made from England that a similar mate• of hot sand seemed ideally suited to this situa• rial could be supplied in bulk at considerably tion because one truck load of sand, in almost less cost. By the time investigations were to get every case, is sufficient to thoroughly treat the underway on this aspect the use of salt in entire length of the bridge. abrasives had increased materially at all other locations in the City and with the tracking so I have learned that their experiments have characteristic of salt, the benefits derived from been so successful that they are now negotiating the use of urea were nullified and, therefore, for the purchase of an asphalt plant dryer, its use was discontinued in 1963. which they will install at one end of the bridge, and in the 1964-65 season they expect that the A question was asked concerning experience use of hot sand will be standard procedure in with the use of hot sand. The following comments de-icing operations. were offered. It was noted that some cities used bagged salt rather than bulk, and the question was asked as A. A. JOHNS: to why this practice was adopted. The following The City of Ottawa maintains several sand replies were given. heaters throughout the City made from old cast-iron pipe heated by wood burning cham• W. L. BARRETT : bers at each end. Hot air is passed through the Bulk salt has been made available to us cast-iron pipe before being dissipated into the during the last year. However, since we have atmosphere via chimneys. These sand heaters no storage facilities, the City of Fredericton are used to heat sand for the covering of side• purchases salt in 100 lb. bags. walks throughout the winter season. The main purpose is to keep the sand free flowing as The difference in cost is approximately $5.30 chemicals are not used on any of our sidewalks. per ton cheaper for bulk salt. Due to the higher This sand is also used on occasions on residen• rate of application of bulk salt as compared with bagged salt, however, it is questionable tial streets, but, due to the low heat involved, as to the saving which would be affected by a it could not be classed as 'hot' sand when it municipality using up to 200 tons per year. reaches the streets. M. P. HEITSHU: W. L. BARRETT: I would say that the City of Eastview uses Hot sand is used to some extent in the City salt in bags because of lack of available space of Fredericton, not necessarily with intent, but to store in bulk. The amount of bags used per as the result of thawing the stockpile of sand year averages at 5,000. 56 P. REBIZANT: inches fell, we were in a very serious situation in respect to height of the piles. With the The following questions are presented for average snowfall of 51.1 inches, a 10-foot width general conference discussion on items related seems to serve satisfactorily. to city planning: (a) What minimum turning radius is required E. C. WALTON: for cul-de-sacs and other dead-end streets to facilitate snow storage and snow removal? The In the municipality of Scarborough, which Canadian Good Roads Association recommend has grown from a population of 96,000 in 1954 a radius of 52 feet as a minimum. (b) What to 240,000 at the present time, the matter of are the minimum dimensions required for T• development of adequate streets and boulevards shaped dead-end streets? (c) What minimum has been of paramount concern in the granting boulevard width on each side of the pavement of approvals for the numerous subdivision de• is reasonable for both short-term and long• velopments which have taken place. It is our term snow storage on residential streets? Since, feeling that the 28-foot roadway width is the in many instances, snow is pushed to the curb least permissible in a residential subdivision of the street and the curb drain outlets become and that greater widths of roadway are essen• clogged by snow, ice and debris, a reversed tial, depending on the designed function of street cross-section with drainage to the centre proposed roads, to provide adequate movement seems logical. Why is this design generally not for traffic, parking and the storage of snow. used? Are there instances where this design We feel that a width of 42 feet for a major has been tried and, if so, what has been the residential collector and 32 feet for a minor outcome? residential collector road is the minimum de• sirable. (These dimensions are not yet em• W. L. BARRETT: bodied in any formed Township policy but are an indication of the direction of our recom• In answer to Mr. Rebizant's first question, mendation.) Based on our experience on boule• I can give the following information: Radius vards, we have established a minimum boule• of cul-de-sacs - Centre Grass Plot radius 22 vard width of 13.5 feet and we feel that any feet, curbed radius 22 feet (l.R.) and 50 feet lesser amount would lead to difficulties, espe• (O.R.), radius of boulevard between curb line cially in the winter months. and street line 50 feet (l.R.) and 75 feet (O.R.). Our present requirements for cul-de-sacs are W.O. HURST: curb radii of 55 feet and a street radius of 74 In Winnipeg we believe that the nururnum feet. The provision of islands in such a cul-de• width of boulevards for the purpose of allowing sac is optional but a 28-foot pavement is man• room for snow storage should be 10 feet and datory. This we have found to be adequate and preferably more if possible. In years of heavy practical for snow clearing purposes, while still snowfall, e.g., season 1955-56 when 99.5 giving sufficient parking along the curb line.

57 eN'S FIGHT WITH SNOW by E. H. FISHER Manager of Work Equipment Canadian National Railway and E. T. HURLEY Chief of Technical Research Canadian National Railway

ABSTRACT RESUME The CNR maintains about 25,000 miles of Le Canadien National dispose d'environ 25,000 track. Annual direct cost for snow removal and milles de voies ferrees, Le cout annuel direct pour ice control is about $6,000,000. The different l'enlevement de la neige et le traitement de la types of snow encountered in snow removal opera• glace sur ces voies est d'environ $6,000,000. On tions across the country are described. Equipment decrit les differents types de neiges rencontres and practices used for winter maintenance of main dans les operations d'enlevement de la neige d'un line, yards and terminals, and automatic classifica• bout al'autre du pays. Le materiel et les methodes tion yards are described and some specific prob• employes pour l'entretien hivernal des voies prin• lem areas noted. The high capital investments cipales, des centres de triage, des terminus, etc., required for snow removal equipment, and the sont decrits et quelques-uns des problemes ren• consideration that should be given to this fact in centres sont mentionnes. On insiste sur les forts the development of new equipment is pointed out. investissements en capital necessites pour l'achat du materiel d'enlevement de la neige et sur la necessite d'en tenir compte dans la mise au point des nouveaux materiels.

History records that Napoleon should have left cost to the CN for its fight with snow and ice Moscow on October 1st, 1812. He waited a mere has been in the area of $6,000,000 per season. two weeks and snow and ice changed the course This sum primarily includes manual labour, ma• of history. More recently, Colonel Stevens' History chine operators' wages, fuel and supplies for ma• of the Canadian National Railways (Volume I• chines. The interest, depreciation, administrative Sixty Years of Trial and Error) has this to say expense and overhead charges are not included in about Canadian winters during the middle of the this figure. I will leave it to you to imagine the same century : total tab. "In terms of work, the Canadian winter was The CN's snow and ice problem extends over six months long, since the period of the spring 25,000 miles of track and a geographic area thaw was as difficult and vexatious as the from a southern location of White River Junction, winter itself. For half the year, therefore, the Vermont, to Churchill on Hudson Bay; from the costs were far above summer averages and a Atlantic to the Pacific including Newfoundland great deal less was accomplished than had been and Vancouver Island. The Great Slave Lake planned. At an early date, there loomed the Railway, presently under construction will extend spectre of unanticipated interest charges arising our territory still farther north. out of serious delays in opening the lines for traffic." SNOW AND ICE AS THE RAILWAY SEES IT The snow and ice problem that defeated armies Some basic types of snow and ice conditions and engineers in the past still challenge us today. to be dealt with are : For example, over the last five years the average 1. Light, dry snow loosely settled; 58 2. Packed and drifted snow; PRESENT SNOW FIGHTING MEASURES 3. Heavy wet snow; The CN's snow clearing problems and present 4. Ice and sleet. methods of coping with them are under three broad classifications - mainline, yards and ter• Each of these conditions present particular re• minals and automatic classification yards, com• moval problems. They are accentuated in Railway monly referred to as hump yards. operations by varying topographic contours. The volume of snowfall across such a wide geographic Mainline area presents difficulties in deploying manpower and equipment to cope with it. Unfortunately The mainline attack is carried out for the most snowfall has no respect for Railway timetables. part with snow fighting giants, some of which you Time, therefore, is an added important factor no doubt have seen along the right-of-way. One in the CN's fight with snow and ice. Trains must type is the spreader which is forced through the go through! snow by a locomotive, spreading the snow with wings to either side of the track. In the same Some examples of the varying situations we face league are the wedge-type and rotary ploughs may help you visualize the Railway's plight. Our which also require locomotives for propulsion. Assistant Regional Engineer in Winnipeg points In conjunction with this equipment a unit called out that at Churchill, Manitoba, during the a flanger is used to remove snow and ice that 1961-62 season there had been 118 inches of is packed in around the rail. Often the conditions snow. The barren lands, in the proximity of require only the flanging operation; the spreaders Churchill, are devoid of vegetation and the winds and ploughs being used where drifting or heavy are up to 65 miles an hour. The snow packs hard snowfall conditions prevail. Where ice conditions in this area, and while it serves the purpose of are encountered, ice-cutting teeth are affixed to making for the Eskimos, it is by no means the spreader. These heavy on-track units in• a benefit to the Railway. volve an original investment of approximately $7,000,000; replacement at today's prices would Heavy snowfalls are not restricted to the wilder• involve 2 or 3 times more money. With the excep• ness. Canada's largest city, Montreal, has as much tion of the spreaders these units are restricted to snowfall as Churchill. But Montreal snow has a snow fighting. greater moisture density than that found farther north. The concentration of yards, terminals and An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of switches compounds the difficulties in keeping the cure, and snow sheds, constructed of timber and tracks clear in this transportation hub, where concrete, are built at strategic locations in Moun• thousands of cars as well as numerous locomotives tain areas where slides have been a frequent expe• have to be handled daily. rience. The snow sheds perform a dual function of acting as rock and mud sheds during spring Snow fighting in the Maritimes involves a snow and summer slides. In addition, detector fences that is very wet and heavy. A wet snow can weigh are located strategically to give advance warning four times as much as snow containing average of slides. Pilot patrols ahead of passenger trains moisture. A similar type snow is encountered in are a safety measure for our passengers but add the mountainous areas of the far west. Here, it to the cost of snow fighting. Mainline tunnels causes a heavy build-up, on the slopes, which present ice problems. Here section personnel use result in snowslides that sweep trees, boulders and long poles for removing formations. In other debris onto the tracks presenting added recent years prevention has been advanced hazards. through mainline betterment programmes where In addition to snow, ice is a significant prob• grades have been improved, cuts widened and lem to the Railways, particularly in tunnels, and permanent snow fences built. switches. Switches on our mainline present a special Indirectly, snow and ice affect train equipment. problem, particularly in centralized traffic control Traction motors are short-circuited, heating sys• (CTC territory) where the opening and closing tems fail, brakes and air lines freeze causing of switches is automatically controlled by the delays and increasing operating costs. While these dispatcher located sometimes hundreds of miles problems are not discussed in this paper, they are, from the switch. When switches are not kept clear nevertheless, worthy of mention. of snow, it packs between the stock rail and the 59 switch point preventing the proper closing or of moisture and temperature activates the switch opening of the point. heating arrangement and, conversely, when the snow stops the heater unit is shut off automa• Today, switch heaters, snow melters and tically. blowers are on the market having the potential to materially reduce or eliminate the snow and AUTOMATIC CLASSIFICATION YARDS ice problems associated with proper operation of CN has three automatic classification yards at switches. However, the answer to one problem present, located in Moncton, Montreal and Win• often presents another. In the case of switch nipeg; a fourth in Toronto is expected to be in heaters and snow melters, a drainage problem is operation by 1965. The automatic characteristics created in some instances which is yet to be re• of these yards imply difficulty with snow and ice. solved. One suggestion is that switches be placed Besides the problem of maintaining the controlled on a grill-type bridge providing drainage into a pit. switches in working order, the car retarders on YARDS AND TERMINALS the hump present a new difficulty. All the large hump yards presently in operation are equipped Yards and terminals present different types of with gas-fired switch heaters. The consensus of problems because of a concentration of switches our engineers is that switch heaters on the market to be cleaned, cars to be moved, and the fact and in use by us are not entirely satisfactory that the snow in yards has to be moved. Heavy under all operating conditions and it is felt there snowfalls, for the most part, are cleared from is room for improvement. For instance, in Win• yards by using Jordan Spreaders. The snow is nipeg besides the type of drifting snow and ex• pushed from one track to another progressively treme cold weather, dirt drifts with the snow, the across the yard and loaded into trucks or railway snow melts, the dirt accumulates and interferes cars for removal when necessary. Some types of with the switches. In an attempt for better opera• equipment used in the removal operation are tion, switch snowblowers are being tried in the front-end loaders, speed loaders, snowblowers Symington yard at Winnipeg. Automatic classi• and in some instances, cranes equipped with fication yards are relatively new in railway opera• clamshell buckets. tions and present new challenges in the continuous The use of steamlines in coach yards presents fight against the winter elements. ice problems. Here the ice and snow build up on FACING THE CHALLENGE the track under the cars and must be removed. Recently, we have been using a small tractor, Now appearing on the scene is a specialized equipped with an ice-cutting attachment. When switch snow broom which sweeps out the switch the ice is loosened, it is loaded into trucks by a and lead area, either depositing the snow along front-end loader and hauled away. the side of the track or blowing it away from the track in a convenient direction. While this innova• Switches get clogged with ice and snow. They tion has been most effective and holds promise must be freed before cars can be switched. Switch for a reduction in labour cost for switch cleaning cleaning is still primarily a manual operation. in yards, the high capital investment required There are manual aids, however, that have been precludes obtaining an inventory equal to the used over the years, such as small oil pots dis• task. In addition to these large switch broom units, tributed throughout the switch layout between the knapsack-type flame throwers are used to increase ties. There are large-size oil cans used as burners manpower production in the cleaning of switches. to melt the snow by hand. Variations of steam lances, compressed air lances and heaters have Mechanization accelerated by our advanced been tried, but have not proven entirely satisfac• technology may well be an answer to our con• tory depending on locations and conditions. There tinuing fight with snow and ice. While this may are a variety of switch heaters on the market using ease the high-cost manpower situation, there is as source of energy, propane gas, oil, natural gas reason for caution. Past developments in this field and electricity. have tied up extensive capital dollars for equip• ment having a short-term use factor. Even idle Some types turn on and off automatically as a machines carry the burden of ownership expense, combination of temperature and precipitation for example, interest, depreciation, preservatives dictates. For example, snow falls into a bowl-type and obsolescence. Here lies a major challenge for arrangement, melts and closes an electrical circuit. the future. Why not take more extensive ad• If the temperature is low enough, the combination vantage of power available in existing inventories, 60 such as, trucks, bulldozers, rubber mounted trac• were originally purchased for a summer work tors, locomotives, tampers, ballast distributors, season of approximately 125 days. In addition, and so on, to provide the driving force for new more effective use could be made of meteorolog• snow fighting attachments? Special snow-fighting ical weather data and forecasting. This would attachments for these basic power units would enable the movement of equipment back and forth help to reduce the volume of capital required for within geographic areas where snowfall patterns the high-cost specialized units limited to winter have been consistent. use. What does this mean in dollars? I have an Automatic classification yards are costly invest• example in mind of a $20,000 specialized unit ments, but are justified by their high volume train versus a $5,000 attachment for use on a basic and car sortation resulting in faster rail transporta• power unit which would otherwise be out of tion service. To maintain this service during the service because of its normal summer work cycle, winter, snow and ice removal must take place in contrast to a unit specifically designed for snow without disrupting the efficiency of the automatic fighting and, therefore, restricted to winter use. classification yard. The challenge here may lie The proposed combination basic power unit with in developing automatic, built-in devices to com• an attachment in winter affords year-round use bat the winter elements. Research in this area thereby giving a higher return on the capital should be advancing as the number of automatic dollar. Design simplicity and multi-purpose use classification yards increase in Canada. rather than specialized complex equipment should be the keynote for future development in snow In general, the use of privately-owned basic fighting equipment. machines on a contract basis could be expanded. The future attack on mainline snow fighting Concentrated development of attachments to be might well involve attachments for locomotives. owned by the railway, which were mentioned Why not? The power is there! All that remains earlier for this type of equipment, would provide is the ingenuity of engineers to extend the use of the impetus. This would ease the capital outlay for the railways, in acquiring basic units for snow• this source of power. Mainline switches challenge fighting purposes. the switch heater designers to develop more powerful, foolproof heaters that are fully auto• The Railway's cost in fighting snow and ice matic and completely reliable under a wide range affects everyone in the country. For example, it of climatic conditions. Another possibility for has been estimated that 20 cents out of every exploration is forestation to provide natural wind• gross national product dollar is spent for some breaks to reduce the effects of drifting snow. form of transportation. A portion of this goes to Extensive work is being done along this line in combating snow and ice. As you see, what we do the Soviet Union where comparable snow condi• in the future to reduce our costs, snow and ice tions exist. Yards and terminals demand more being one of them, can have a marked effect upon mobile equipment. Here we visualize more ex• the cost of transportation which, in turn, can im• tensive development of attachments for existing prove Canada's competitive position in the mar• work equipment and roadway machines which kets of the world.

DISCUSSION of

"CN's FIGHT WITH SNOW"

J. FOX: which when the temperature exceeds +32 OF disappears of its own accord, one wonders if The operating problems faced by Canadian there isn't some economical method of snow Pacific Railway due to snow and ice are similar removal other than using manpower and ma• to those outlined in the paper presented by the chines. CNR. Both roads cover Canada and, generally speaking, weather conditions affect one as much Basically, the methods of snow removal on the as the other. The cost of snow removal is a source Canadian Pacific are about the same as those used of constant concern to Railway management. on the CNR. Our main tracks are kept open by When some 6 per cent of the road maintenance the use of V-type railway ploughs which are budget must be used to remove a commodity, pushed by one or more diesel units. 61 The use of large rotary snowblowers for open• This type of machine basically was developed ing up tracks after snowslides, etc. has been dis• from the old platform sweeper which used a cane• continued on the Canadian Pacific. Over the type rotary brush. This type of brush was next years, it has been found that this type of equip• mounted on a ballast regulator to sweep ballast. ment is slow, extremely vulnerable to breakdown, The cane brush was replaced by a rotary steel and is expensive to maintain and operate. The brush which proved more satisfactory and did a combination of bulldozers and V-type ploughs better job. This was then used to sweep snow but are now used and can handle snowslides much had no way of getting rid of the snow ahead of more efficiently than rotary snowblowers. The the brush and a snowblower was added in the bulldozers are used to top off the slides ahead reverse position. Since the original prototype and then the plough is used to open the way switch cleaner, there have been many innovations through the slide. Using this method, trees and and improvements, making the newer models large boulders in the snow do not present such much more efficient. In addition, there are many a problem as they do to rotary blowers. other types of machines used for snow removal, such as front-end loaders, snowblowers, con• When it is necessary to clean out yards, veyors, trucks, spreaders, cranes, bulldozers, etc. spreaders are used. These machines are again pushed by one or more diesel units. The V-plough Canadian Pacific is co-operating with the Fed• and spreader use air pressure from the locomotive eral Government through the National Parks to operate the wings and points. Snow removal in Service to control snowslides by the use of gunfire yards, particularly yards such as at Montreal, in the vicinity of Glacier, B.C. The precipitation present problems of a different nature. Yards are of avalanches or snowslides by gunfire has been a series of tracks connected by switches so that effective and has prevented slides reaching our cars can be assembled for different trains and tracks. locations; thus yards in large centres have a large To illustrate the problem involved in this area, number of switches and tracks. Space for piling the total snowfall measured in inches over a snow is, of course, at a premium due to adjacent twenty-year period averages 342 inches per buildings, roads, etc. The necessity of keeping annum. During the winter of 1953-54, the total switches clean of snow is, of course, of prime measured snowfall was in excess of 680 inches. importance and a number of methods are used. Maintrack switches, power-operated in centralized It would appear to me that perhaps the Na• traffic control systems, are equipped with snow tional Research Council could investigate the melters which use gas, generally propane. At some following: locations, air pressure is used to blow snow from I. The areas which require the largest expend• switch points. Steam coils under switches are used itures for snow removal are, of course, at Windsor Station to keep snow out of power switching yards. If some method of snow switches. We are now experimenting with a radiant removal can be devised which will eliminate type heater which circulates a hot liquid and also the numerous pieces of equipment now used are testing an oil-fired heater which uses a hot air and still allow train operations to continue blast to remove and keep snow out of switches. at maximum efficiency, large sums of money Generally speaking, most yard switches do not could be saved. have snow melters and must be cleaned and kept 2. The question of keeping flangeways open at clean during storms by some other method. In the public grade crossings is a problem which past, large gangs of men using shovels were used the Railways are forced to endure. At pre• for this work. Today this work is being done by sent, these are cleaned using hand picks, switch-cleaning machines. These machines can brooms, in some cases by a machine, and clean seven or more switches per hour and have kept from freezing by the use of salt. It can reduced the cost of snow removal at switches by readily be seen what can take place when some 35%. Generally speaking the switch-cleaners used on the Canadian Pacific are attachments to salt is used. Perhaps some form of a plastic machines which are used during the summer for material can be developed which, when other work. We, therefore, obtain more value placed in the flangeway, will prevent snow from this type of equipment than would be the and ice getting into the f1angeway but will case if the machines were used solely for one type deflect sufficiently by action of the wheel of work. flanges to permit safe passage of trains. 62 3. The cost of keeping maintrack and other 4. Snowblowers have to handle snow in its dry important power-operated switches open to extremely wet state. For one machine to during a snowstorm is fairly expensive and, handle efficiently all types of snow is perhaps if an efficient switch heater can be developed asking too much but, nevertheless, that is having a low initial cost and low operating what is required. Present designs of blowers cost, substantial savings can be realized. The should be investigated to see if a more effi• type of fuel any such heater would use cient type blower can be developed. should be such that temperature has little or no effect on it.

63 SNOW AND ICE CONTROL ON THE PROVINCIAL HIGHWAY SYSTEM OF ONTARIO by D. R. BROHM, W. G. COOKE, and A. LESLIE Department of Highways of Ontario

ABSTRACT RESUME This paper describes the winter maintenance On decrit dans cette etude comment le Depar• administration, operations and equipment of the tement de la Voirie de 1'0ntario organise le de• Department of Highways of Ontario. Factors de• neigement des routes et par quels moyens. On termining the standard of service provided are passe en revue les facteurs qui determinent la reviewed and design features affecting winter qualite des services fournis et on enumere les maintenance are enumerated. The need for caracteristiques des routes en fonction des travaux prompt remedial action is stressed, and the value d'entretien d'hiver. On souligne la necessite de of two-way radio communication is emphasized. reparer rapidement les degats et la valeur des Examples are given of typical action taken under communications radio a deux sens est indiquee. various storm conditions. Specifications for abra• Des exemples sont donnes de mesures prises dans sives and chemicals for winter use are provided diverses conditions de tempete, On donne les and details of the standard items of snow-clearing caracteristiques des produits chimiques et abrasifs equipment are given. Safety and developments in employes l'hiver et on decrit le materiel employe equipment in Ontario are discussed briefly. Some pour enlever la neige. On passe brievement en suggestions for future research are made before revue les problemes de securite et de developpe• concluding with comments on the cost of winter ment des materiels. Quelques suggestions sont maintenance. faites pour les recherches futures et quelques commentaires sont donnes, en conclusion, au sujet du cofit de l'entretien en hiver.

The purpose of this paper is to outline the 3000 miles of gravel roads on the primary and present winter maintenance procedures employed secondary network. The remaining mileage is the by the Ontario Department of Highways. responsibility of County, Township, City, Town and Village councils. An indication of the increase Ontario is a very large province with a large in miles of highway maintained and annual ex• mileage of roads and the entire province is subject penditures on winter maintenance is given in to cold and snowy conditions each winter. About Table I for the post-war years. 88 per cent of the population, however, and a large portion of the highway mileage are to be TABLE 1 found in a narrow strip of land bordering Lake ANNUAL EXPENDITURE FOR WINTER Erie, Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. MAINTENANCE ON This area warrants higher standards of winter HIGHWAYS IN ONTARIO maintenance than the rest of the province, and fortunately the winters in the area are milder, Miles of Total Expenditure shorter, and the snowfall is lighter than it is in Year Highway Snow Removal and the northern areas. Maintained Ice Control A total population of approximately 7 million 1949-50 10,670 Not available own over 2 million vehicles of all types, which -- ｾＭＭＭ 1954-55 10,758 $10,550,000.00 are driven annually an estimated 20 billion vehicle miles on the roads of Ontario. 1959-60 12,736 $15,345,363.00 The Department of Highways is directly re• 1962-63 13,192 $16,170,962.00 sponsible for 9500 miles of surfaced roads and 64 For administrative and operational purposes icals for melting snow. Thus, ploughing to main• the Provincial Highway Department is divided tain a snow-packed condition, coupled with into eighteen Districts, each headed by a District sanding, where necessary, is the standard winter Engineer. The Maintenance section in each Dis• maintenance procedure for unsurfaced roads. trict is under the direction of a Maintenance En• PRESENT PRACTICE gineer. For the purposes of maintenance, each District is divided into a number of Patrols, each Over many years of designing highways in being supervised by a Patrolman. Several Patrols Ontario, a number of design features have been will, in turn, be supervised by a Supervisor. evolved which can materially assist in providing Located at strategic points within the District are a safe, all-weather highway. An ideal design would maintenance depots where the equipment and be one which would provide a completely self• materials for winter maintenance are stored. The cleaning road and which would not permit ice length of highway allocated to one patrol varies formation under any circumstances. In view of throughout the Province but is usually in the the many conflicting demands to be considered order of 30-40 miles. In addition to the per• in a road design, every road must be a com• manent Maintenance depots, additional storage promise. However, some positive assistance to areas are sometimes required to store the sand maintaining a clean winter highway is given in and salt used during the winter. In general, sand design. Some of the design features are listed and salt stockpiles are located between 10 and below: 30 miles apart and are positioned to serve the (a) To exploit the clearing action of wind, fill greatest number of highways possible from each sections are normally raised two or three feet location. above the surrounding ground. This is beneficial Each Patrol or Maintenance area will have under storm conditions in Ontario, where strong available a variety of snow ploughs and the winds commonly accompany heavy snowfall. required number of sanding vehicles. (b) On divided highways with narrow medians, STANDARD OF SERVICE both lanes of each roadway are crowned in the normal manner rather than having a continuous Because of the wide differences in population cross-fall across the full width of each roadway. densities, annual snowfall, and traffic densities, This treatment reduces the flow of melting snow it has been found necessary to provide different across the pavement. standards of service based on the following factors: (c) In the northern part of the province in heavily wooded sections, the right-of-wa,: is (a) The prime consideration is the traffic volume widened and cleared on the east side of north• through the winter months. All paved, arterial south roads to allow the sun to assist in melting highways having an ADT in excess of 500 v.p.d. the snow on the shoulder. are maintained in a bare condition whenever pos• sible. For smaller traffic volumes, the highway (d) Wide rights-of-way are purchased to allow is maintained "centre-bare" when possible. ditches to be placed well away from the roadway to provide adequate snow storage. In areas of (b) Where an unusually high proportion of the known heavy snowfall cut sections may be con• traffic volume is trucks, a greater maintenance structed wider than normal to accommodate the effort is expended than for a similar volume of snow. private cars. Similarly, high-speed, through high• ways demand a higher maintenance standard than (e) Super-elevation is limited to 0.06 ft./ft. so local roads. that the risk of sliding sideways under adverse conditions can be minimized. (c) When the temperature is suitable for the use of a chemical to provide a bare pavement, it (f) On super-elevated sections, the slope of the shoulder on the high side is reversed 5 feet from is used on those roads requiring this standard of the pavement edge so that melting snow will drain service. However, if temperatures are consistently to the ditch rather than across the road. below zero Fahrenheit, the pavement would be ploughed and sanded only. (g) Where obstacles off the right-of-way cause drifting on the highway, the Department may pur• (d) Regardless of other factors, gravel roads, chase extra right-of-way and remove the obstacles, due to their nature, cannot be treated with chem- or make other arrangements for removing them. 65 (h) To control icing in drainage facilities, the this facility. At present approximately 400 in• following minimum pipe sizes have been estab• dividual units are in use for assisting in the winter lished: maintenance programme. I. Culverts crossing Mobile radios are generally installed in the beneath pavements 30 inches diameter cars of District and Maintenance Engineers, Main• tenance Supervisors, Patrol Foremen (Inspectors), 2. Entrance culverts 18 inches diameter and in sufficient plough equipment to maintain 3. Sewers 12 inches diameter. good communications within each Patrol. U) To prevent blockage of sewers, manholes Thus, if a snowstorm begins, the patrolling and catch basins are provided with settling sumps Maintenance Supervisor can radio to the Main• to trap sand and debris from the winter sanding tenance yards in his area and order the treatment operations. he deems necessary. In the southern part of the Province, the treatment will normally be an In addition to the use of the above design application of salt with the ploughs held in readi• features, snow fences are widely used and are ness to remove accumulations of slush or packed of considerable value in keeping highways free snow should the storm become severe. Salting of snow. Although various types of experimental would then continue, following the ploughing. fences have been tried from time to time, the type most commonly used is the traditional slatted In addition to the mobile units, a large number fence 3 ft. 6 in. high, constructed of wood slats of base units are manned on a 24-hour basis so and wire. These are normally placed parallel to that the equipment requested by the mobile the highway and approximately 75 feet from the operator may be dispatched without delay. The ditch line.' base units are normally situated in the Patrol or Maintenance yards where equipment is waiting, It will be appreciated that although careful de• ready to go to work. sign can assist in maintaining snow-free highways, In the northern part of the Province, where other measures are required, depending principally temperatures are frequently below zero Fahren• on the class of highway, the volume and type of heit, the first action in a snow storm would traffic and the prevailing temperature. As a result probably be ploughing as soon as sufficient snow of many years of experience, a chart is now has fallen. Salt would be used down to zero available for use as a guide to the correct treat• Fahrenheit if the temperature was rising, other• ment. This chart is found in the D.H.O. Main• wise, sanding would be done as required to keep tenance Manual! and is reproduced here in traffic moving satisfactorily. Appendix I, Page 77. Because it is not pos• To combat the freezing rain which occurs sible to adequately describe every possible set of periodically during the winter, continuous salting circumstances, some general guiding principles will is required, coupled with sanding, to give im• be discussed. mediate traction. It has been found from ex• perience that the best way to combat this Regardless of the circumstances, it has been dangerous precipitation is to prevent ice from found in Ontario that one essential in economical forming on the pavement. This can be done if snow clearing and maintenance of traffic flow is an application of salt is made ahead of the freezing rapid action. To this end, a large part of the condition and thereafter periodically throughout highway system is constantly patrolled during the the storm. Once any thickness of ice has formed, winter months by personnel with the authority to it is exceedingly difficult to remove by mechanical dispatch the necessary staff and equipment at the or chemical methods. appropriate time. Since speed is essential, partic• MATERIALS ularly on heavily travelled highways, extensive use Sand is made of two-way radio communications. Within the next three years, each administrative District To improve traction in slippery winter condi• tions, screened sand is applied to the road sur• within the Department should be equipped with face. A typical Department specification for this material is given in Appendix "II". The use of 1 Maintenance Manual. Instruction Manual published for use by Departmental personnel, Department of High• screened sand has been found necessary to avoid ways, Ontario, 5th Edition, January 1957. accidents due to "flying" stones. 66 The sand is normally stockpiled during the fall at maintenance depots spaced at 10-30 mile in• tervals. To keep the sand free-flowing, 5% of salt is mixed with the sand as it is stockpiled. Hand loading and spreading have been eliminated in favour of complete mechanical handling. Chemicals Sodium chloride, meeting the specification shown in Appendix "Ill", is the principal chem• ical used in Ontario for winter maintenance.

Recent field and laboratory studies 2, 3 4 have shown that the instructions, attached as Appendix Fig. 1. Five-Ton Truck with One-Way Snow Plough and Wing "I" to this paper, provide an excellent guide to the use of salt for snow and ice control. As a result of the above studies, greater emphasis has been placed on the use of chemical without abrasive. Some of the reasons for this practice are: (i) Abrasives impede the action of the chem• ical," (ii) It is possible to travel faster when spread• ing chemical than when spreading abra• sives, (iii) Chemicals leave no residue which requires removal in the spring. Fig. 2. Three-Ton Truck with Reversible Plough EQUIPMENT For heavy ploughing, particularly in areas of known heavy snowfall, an 8- to 10-ton all-wheel A previous paper 5 has presented details of drive truck is used. These trucks are provided the major items of equipment used in Ontario for with both V- and one-way ploughs, which can snow and ice control. This section will, there• be readily exchanged, and they are also equipped fore, be limited to comment on some of the more with a wing blade. Figure 3 illustrates this type important types of equipment in use at present. of unit. Snow Ploughs Sanders The snow plough most widely used by the The standard unit adopted by the Department Department is a relatively light, one-way plough for distributing sand, chemicals, or mixtures of and wing, mounted on a single-axle 5-ton truck. materials, is the 4 to 6 cubic yard hopper unit, A typical unit is shown in Figure 1. which is mounted on Contractors' truck chassis These standard units are supplemented by 3-ton under agreement with the Department. The unit trucks with a one-way plough but no wing. In includes an engine-driven, mechanical spreader, many cases the plough can be reversed. An capable of uniformly spreading from 200 lb. to illustration of this unit is shown in Figure 2. 3000 lb. of material per mile. A typical unit is shown in Figure 4. ｾ Edwards, H. M" and Brohm, D. R. A Study of the Effects of Chemicals and Abrasives in Snow and Ice 5 Development and Use of Winter Maintenance Equip• Removal from Highways. Report No. 17, Ontario Joint ment by the Ontario Department of Highways. Pro• Highway Research Programme, Department of Civil ceedings of the Canadian Good Roads Association, Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario. 1959. 3 Brohm, D. R., and Edwards, H. M. The Use of Chemi• 6 Grant, G. O. Effect of an Inhibitor on the Corrosion cals in Winter Maintenance. Proceedings, Canadian of Autobody Steel by De-Icing Salt. Proceedings HRB, Good Roads Association, 1960. 1962. 4 Edwards, H. M., and Brohm, D. R. The Use of Chemi• 7 Csathy, T. I. A Study of the Skid Resistance of Pave• cals in Winter Maintenance. Manual of practice, to be ment Surfaces. Ontario Department of Highways, Re• published by the Department of Highways, port No. 32. February 1963. 67 Loading of sand and salt into the hopper bodies is performed by rubber-tired front-end loaders which are required to have a minimum eight-foot dumping height and a clearance of not less than 2 feet 4 inches, from the front of the wheels to the bucket. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS In all phases of maintenance work, considerable stress is placed on adequate safety precautions and, in particular, on warning the motorist of possible hazards. To this end, continuous im• provements are being made in the warning devices Fig. 3. All-Wheel Drive Truck with One-Way Snow Plough and Wing fitted to snow ploughs. Figure 6 illustrates a typical snowplough view• ed from the rear. A large sign is fitted, and deflectors at the top and side of the tail-gate are used in an attempt to break the suction behind the vehicle and thus reduce the swirl of snow which can obscure the plough. A heavy rear bumper is fitted on all ploughs to prevent cars from sliding under the body of the plough should a rear-end collision occur. In addition to a blue flashing light on top of the vehicle and the red rear warning lights, a

Fig. 4. Hopper-Type Sander, Five Cubic Yards Capacity

While the above unit has been found to be effective and economical for widespread use, the standard sander unit previously used, illustrated in Figure 5, is considered quite adequate for road authorities responsible for small mileages of pave• ment which can be dealt with in daylight. The single wheel friction type sander is not recom• mended for treating large mileages on a 24-hour basis. Other Equipment Fig. 5. Sanding Truck with Single Wheel Friction-Type In recent years, some benefit in lower main• Sander tenance cost has been obtained by the use of diesel power in the larger ploughs and snow blowers. This has become possible due to the increased availability of diesel fuel and improvement in the power to weight ratio. Graders are used for hard packed snow and ice, but are otherwise too slow and costly for routine use. Snowblowers are used as required and seven• teen of them are strategically located throughout the Province, ready for emergency dispatch to any area. Fig. 6. Protective Sign Fitted to a Snow Plough 68 flashing amber floodlight is now mounted on the Although the standard single rear axle trucks rear bumper. A special side-swing boom, fitted work well under most conditions in Ontario, there with red lights, is now used in conjunction with is a need, on occasion, for improved traction. the wing plough. This has been found necessary Therefore, some tandem-axle trucks are now being because, on occasions, motorists have run into used in Southern Ontario and are proving to be the wing in attempting to overtake the plough. very satisfactory. These are only used for the heavier ploughing jobs and because they are Because of the large number of warning lights somewhat less manoeuvrable than the single axle and the increasing use of radio, it has been found vehicles, they are not entirely satisfactory where necessary to install additional generating capacity. narrow winding roads are common. On units of 5 tons and over, a lOa-ampere generator is fitted and on the 3-ton units a 60• AREAS FOR FUTURE STUDY ampere unit is used. Equipment In addition to the main lighting, emergency lights are fitted which operate on a separate sys• It was suggested earlier that the engine-driven tem so that the vehicles will never be left without sanders now used are generally satisfactory for lights. large-scale work. This is true for the application DEVELOPMENTS IN EQUIPMENT of abrasives where relatively large quantities of material are involved, but for the application of The snow clearing techniques and the equip• the relatively smaller quantity of de-icing chemi• ment discussed in this paper are the result of cal, they are not considered to be efficient. Fine many years of development. Although it is adjustments to the rate of application can not be believed that they are the best available at present, made and when operating at high speed the chem• it is realized that improvements can be made. The ical is scattered over a large area. Department, with the co-operation of industry, has developed and is developing various items of Field experience and laboratory studies 2 have equipment. indicated the need for metering the chemical at a closely controlled, specific rate and delivering it A tripping wing plough is now in use and is a in a narrow ribbon along the crown of the road. valuable safety feature. Under certain conditions, In addition, the spreader should be able to oper• such as for heavy ice crusts, it is necessary to ate at high speed. Experience has shown that the lock the trip mechanism with a pin lock on the above requirements are not being met by the pre• push arm. sently available equipment. A tripping main plough has been tried but due Weather Forecasting to the high speed of ploughing and the high inertia of the blade the trip cannot at present Weather forecasts as available at present are of respond with sufficient speed. At low speeds the some value in giving advance warning of storms device works well. so that the maintenance crews may be alerted. However, they have been found to be too general Experimental mould board extensions for the and unreliable to enable economies in maintenance one-way plough are being tested but there is in• to be made. If it is accepted that the present high sufficient data for evaluation at present. A four• standard of maintenance is required, economies foot extension to the left of the plough gives added could only be made if accurate forecasts were width, which is particularly desirable for tandem available, 10-12 hours in advance, for each high• ploughing, on divided highways. way, on a mile-by-mile or patrol basis. Because The sander hoppers currently in use present it is necessary to plan for continued heavy snow corrosion and maintenance problems and, because in each storm, the quantity of equipment and ma• of this, a fibreglass hopper is being evaluated. terials could not be reduced, but some savings in Trials are also being made with a 15 cubic yard stand-by time and patrolling would be possible. trailer-type sander, but both of these sanding developments are too recent for comment. Chemicals and Abrasives

In an attempt to prolong the life of the snow• Recent testing by the Department 7 has shown plough blade, casters have been tried and are that pavements are less skid resistant when wetted being tested again, but at present no conclusions by solutions of ice control chemicals than when are possible. wetted by water. Further investigations of this 69 TABLE 2 Table No.2 shows the total cost for snow and ice removal for each District during the winter of COSTS OF SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE 1962-1963. It also includes a total mileage of CONTROL ON KING'S HIGHWAYS BY equivalent two-lane highways was multiplied by ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS - 1962-63 two to arrive at the mileage for each District. For this purpose, the mileage of four-lane highways I Total Winter ** District Highway *" Maintenance Cost per was multiplied by two to arrive at the mileage of Mileage I Cost Mile two-lane roads. From these two sets of figures, Chatham 639.8 $ 412,817 $ 645 the average cost per mile for each District is London 698.2 1,119,381 1,603 Stratford 634.0 972,350 1,533 determined. Hamilton 755.0 1,353,141 1,792 Owen Sound 546.5 968,558 1,772 In examining this data, certain general observa• Toronto 686.4 1,846,069 2,689 tions may be made, but no assessment of the Port Hope 873.5 1,237,129 1,416 Kingston 753.0 1,163,094 1,544 value of this expenditure to the economy is at• Ottawa 698.1 972,812 1,393 tempted. It may be noted, for example, that the Bancroft 594.4 499,205 839 Huntsville 940.6 1,012,566 1,076 greatest cost per mile is for the Toronto District. North Bay 665.3 696,539 1,046 This might be expected since the greatest popula• New Liskeard 803.1 622,492 775 tion and highway densities occur across the south• Cochrane 469.3 403,742 860 Sudbury 787.6 906,042 1,150 ern part of the Province. Similarly, it is reasonable Sault Ste. Marie 743.0 741,151 997 to suppose that maintenance costs for the south Fort William 976.6 712,590 729 Kenora 927.9 531,284 572 will be higher than the sparsely populated north• ern Districts. This is supported by the figures in * Total Highway mileage in District expressed as Table 2, which show expenditures of one thousand 2-lane equivalent mileage with the appropriate adjust• ments applied to correct for multi-lane and interchange dollars per mile or more for the District of Lon• pavements. don, Stratford, Hamilton, Owen Sound, Toronto, "* Cost of winter maintenance field operations such as Sanding, Salting, Inspection, Snow Fence, Snow Port Hope, Kingston, Ottawa and Huntsville. One Pickup and Disposal and miscellaneous costs of winter District which would be expected to have a high maintenance with no allowance for overhead costs. expenditure based on population and traffic den• phenomenon should be made to provide data on sity is Chatham. It will be seen, however, that this the possible effects of this reduced skid resistance. is not the case. A simple explanation for this apparent inconsistency is that the extreme South The two chemicals commonly used for ice con• Western tip of Ontario has considerably more trol have serious detrimental effects on concrete, moderate weather than other sections, thus re• steel, G and vegetation, and it is therefore con• ducing the maintenance effort. sidered that development of economical, harmless Table 3 presents a breakdown of cost data into substitutes is of great importance. expenditures for various operations. It will be Cost Analysis noted that ploughing, and the application of chem• icals and abrasives each constitutes a large portion Analysis of the potential economic advantages of the total cost, and together account for 80% or disadvatnages of various standards of winter of the total. maintenance would be of value in determining TABLE 3 the economic level of winter service to be supplied. The standard of winter maintenance carried out EXPENDITURE BY OPERATION - * at present is considered to be of a higher order. SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL There is no sound reason for this belief, however, 1962-63 ** except that the maintenance is now much better Percent than it was 10 or 15 years ago. No estimates are Operation Expenditure of Total known of the actual value of this maintenance to Application of Chemicals the economy of the Province. and Abrasives $ 8,490,094 52.5 Snowploughing 5,351,140 33.1 Snow Fence, Hedges 490,346 3.0 Cost of Winter Maintenance Road Patrol 1,776,773 11.0 Other 62,609 .4 A detailed economic study is beyond the scope Totals $16,170,962 100.0 of this paper but some figures are presented to * Source - Annual Report on Highway Improvement, demonstrate some of the ways of considering Province of Ontario, 1963. costs. Table 1 lists total annual expenditures for ** Actual expenditure ($16,170,962) in fiscal year 1962-63, for Snow Removal and Ice Control on King's winter maintenance. Highways and Secondary Roads in Ontario. 70 TABLE 4 COST OF WINTER MAINTENANCE PER VEHICLE MILE AT RANDOM LOCATIONS (1962-63)

Winter .... I Cost per t I Cost per LOCATION Hwy. Estimated Mtce. Cost Mile per Vehicle No. A.D.T... Per Mile Day Mile

ｾＭＭ ------I. 5 Mi. S. of Sioux Narrows 71 409 $ 340 $ 2.25 0.55 Cents 2. Port Arthur East Limits 17 2,312 490 3.25 0.14 3. West Limits Kapuskasing 11 2,183 754 4.99 0.23 4. 0.5 Mi. N. of Jet. Hwy. No. 64 11 1,062 1,115 7.38 i 0.69 5. South Limits Estaire 69 1,725 1,051 6.96 I 0.40 6. North Limits London 4 4.340 1,749 11.58 0.27 7. North Limits Clinton 4 1,266 1,444 9.56 0.76 8. North Limits Shelbourne 10 940 1,233 8.16 0.87 9. North Limits Cobourg 45 877 1,002 6.63 0.76 10. West Limits Ottawa 17 4,246 1,752 11.60 0.27 11. East Limits Marmora 7 1,195 1,147 7.59 0.64 12. 3 Mi. E. of Brampton 7 6,586 2,421 16.03 0.24 13. 2 Mi. E. of Oakville 2 3,237 2,071 13.71 0.42 14. 1 Mi. S. of Richmond Hill 11 14,734 4,918 32.56 0.22 15. 1 Mi. North of Jet. Hwy. No.7 400 13,231 3,788 25.08 0.19 16. 0.5 Mi. E. of Jet. Brock Road, Whitby 401 14,875 5,702 37.76 0.25 17. 0.5 Mi. E. of Jet. Keele St., Downsview 401 60,455 4,464 29.56 0.05 18. 0.5 Mi. E. of Jet. Hwy. No. 10 401 17,228 3,620 23.97 0.14 '" Estimated A.D.T. - Average Daily Traffic through study period November 1st, 1962 to March 31st, 1963, inclusive. *'" Cost of Winter Maintenance field operations such as Sanding, Salting, Inspection, Snow Fence, Snow Pickup and Disposal Miscellaneous costs of winter maintenance with no allowance for overhead costs. t Through a period of 151 days - November 1st, 1962 to March 31st, 1963, inclusive.

In considering the cost of winter maintenance, maintenance cannot be reduced, arguments may it would seem that expenditure should be directly be developed for further improving the standard, related to the derived benefit. Vagaries of weather on high ADT highways, based on the cost per do not, however, permit this precise approach vehicle-mile. Thus, in areas of very heavy traffic, because it will always be necessary to provide a it may be possible and economically justifiable, minimum service suited to the worst condition. to have maintenance crews and equipment on duty This, then, imposes a severe limitation on the on a 24-hour basis. If this is not done, it may be lowering of costs in relation to the benefits. "De• argued that the motorist using the high ADT rived benefit" is also a difficult quantity to assess routes is subsidizing the motorist on the low ADT and one which is certainly beyond the scope of sections. this paper. In conclusion, it is suggested that the type of As an index for comparing costs from mile to cost surveyor economic assessment required mile and including some measure of the useful which would enable a rational maintenance serv• service function of the maintenance effort, Table 4 has been prepared showing costs per mile and ice to be employed must supply figures showing costs per vehicle-mile for selected sections of high• cash losses incurred for various delays at a variety way. It is self-evident that for equal costs per mile, of locations. Only with a survey of this type will the cost per vehicle-mile will decrease as the ADT it be possible to state with certainty whether increases. Thus, if it is accepted that there is a winter maintenance is a sound expenditure and to certain minimum cost per mile, below which what standard this maintenance must be supplied.

APPENDIX "I" - WINTER MAINTENANCE 1. ORGANIZATION AND PREPARATION Early in the fall the patrolman * should begin (a) Advise the District Office in the spring of to plan his Winter maintenance in conjunction additional snow fence requirements. with the General Foreman. (b) Check sand requirements. The following items are of general importance to the patrolman in preparing for winter main• (c) Check available storage facilities for salt, tenance. loader and, where necessary, heated storage for 71 ploughs. Have this information available for the should be fastened to the non-corrugated side Maintenance Engineer. of the post. (d) Check and clean the patrol sanding, salting (b) Removal and ploughing equipment and advise the Equip• When conditions permit, snow fence should be ment Superintendent of any necessary repairs. removed before April 1st, but a record of the (e) Make advance arrangements for hiring fence location should be made before removal. night shift or other winter maintenance trucks Any new snow fence required for replacement or with the consent of the District Office. Prepare a addition shall be listed at the time of removal and list, with telephone numbers, of local truckers who this information forwarded to the District Office. are available for use in emergencies. The fence should be laid flat on the ground (f) Advise the District Office of reliable sources and rolled into neat rolls. Before the fence is of road information, such as: isolated service stored all necessary repairs or painting should stations, roadside restaurants, motels, etc. be done. (g) To protect equipment erect sufficient mark• (c) Storage ers at curbs, culvert headwalls, guide rail, etc. Fence shall be stored in neat piles in the patrol 2. SNOW FENCE yard. When stored outside it should be on a bed of sand or crushed stone 9 to 12 inches deep. (a) Erection This prevents fire hazard and retards rotting. Snow fence may be erected after November U posts to be cross-piled, free of the ground, 15th, but special concessions may be necessary to with the U down to prevent rusting. allow property owners to complete late ploughing. Lending of snow fence is prohibited. Since the width of the snow drift deposited will 3. SAND be roughly ten times the height of the fence, the fence should be placed about seventy-five feet (a) Requirements from the fence line. This will prevent the snow Salt has largely taken the place of sand in skid deposit from reaching the ditch and impeding proofing our highways in winter especially in drainage and also leave room for snow removal southern divisions. Treated sand, however, is from the travelled portion of the roadway by essential under certain conditions and must there• snow-ploughs. fore be provided in the fall in sufficient quantities Snow fence posts should be placed 16 feet apart to last throughout the winter. and driven solidly into position with one-man The amount of sand required will be deter• hammers. Where corrugated U posts are used, mined by previous experience and will depend on: place the corrugated side opposite the direction of the prevailing wind. In long stretches of fence, 1. The average amount and extent of sub-zero brace posts should be used at ends of, and at weather. intervals along, the fence. When erecting snow 2. The average amount and extent of sleet. fence in rocky sections, steel posts shall be used when possible. The holes can be drilled with a 3. The average amount and extent of above compressor, and the posts can be left in position freezing temperature in gravel road areas. all year round, providing permission is first ob• For an extreme winter with a considerable tained from the property owner. amount of sleet and frequent rapid fluctuations At locations where excessive drifting occurs, in temperature, 30 cubic yards of sand per mile an additional line of fencing may be erected 50 for pavement and 60 cubic yards for gravel sur• feet back of the main snow fence. Snow fence may faces should be considered a minimum for a be erected on a Connecting Link, if necessary, winter supply. with no charge to the Municipality. Every patrolman should review his sand quan• Snow fence should be erected vertically tight, tities at the end of each winter while his expe• and free of the ground to prevent damage to the rience in the quality and quantity of sand used fence. If corrugated posts are used the fence during the past winter is fresh in his mind. He should record the sources of supply and the * For "Patrolman" read "Foreman." amount of sand required for the next winter. 72 Screened sand is essential to prevent damage con?itions, the availability of loading and mixing to roller and conveyor type sand spreaders and equipment, the type of chemical used and weather also to reduce the risk of damage to automobile conditions. windows from flying stones. Sand should be sharp (2) Stockpiling shall be done in the summer and free from quantities of clay and loam and or early fall, preferable in dry weather. When should pass a No. 4 sieve. If such sand is not building the piles, sufficient chemical shall be on available, the patrolman should notify the District hand for mixing with the sand. This will vary Office early in the summer in order that other from 50 to 100 lb. per cu. yd. of sand for South• arrangements may be made for contract screenings ern Ontario and from 100 to 150 lb. per cu. yd. or otherwise importing the necessary sand. for Northern Ontario. Frequently, on short notice, good quality sand The chemical should be well mixed throughout screenings are made available from the surplus the pile which shall be cone-shaped and capped from crushed gravel and prime contracts during with straight chemical. Regardless of the method summer. The patrolman should have his record used in stockpiling, every effort shall be made to of quantities required and stock pile locations, avoid packing the sand. well in advance of such contracts. (d) When To Use Sand (b) Stockpile Locations When the temperature is below the effective Stockpiles should be located at sheltered places range of salt, treated sand should be applied to and at intervals which will enable sufficient speed provide a skid-proof road surface. in application. The effective range of salt varies with different On highways where mechanical loaders are types of pavement, the amount of sunshine and used, stockpiles should be located at intervals of many other factors. Therefore the margin between from 10 to 20 miles. Advantageous locations at salting and sanding must be determined locally road intersections should be considered in order by experience and good judgment. Generally, sand to serve as many roads and patrols as possible will be required in temperatures lower than zero from each pile. (See 3 (e) Sand Application.) in clear weather and lower than 10° to 15° above Rainfall will leach salt from stockpiles and zero in the absence of sunshine. (Table 1-1). damage nearby trees, gardens and wells. Piles should be located at least 500 feet from valuable There will be times when it is difficult to decide trees or gardens and at least 1,000 feet from whether salt or sand should be applied : for in• drinking wells. Areas of well-drained, solid stance when the temperature is 2° above zero at ground should be chosen in order to permit the 7 a.m. and the forecast indicates a high of 8° smooth operations of mechanical loaders. It may above. With a heavy overcast sky, sand would be be necessary to shape areas by use of a bulldozer appropriate. However, with a clear sky and a or grader to effect adequate drainage. A bitumi• forecast of sunshine, salt would be very effective nous base shall be built under the pile to allow in providing bare pavement in a few hours. Sun• mechanical loading. shine will add from 10° to 15° to shade tempera• tures depending on the time of day and month On isolated secondary roads where traffic is of year. A high of 8° above in the shade would extremely light in winter time, it may be sufficient be equivalent to 20° to 23° above in the sun. to place small stockpiles at more frequent intervals (2 to 4 miles apart) and load sand by hand labour. If there should be an unpredicted change in the weather and the sun failed to shine after the Small amounts of treated sand shall be stock• patrolman had applied salt in temperatures of less piled on steep hills for the use of motorists in than 10° above, there would be plenty of time emergencies. This sand may be left in piles or remaining in the day for the application of sand drums, or in a Department "Sand Box" (Standard if the salt was applied early. The applied salt J-279). When this sand is used, it shall be re• would not be wasted. It would take effect at the placed so that there is always a supply of sand first rise in temperature. available to motorists. Salt should not be used on prime or gravel (c) Stockpiling roads without the consent of the General Foreman. (l) The method used in stockpiling and salt Frequent salting or sanding is required in a treatment of sand will largely depend on local mixture of freezing rain or sleet. 73 (e) Application (b) Ice Control

On main Highways where mechanical loaders Apart from the occasional intense blizzard, the are used, the patrolman should be able to sand patrolman's chief winter maintenance concern is his patrol within an hour. The organization will the hazard of ice formation on the road surface. usually consist of two trucks per stockpile (one Under certain conditions, ice will form quickly if working each way) and a small mechanical loader. not controlled. It is the chief cause of highway Patrolmen shall use the nearest stockpile, even if accidents in winter time. Once it has accumulated, it is located on an adjacent patrol or District. The it is very difficult to remove either by mechanical normal crew will consist of a truck driver and or chemical means. 1 or 2 helpers for each truck and an operator The use of scarifier teeth or saw tooth blades for the mechanical loader. in removing ice from pavements is not only a All sand shall be spread by mechanical spread• slow and costly process but is liable to result in ers. No hand spreading shall be done, except in damage to the pavement and should not be neces• cases of emergency. Spreaders commonly used sary with efficient salting, except under unusual are the spinner type mounted in front of the left circumstances, and then should be undertaken rear wheels, Swenson or roller-type mounted on only with consent of the District Office. Ice the rear of the box and the large hydraulic truck formation on pavement can be prevented under mounted units. almost every circumstance with the possible ex• ception of a mixture of freezing rain and sleet. If conditions are such that sand must be ap• plied, application must be prompt. Generally, The prime objective in applying salt on the one half cubic yard of sand per mile will be road surface is to prevent the formation of ice sufficient for each sanding. rather than to melt an accumulation. Therefore salting must be timely. Under certain conditions, fast heavy traffic may remove sand from the road surface so it may be The exact effective range of salt varies, being necessary to re-sand sections, especially on grades, dependent on many factors. Only experience, curves and at intersections. observation, and good judgment on the part of the patrolman will result in timely salting. In the On isolated roads, it may be necessary to sand absence of sunshine salt is generally effective down the hills and curves first, but there shall be no 0 to 10 to 15 0 above zero and in bright sunshine delay in sanding the remainder of the road. many degrees below zero (see When to Use Sand At railway crossings sand must not be applied 3(d) ). for a distance of 10 feet on either side of the Salting should be deferred until snow actually track. Any sand or other materials carried onto sticks to the pavement. When the pavement is the tracks shall be removed from the f1angeways. dry and cold with considerable wind, snowflurries 4. SALT may come and go without showing any trace of snow on the pavement and salting during such a (a) Storage period would start an accumulation. Salt to be used for ice control may be delivered In mid-winter, when mild spells are less fre• in bulk or bag form. Bulk salt, wherever possible, quent and less intense, full salting advantage must should be stored in frame sheds equipped with be taken of each mild spell as it occurs to prevent large doors to enable sheltered loading and un• ice from getting a foothold. loading operations. When it is necessary to store (c) When To Use Salt bulk salt in the open, the piles should be cone• shaped and covered with tarpaper and a layer of Salt applied at the beginning of a storm at the sand. High and dry-paved locations should be rate of 300 to 500 lbs. per mile for a 20 foot selected for storage piles. pavement will prevent packing so that ploughs can Salt in bags requires the same storage facilities remove nearly all the snow. as described for bulk salt. However, bags should During a storm where ploughing is continuous, be piled in sheds in such a manner that the oldest further salt applications after each clean sweep salt may be conveniently loaded for use first. of the plough will prevent ice formation. 74 Salt applied early in the morning, immediately within a very few minutes. Salting or sanding on after the clean sweep of the plough, will have the such ice is a slow process; traffic will either be advantage of any morning sunshine to aid the halted or move at a very reduced speed. If the melting process. freezing rain is extensive, it may be many hours before the extremities of patrols have been skid• Do not attempt to melt large quantities of snow proofed if proper precautions are not taken by the use of salt. Ploughing is first necessary beforehand. if it will make an impression on the snow. When freezing rain is forecast, the patrol crews Traffic volume increases the effectiveness of salt should have their trucks loaded and equipment and therefore roads with the least traffic volume ready to salt or sand or both, as required. will generally require more frequent salting. When road surfaces are wet, salting should be Heavy salting of primed surfaces is not ad• undertaken in advance of the freezing rain, vocated in early or late winter when prolonged because the salt will adhere to the wet surface "thaws" are expected. However, in mid-winter, and provide a margin of safety while a follow-up timely salting of primed roads will provide the sanding is being carried out. equivalent of bare pavement. If freezing rain descends on a patrol without (d) Application warning, the patrolman shall telephone the Dis• Speed and safety with a controlled distribution trict Office or dispatcher immediately, giving his of salt are the important factors in efficient salting. estimate of the time necessary to skid-proof the patrol. This telephone call is essential for relay There are various methods used but usually to the public as a warning. the simplest are the most desirable. A 2 in. diameter hole in the truck box in front of the (b) Special Circumstances left rear wheel with a 2 in. pipe extending out The application of sand with, or immediately to the left beyond the wheel will enable salting at after, the application of salt may be required for speeds up to 20 miles per hour while the truck skid-proofing during the melting of packed snow. is being driven on the proper side of the road and workmen are in a sheltered forward position 6. SNOW PLOUGHING in the truck box. 1. Before the first snow is due, the patrolman Shields may be required to protect the flow shall place standard markers at all obstructions, of salt from the wind and also to control distribu• such as culvert headwalls, bridge curbs and side• tion quantities. walks, guide rail, etc., that could cause damage A narrow concentration of salt, 12 in. to 18 to snow ploughing equipment. These markers in. in width down the centre of a two-lane pave• can be placed at the same time as snow fence ment at the rate of 300-500 lb. per mile is posts are being driven, and the markers shall be of sufficient for a single application. Traffic will sufficient height to be seen by the plough operator. work the salt across the pavement to the outer 2. The patrolman shall see that all ploughing edges. equipment under his jurisdiction is road tested to Where underbody sanders are in use, salting make sure that it will be in good working condi• may be accomplished by removing the sander and tion when needed. Any necessary repairs or ad• placing a 2 in. diameter pipe with guides in the justments shall be reported to the District Garage. hopper. The ploughing equipment with wing in ploughing position shall be driven slowly over the patrol, Generally rock salt is more efficient than fine and any obstructions that could cause damage to salt because of its increased particle weight. How• the machine shall be removed. ever, the best results have been achieved using a rock salt which contains a small percentage of All snow ploughs shall include as part of their fines. equipment at least three shovels, a tow chain and tire chains. 5. SAND AND SALT APPLICATION 3. Ploughing operations shall be started as soon (a) Freezing Rain as there is enough snow on the road surface for Occasionally freezing rain will descend and the plough to catch. This will vary from 1;2 in. cover miles of highway with a coating of ice to 11;2 in. depending on the type of plough used. 75 Ploughing shall be continued as long as there is steel members of the bridge, as the chemicals in ploughable snow on the road surface and suffi• the snow will cause rusting. cient operating visibility. On bridges over railways and overpasses, the 4. As soon as ploughing is complete on the snow shall not be thrown over the side, but shall travelled portion of the roadway, widening opera• be hauled away. tions shall be carried out which shall include Special attention should be paid to drains and removal of the snow from the shoulder. When catch basins, which should be kept in good work• possible, widening shall be done during daylight ing condition. If necessary, salt or calcium hours. In order to minimize drifting, windrows chloride may be used to remove snow and ice of snow shall not be left on the shoulder. Snow from the drains. banks shall be removed or reduced wherever possible by blowing, high winging and sloping. (b) Subways 5. It is essential that wet snow and slush be Snow deposited in subways as a result of removed from the road as quickly as possible as ploughing shall be removed and hauled away as a drop in temperature could cause a dangerous soon as possible. Otherwise catch basins will icy condition. become covered and melting snow may freeze and cause ice patches. As in the case of bridges, salt 6. If a snow plough is unable to handle the snow, or calcium chloride may be used to keep catch the patrolman or operator shall immediately notify basins functioning properly. the General Foreman. If a snow plough breaks down, the operator shall inform the District Office 8. REPORTS and District Garage. The Department maintains a road information 7. The patrolman shall see that entrances to service for the benefit of the public. Road con• County and Township roads are opened up after ditions are relayed to the public by radio and the highway has been cleared. telephone continuously during winter. Since the reports originated from the patrolman, the need 8. All road signs, and the ends of guide rails. for promptness and accuracy is essential. shall be kept clear of snow so as to be visible to the travelling public. The patrolman or inspector will telephone his reports on schedule as directed by the District 9. Snow plough operators shall be instructed that Office. Reports shall include: they must stop after ploughing each railway crossing and remove all snow, and other material 1. The snowfall in inches since last report; from the flangeways and the crossing. 2. Condition of road surface since last report; 10. Ploughing on Divided Highways must be 3. Temperature and weather since last report; done in the direction of traffic only, and the snow continually moved away from the boulevard. 4. What operations are under way or intended. Ploughs working in tandem on Divided Highways In addition to the morning and other scheduled must operate at least 500 feet apart. reports, the patrolman shall report to the office 11. Snow blowers shall not be used after dark, by telephone: except in an emergency. At the beginning of a storm and the progress 7. SNOW REMOVAL BRIDGES of operations during and after the storm at AND SUBWAYS intervals, as a change of conditions affecting the travelling public occurs. (a) Bridges 9. FLOOD CONTROL The patrolman shall not allow snow to accumu• late on bridges, and shall remove the snow as (a) Snow Banks often as necessary to keep the roadway clear for Serious flooding can be caused, particularly in the full width. hollows, by water being trapped between snow On bridges over rivers and streams the snow banks during the spring thaw. This condition can may be disposed of over the side. In the case be prevented. in most cases, by winging the banks of steel bridges, care shall be taken that the snow off the shoulder. As a result, when the snow melts is thrown clear, and not deposited on the lower the water will drain into the ditches, and not be 76 held on the roadway. In cases where the banks the ditches shall be opened up prior to the ex• can not be pushed back, openings shall be cut pected break up. The snow shall be thrown well through the snow banks to allow the water to back so that it will not slip back into the ditches. drain into the ditches. 10. WINTER PATCHING (b) Culverts and Ditches OF PAVEMENTS In order that the water may flow freely through (a) Frost Heave Patching culverts, the ends of the culverts shall be kept On older pavements where the base is poor, free of snow and ice, otherwise the culverts may frost heaves may appear suddenly in early winter become blocked, and during mild spells cause creating a hazard to motorists. Such heaves shall flooding on the road and adjoining lands. Some• first be clearly marked with the regulation times it may be necessary to use salt or calcium "Bump" and "Bump Ahead" signs. chloride to prevent blockage. The chemical shall During clear weather in winter when the pave• be placed at the inlet end, and spread over the ments is bare and dry, the severity of frost heaves surface of the ice. When a culvert becomes com• should be reduced by temporary patching on each pletely blocked the patrolman shall ask for a steam side of the heave. This may be accomplished by boiler to thaw out the culvert. Salt in a burlap filling in each side of the bump with gravel to bag may be used to keep catch-basins from provide a gradual ramp. A layer of mulch or freezing. cold patch raked over the gravel patch will Ditches may become blocked with snow, and stabilize it indefinitely. During the break-up when where this condition is liable to cause flooding, the heave usually recedes the temporary patch

TABLE I WINTER MAINTENANCE CHART (a) Treatment at Beginning and During Storm

Temp. Range Type of Precip. Condition Recommended Treatment

Below zero Dry Snow No packing Plough continuously. Apply sand only where necessary. Dry Snow Packing Salt if temperature rising. Apply sand if tem• perature falling. Plough. Dry Snow No packing Plough only if steady or falling temp. Salt and plough if rising temperature. Dry Snow Packing Salt and plough. Sand as required. Dry Snow No packing Plough if falling temperature. Salt and plough if rising temperature. Wet snow Packing Salt and plough. Sand as required. Above 20 0 Snow Packing Salt and plough. Sleet or Continuous salting. Sand if temperature drops freezing rain I following storm.

(b) Treatment Following Storm

Below 100 No precip. Rd. Snowpacked 'I Sand where necessary. Use grader blading. Above io- No precip. I Rd. Snowpacked Salt and blade unless temperature is falling.

Footnote: Along with the above treatments, sand all curves, railway crossings, hills, highway intersections, etc., as required. 77 is readily removed and may be used for shoulder in the heated storage. This will enable an early patching. start of patching with pliable material. The "Bump" and "Bump Ahead" signs shall 2. On isolated paved roads where it is necessary be removed immediately a bump has been elim• to stockpile asphalt mix on the roadside, a slow inated. curing asphalt such as S.C.l to S.C.3 is very suitable. On cold days the material may be con• (b) Asphalt Patching veniently heated by burning old tires or other slow burning materials on the face of the pile. While maintaining bare pavement during the winter, the rapidly alternating wet and dry con• The actual patching procedure as described in dition of the surface in widely varied tempera• Chapter BP should be followed, bearing in mind tures causes some breakdown and pot holes in that patching which involves cutting out disin• weak pavements. Provision must therefore be tegrated sections must be completed each day. made for asphalt patching of holes in the pave• 11. CLEANING UP ment at suitable times during the winter season. Debris caused by ice storms during the winter The type of asphalt used and the method of shall be removed as soon as possible after the heating will depend on local conditions. For storm. The right-of-way must be kept in a condi• example: tion which is safe for travel. 1. Where a Department garage with heated All sand remaining on the road after winter storage is located within a reasonable haulage has passed must be removed and the road surface, distance of pavements to be patched; a stockpile gutters, bridges and shoulders shall be left in a of asphalt mix using M.C. 2 or equivalent may clean condition. be conveniently located adjacent to a sand pile in the garage area. With a mechanical loader, All trees and bushes within the right-of-way asphalt mix may be loaded the night before it which have suffered damage from ice and snow is to be used and stored over night on the truck storms, shall be trimmed or pruned.

APPENDIX II - GRADAnON AND QUALITY OF ICE CONTROL SAND*

GRADAnON OF SAND meet the requirements of the specification above regardless of the source of supply and regardless The screened sand applied shall be selected so that it will conform to the following grading whether or not approval has been given for similar ranges: use on previous projects. Passing the 14 in. Square Mesh Sieve 100% Information concerning possible deposits made #8 " 65 95% available by the Department to the contractors " #14 " 40 90% through any of its employees, including the Ma• #28 " 20 70% terials Laboratory, shall be deemed indicative only #48 5 35% as to the possibility of their development for use #100 " "0 15% and shall not in any way be deemed to be com• " #200" " " 0 5% mitment for acceptance of their use, nor for the QUALITY OF SCREENED SAND quantity of material in the deposits. The processed screened sand, as determined by No claims for extra compensation will be the Department abrasion test, shall not contain accepted from the Contractor based on the failure soft or friable particles or dirt in excess of 8%, of any deposit to yield either or both the quality including that lost by washing. The loss by wash• and quantity of material for the fulfillment of the ing shall not exceed 5%. contract.

The physical quality of screened sand, as well "' Excerpts from D.H.a. Specification No. 414. 1961 as the gradation of the size of the particles, shall Edition. APPENDIX III - SPECIFICAnON FOR HIGHWAY COARSE SALT (SODIUM CHLORIDE) 1. SCOPE Passing No.4 sieve (Tyler std.) 30-100% Passing No. 8 sieve (Tyler std.) 5-65 % Sodium Chloride (rock or evaporated salt) for highway requirements is specified under: Passing No. 14 sieve (Tyler std.) 0-30% Passing No. 28 sieve (Tyler std.) 0-10% (a) Coarse crushed rock salt 4. FINE CRUSHED ROCK SALT (b) Fine crushed rock salt (a) Chemical Composition (c) Evaporated salt Moisture Content not more than 0.5 % 2. PACKAGING AND MARKING Chloride content (a) Sodium Chloride (rock or evaporated) shall be delivered in four-ply, asphalt-lined or poly• (dry weight basis) not less than 96.0% ethylene-lined bags containing 100 pounds. The Insoluble matter closures shall be sewn. (dry weight basis) not less than 4.0% (b) Each bag shall be marked with the fol• (b) Grading: lowing: Passing No. 4 sieve Manufacturer's name (Tyler Standard) 100%

Net Weight 5. EVAPORATED SALT Salt Grade (a) Chemical Composition D.H.O. in 1112 in. letters, which marking Moisture content not more than 0.5% shall not be used for other accounts. Chloride content (c) When specified by the Engineer, the sodium (dry weight basis) not less than 98.0% chloride (rock or evaporated) may be shipped in bulk by rail or truck. Calcium content 3. COARSE CRUSHED ROCK SALT (dry weight basis) not more than 0.5% (a) Chemical Composition Insoluble matter Moisture Content not more than 0.5% (dry weight basis) not more than 0.5% Chloride content ( b) Grading: (dry weight basis) not less than 96.0% Passing No.4 sieve Insoluble matter (Tyler Standard) 100% (dry weight basis) not more than 4.0% 6. REJECTIONS (b) Grading Materials which do not comply with these Passing % in. sieve __ 100% specifications shall be rejected and disposed of by Passing Y

DISCUSSION of "SNOW AND ICE CONTROL ON THE PROVINCIAL HIGHWAY SYSTEM OF ONTARIO" MAURICE OSTIGUY: This paper outlines the maintenance procedures and contains very useful information concerning I have read with great interest Messrs. Brohm, the standard of service to provide, the organiza• Cook and Leslie's paper dealing with the organiza• tion of the patrol, the equipment and the design tion of winter maintenance in the Province of of the roads in order to improve the maintenance Ontario. and cut down the cost per mile. 79 TABLE NO.1 COSTS OF SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL ON NUMBERED HIGHWAYS AND MUNICIPAL ROADS BY DISTRICT - 1962-63

Total Winter District Highway Maintenance Cost per Number Mileage Cost Mile 1 1,073.6 $1,182,986.86 $1,101.87 2 1,816.5 1,469,782.32 809.24 3 2,108.7 2,157,501.19 1,023.19 4 1,735.4 2,522,300.03 1,453.44 * 5 2,136.4 2,017,172.99 944.19 6 1,309.4 887,229.81 677.60 7 1,387.2 1,680,804.63 1,211.71

* These figures include the maintenance of the Metropolitan Blvd. in Montreal for a length of 27.5 miles at the cost of $305,305.02.

TABLE NO.2 ANNUAL EXPENDITURE FOR WINTER MAINTENANCE ON HIGHWAYS IN QUEBEC

Miles Main- Miles Main- tained with Total of Year tained by Expenditure Grants by Expenditure Miles Total Expenditure the Depart- Munici- ment palities 1960-61 8,301 $ 8,980,648.42 27,565 $5,217,913.20 35,866 $14,198,561.62 1961-62 11,243 12,075,931.48 25,701 4,956,796.50 36,944 17,032,727.98 1962-63 11,567.2 12,346,940.40 26,092.8 6,843,292.71 37,660 19,190,233.11

In the Province of Quebec, the problem is contracts for these roads and the Department of somewhat different due to the fact that the De• Roads supervise the work. During the 1962-63 partment of Roads maintains almost the complete season, 26,092 miles of secondary roads were network of primary and secondary roads. maintained with subsidies. (37,660 miles during the 1962-63 season.) Each year the Department of Roads takes over The Department of Highways is directly re• about 500 miles from the secondary network to sponsible for a certain number of miles, 11,567 be maintained by the Department. miles in 1962-63, 1,450 miles being maintained On the primary roads, the Department provides by the Department equipment, the remaining mile• a better service, considering the volume of traffic. age by contractors to which contracts are awarded The paved highways are maintained in a bare con• at a fixed rate per mile; the abrasives and the dition. The secondary network, most of these chemicals are supplied to the contractors. roads being gravel roads, is maintained in the The secondary network of roads is the respon• snow condition, sand being applied at the dan• sibility of County or Municipal councils and the gerous places when necessary. Roads Department grants subsidies to these mu• The equipment used for winter maintenance in nicipalities at a fixed rate per mile. Quebec is very much the same as in Ontario: The Province is divided into two zones. The four-wheel drive and five-ton trucks with one-way subsidies range from $250.00 to $275.00 per mile or reversible ploughs, wing blades, graders, for the west zone, and from $300.00 to $325.00 sanders and blowers. for the east zone in which, according to statistics, The primary network is patrolled day and night the annual snow fall is greater and the winter and the patrolman will dispatch the necessary period longer. The Municipal councils award the equipment according to the conditions. Some dis- 80 tricts are equipped with radio communication and located in the Montreal area, the cost is much we are organizing a complete radio communication higher per mile. The standard of service must system for the Trans Canada Highway from the always be adequate to the heavy traffic in this Ontario Border to the New Brunswick Border. area, and the figures include the maintenance of Maintenance depots are being built at intervals the Metropolitan Boulevard at a cost for 1963 of about 30 miles to store the equipment. Addi• of $305,305.02 for 27.5 miles of a three-lane tional storage depots are also being built in be• divided highway. tween for salt and sand. These depots will be In order to compare costs with those in Ontario, linked by radio communication. Table 2 gives the annual expenditure for winter The specifications for the sodium chloride used maintenance in Quebec, Table 1 the cost per area for de-icing are the same in Quebec and we are in district, and Table 3 a breakdown of cost for building storage facilities to use more bulk salt the various operations. every year. In examining these data, it will be noted that The sand used is stockpiled in the fall at stra• the annual expenditure is increasing annually and tegic locations and is mixed with calcium chloride the tax payers are requesting more from the gov• but recent studies have shown that the ordinary ernment every year. The winter maintenance salt is just as effective. The economy involved will budget represents about one-third of the total justify more study in that field. The loading and annual budget for maintenance. the spreading is done mechanically. New specifications are being studied to cut Whenever possible, the road is designed to pro• down the annual consumption of sodium and vide an easier winter maintenance, but in many calcium chloride by using more sand on secondary cases the increase in the cost of construction does roads. During the winter of 1962-63, a total not justify the ideal design, especially in flat coun• amount of 175,000 tons of salt was used and tries where the borrow material is scarce. Special about 10,000 tons of calcium chloride. attention is given to the slopes in the cuts and The Department of Roads also plans to take the right-of-way is widened whenever possible. over the maintenance of some primary roads in The width of the medians on divided highways order to use their own equipment instead of giving is increased up to 100 feet to ensure better main• contracts. The expenditure for additional equip• tenance, for example, on the Trans Canada ment, such as ploughs, wings, sanders, and the Highway. erection of storage facilities for the equipment, is The average cost per district is very different pretty heavy but each year special attention is (Table 1); the standard of the service provided, given to this particular problem. the density of the population, the annual snowfall, Two information bureaus, one in the Parliament are many factors that will influence that average. Buildings in Quebec, and one in Montreal, were It may be noted, that in District No.4, which is opened last fall where information on the condi• TABLE NO.3 tion of primary roads is gathered daily before release to radio, T.V., press and the general EXPENDITURE BY OPERATION • public. SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL 1962-63 Every possible effort is made by the Depart• ment of Roads of Quebec to provide a better serv• Percent of ice and to ensure a maximum of safety to the ever• Operation Expenditure Total increasing amount of tourists who visit "La Belle Province" during the winter. Snowploughing $ 6,121,556.22 49.6 R. A. SCOTT: Application of Chemicals and I would like to congratulate Messrs. Brohm, Abrasives 5,473,188.63 44.4 Cooke and Leslie on their presentation of an Road Patrol 323,232.98 2.6 informative and straight-forward paper. We, in Saskatchewan, recognize that D.H.O. is an aggres• Other 429,162.57 3.4 sive organization and take particular note of their experience and methods used in providing service Total $12,346,940.40 100.0 to the travelling public. In commenting on the 81 paper, I will relate the experience and methods for weeks. The last bad year experienced in the of the Saskatchewan Department of Highways and Province was 1955-56 when the Regina area make comparisons where possible. received 76.5 inches of snow and the average wind velocity was 16.4 in November, 16.7 in The settled area of Saskatchewan covers a large December, 11.6 in January, 13.1 in February and area and is sparsely populated. The ratio of the 15.1 in March. number of miles of highways maintained per per• son is high. With these conditions, special design is re• quired to provide a self-cleaning road: The Department of Highways is directly respon• sible for 8,600 miles of roads, of which 3,900 (a) The design for snow clearance height com• miles are surfaced. The remainder of the roads pares with that used in Ontario. The aver• in the Province are the responsibility of urban age height of the centreline above the and rural municipalities. At the present time, the ground level is designed at 2.5 feet. It is Province is divided into eight districts, each important to apply this design feature to headed by a District Maintenance Engineer. Each the low side of horizontal curves. district is divided into areas and the areas contain (b) The design width of right-of-way is 200 a number of sections. There are maintenance feet, except for the class of road built to warehouses at the district and area headquarters, carry less than 600 V.P.D. when the and in addition, some buildings are provided for right-of-way width is 150 feet. the sections. Normally, storage space is rented for the winter months for the equipment and (c) The top of the backslope is usually at least materials used on the sections. Lengths of sections 65 feet from cenrteline, vary but they are usually 40-60 miles in length. (d) Where shelter belts or buildings are too Stockpiles of sand and salt are usually placed at close to the edge of right-of-way and may section headquarters. cause drifts on the highway, they are re• Equipment is provided at the area headquarters moved or moved back a suitable distance. and on the sections. The truck fleet is supple• The standard cross-section is currently under mented by hired trucks when extreme ice condi• review and considerations being given to making tions occur. changes to provide for maximum safety as well as Standard of Service good snow clearing aspects. The information in N.R.C. publication T.T. 1038 on snowdrifts and Different standards of maintenance are provided winter ice on roads by T. R. Schneider is proving because of different traffic volumes and because to be of considerable assistance in the study. of budgeting problems. The value of realistic design has become very It is the Department's stated intent to provide evident during the past few years. It is found that a bare pavement on surfaced highways that have very little or no blocking of highways is encount• an A.A.D.T. in excess of 500 V.P.D. It is noted ered in typical storms when two to six inches of that this is the same as in Ontario. Surfaced roads snowfall is combined with winds steady at 30-40 having a traffic volume of less than 500 V.P.D. mph and gusting from 50-70 mph. are ploughed. All gravel-surfaced roads are ploughed. In most Snow Fence areas, a surface of gravel snow mixture is pro• It is noted that the most common type of snow vided. In the forested areas, a packed snow sur• fence used in Ontario is constructed of wood face is provided. The excess snow being ploughed slats and wire. This is also the case in Saskatche• or bladed off and the remainder is packed by wan. The role of snow fencing has changed with the traffic. improved design. The snow fence is used mainly The weather conditions expericneed in the to prevent isolated drifts from forming and thus Province are extreme. Although annual snowfall reduces the need to dispatch snow ploughs for is light in comparison to other parts of Canada, some distance to only plough isolated drifts. the high average wind velocity can cause con• siderable difficulty even when there is a small Despite careful design, the vagaries of Mother amount of snow. During periods of cold weather, Nature impose conditions that require special it is possible to have a continuous ground drift treatment. The experience in Saskatchewan is the 82 same as in Ontario in that the one essential in The partially melted snow is immediately winter maintenance is rapid action. packed by the traffic and freezes. The surface becomes very slippery at these isolated sections. Highways are not patrolled on a 24-hour basis, If an attempt is made to remedy the problem with except when the weather forecast indicates that salt, the condition is aggravated. The best treat• problems may arise. The use of two-way radio ment arrived at so far is to provide continuous is recognized as a valuable device in providing sanding and ploughing. prompt service. Two districts are now equipped with two-way radio and the system is presently It has been found that the use of chemical is being extended to two more districts. not practical at temperatures below +200 Fahren• heit and under these conditions sand is used to Actual snow removal operations in Saskatche• improve traction. wan and Ontario are similar but some different techniques are required because of the difference The sand used for ice control is screened and in weather. Of great importance, is the need to it is noted that the specifications are similar to have the work planned and have all equipment those used in Ontario except that one-half inch ready to go at an early date. Generally, snow minus is used rather than one-quarter minus. To ploughs are dispatched on the more heavily tra• keep the sand free-flowing, 50 pounds of salt per velled surfaced routes as soon as there is snow cubic yard is mixed with the sand, as it is stock• to plough. This is usually about two inches. Nor• piled. Hand loading and spreading is only done mally, the snow is of the dry variety and no salt in emergencies and the standard method is by is used. The salt promotes some melting and this, mechanical means. combined with drifting, can cause a very rapid Sodium chloride is also the main chemical build-up of snow on the surface. When a "wet" used for winter maintenance in Saskatchewan. snowfall occurs, salt is used to prevent the snow from being packed on the surface. In the plough• Equipment ing operations, great care must be taken to elim• ate all ridges of snow on the surface. Ridges at A wide variety of equipment is used for the the edge of the surface can cause a rapid build-up snow ploughing operations. One of the more com• of snow on the surface. For this reason, most monly used units is a 23,000 G.V.W. Truck and clearing is usually carried out on both the travelled one-way plough. The trucks are equipped with a portion of the road and shoulders at the same time. no-slip differential and are proving to be quite effective, because of the better traction. When ice forms as a result of rain, treatment is carried out with salt on roads where the service Saskatchewan also uses large all-wheel drive is appropriate. Rate of application varies from trucks for heavy ploughing. These units are 500 to 1,000 lbs. per mile. Normally, in Saskat• equipped with V-Plough and wing. chewan, rainfall during winter months is of short There are 12 rotaries used in the Province, duration. The rain is usually preceded by mild two of which are attachments for front-end loaders weather and followed by cold weather. Rapid and are used mainly for clean-up work on grade treatment of the condition is absolutely essential. separation structures and around curbs and For example, on February 3, 1962 a rainfall of islands. The other ten rotaries have a gasoline one-quarter inch occurred in an area. The tem• engine in the truck and a diesel engine to drive 0 perature at the start of the rain was 35 Fahren• the snow plough. These rotaries have been heit and in a few hours dropped to - 3 0 Fahren• equipped with a special torque convertor transmis• heit and stayed below zero for ten days. The ice sion. These units have been very satisfactory. It condition was not treated promptly on a certain is possible for the operator to ease into hard deep section of highway and despite an assortment of banks without riding a clutch. These transmissions sanding, scraping and pounding, the surface was also allow the operator to maintain high R.P.M.'s slippery for ten days. in the truck engine. Progress is maintained so as Another condition that is costly and difficult to keep the back motor under full load. to treat occurs in the latter part of the winter. Up until this year, the standard sander has The change from cold to warm weather is accom• been the tailgate engine-driven type. panied by strong winds. The winds cause ground drift. In places the pavement is warm enough for This year, five cubic yard hopper-type sanders the snow to melt. were purchased. The unit is driven by a gasoline 83 engine which provides hydraulic power to drive Time does not permit extensive comparison of the discharge disc. cost but one section would show some indication. Results with the sanders to date have been The section of highway west of Regina leading to encouraging and the use of the 15 cubic yard Moose Jaw has a winter traffic volume of approxi• type in Ontario is being watched with interest. mately 1,700 V.P.D. The cost for this section The use of the 15 cubic yard type of sander might last year was $334.00 per mile. This cost would be a valuable tool in increasing the net allowable indicate that winter maintenance cost in Saskat• working time for the ice control crews. chewan is lower than in Ontario. This can proba• Safety precautions are of concern in Saskat• bly be directly attributed to less snow and rain. chewan, as in Ontario. Safety devices in Saskat• The areas for future study suggested in equip• chewan have not been developed to the degree ment, weather forecasting, chemicals and abrasives that they have in Ontario, probably because of and cost analysis are of interest to Saskatchewan, the lower traffic volumes. One safety device that has shown to good advantage is the use of alterna• particularly in the weather forecasting area. tely flashing lights mounted on top of the unit, It is known that all information and knowledge flashing amber to the front and red to the rear. available will be necessary to provide an efficient, The lights are of the "sealed beam" variety to economical service and have satisfaction expressed give intensity. These lights are used on sanding by the public concerning the service rendered. trucks and in conjunction with a blue light on snow ploughs.

nt l.' -r WINTER MAINTENANCE PRACTICES IN CANADA - 1963 by M. A. LA SALLE

This presentation deals with the Canadian (a) Slats and Wire Snow Fences Good Roads Association report, entitled "Winter The use of slats and wire snow fencing is on Maintenance Practices in Canada: 1963", Tech• a decline even though it is still the most popular nical Publication No. 20, Canadian Good Roads of all snow fences. Since many additional miles Association, Ottawa 1964. of the arterial or trunk-type of highway have been Canada's provincial highway departments have constructed since 1956, one would expect that the for some time been interested in exchanging in• annually installed footage would have increased. formation on winter maintenance practices. This The drop in footage installed per year is more continuing interest, expressed at Canadian Good than five million. There have been modest in• Roads Conventions, led the Association's Com• creases in British Columbia, Saskatchewan and mittee on Construction and Maintenance to under• Quebec, and although New Brunswick shows an take a second survey of current snow and ice increase, that Province advises that they are grad• control practices in Canada. The information was ually reducing footage and plan to abandon its collected by mailing a questionnaire comprising use altogether. 161 questions to the senior engineers responsible The application of this type of drift control is for winter maintenance in each province. limited because results depend on uncontrollable Under the general headings of control by con• factors - if the wind is in the right direction and struction, equipment, methods of operation, costs, within certain velocity limits and the snow type policies and materials, the answers to these and temperature are within certain ranges, then questions provided a concise and complete record the roadway will be protected from drifting snow. of winter maintenance practices in Canada in However, if any of these factors do not fall within 1963. the required limits, the fence may be ineffective for that particular snowfall. This information is contained in Tables I to VIn of the report. The text contains some very It is also certain that, as roads are rebuilt, a brief observations and, to aid the reader in draw• redesign is incorporated in the construction to ing his own conclusions, a paraphrase of the allow snow to be blown off the road and that by applicable questions. relatively minor rearrangement of side slopes or removal of trees, a drift-susceptible stretch of PROBLEMS highway is made drift-free. This gradual modifica• tion of the original construction is probably the It should be emphasized that this report is con• major factor in the reduction in the use of snow cerned only with current practice and was not fences. intended to define principal problems. (b) Costs of Ploughing Primary and In the interviews and discussions which took Secondary Highways place with provincial highway department repre• sentatives during the preparation of the report, The costs listed for ploughing primary and sec• however, it was apparent that the principal prob• ondary highways are seasonal unit averages over lem was not one of equipment or materials but the whole of each provincial system. For both of personnel management, training and retention. types of highway they are strikingly lower in the Prairie Provinces than in the rest of Canada. TRENDS This is true not only for this survey but was It is interesting to compare the results of this also evident in the previous one. For example, on survey with those of the previous one made in secondary highways it costs Saskatchewan $30 to 1956. Several trends are discernible and the $50 per mile to plough while it costs Ontario $289 following are a few examples : per mile for the same operation. The average unit 85 cost in the Prairie Provinces on secondaries is $46 requirements will produce a change in the equip• per mile while the average for the rest of Canada ment used. is $284. APPLICAnON OF CLEAR SODIUM Excepting British Columbia, which has shown CHLORIDE a marked drop since 1956 in the unit cost of ploughing primaries, average unit costs of plough• In the Provinces which, in both surveys, re• ing on both types of highway have increased in ported using clear sodium chloride in ice control, the remainder of Canada while decreasing in the there has been, in all cases, a decrease in the rate Prairies. The Prairie average dropped from $78 of application. The reported average rate of ap• per mile in 1956 to the present $46 on secondaries plication in these Provinces has decreased from and from $91 per mile to $79 on primaries. The 1,225 pounds per mile in 1956 to 378 pounds per average unit costs for the rest of Canada, except• mile in 1963. ing British Columbia, is $311 per mile in 1956 The probable reason for the reduction in the versus $400 in 1963 for primaries and $190 per rate of application is a better knowledge, gained mile in 1956 versus $300 in 1963 for secondaries. by experience, of the capabilities and limitations There is little or no difference between the of sodium chloride when used for ice control. The standards of winter maintenance on the Prairies temperature ranges and other weather conditions and the remainder of Canada so the marked dif• under which it is effective are now better and more ference in unit costs cannot be ascribed to a lower generally known, and the required rates of applica• standard. Certainly these Provinces have an ad• tion have been adjusted accordingly. It is possible vantage in climate and type and quantity of snow that public reaction to the use of chlorides had but it is also certain that they have made full use some minor influence, although the public is not of snow control by construction and other mea• always well-informed on the subject. Another sures to make the most of their climatic advan• factor in the reduction may also be a trend toward tages. Variation in labour and equipment costs in a small increase in the proportion of sodium chlo• the remainder of Canada probably accounts for ride to abrasive when using a mix, and to the part of the increase in unit costs since 1956. more extensive use of mix as opposed to clear application. EQUIPMENT Damaging Effects of Chlorides on PC and The use of graders is now universal while one Bituminous Province has abandoned the use of snowblowers More Provinces now have experience with the and another reports that their blowers are seldom effects of chlorides on Portland Cement and used. bituminous concrete. In the previous survey, five In the previous report, four Provinces did not Provinces reported damage to Portland Cement use graders while all used snowblowers. The need concrete bridges, curbs, sidewalks and gutters. for the blower's superior capabilities in handling In 1963 all but two consider chlorides damaging heavy drifts or snowbanks is being reduced by to this material. There is a more striking distinc• redesign of highways in much the same way that tion when comparing the reports on air-entrained the need for snow fencing is being reduced. Portland Cement concrete - only one Province reported experience in 1956. In 1963 five Prov• The increased arterial mileage which is now inces report and all of these find that chlorides being maintained and the accentuated public are less damaging to the air-entrained concrete. demand for all-weather instant uninterrupted driving emphasizes the need for prevention of Five Provinces reported no damage to bitumi• heavy snow accumulation as well as rapid clear• nous pavements from chlorides in the previous ance. Ploughs now must move a large volume of survey - now all are certain that this type of thinly-spread snow, throw it a distance of 20 to pavement is unaffected by chlorides. 30 feet and must do all this at speeds of from When chlorides were first coming into general 30 to 40 miles per hour. It is apparent that the use, and the rates of application were heavier blower does not entirely suit the requirements for than at present, the extent of possible damage ploughing early and often. The blower is not was not apparent. As the damage became evident, designed to be used interchangeably with the the problem began to be thoroughly investigated plough and it is inevitable that the change in and, as a result, there is a much more general 86 knowledge of the effects of sodium chloride on Ontario, however, has reversed the trend • road surfaces, bridges, gutters, curbs and side• unit costs are down - from an average of $850 walks. It is now generally accepted by the high• per mile in 1956 to $600 per mile in 1963. way departments that non-air-entrained Portland Conversion almost exclusively to bulk storage Cement concrete is vulnerable to chlorides and and mechanization of handling are two of the that bituminous concrete is not. most probable factors in the reduction. POLlCY ON DISPATCH OF EQUIPMENT Unit costs in all other Provinces have increased A change in policy on dispatch of equipment from eight times the previous rate to a little less is interesting to note. Three Provinces which in than twice that in 1956. the last survey reported withholding ploughing CONCLUSIONS until some time after the start of a storm now send out their equipment at a much earlier stage. Since the major interested parties now have the report for study, the next step would be an This change almost certainly stems from the individual exchange of information between Prov• increased dependence on road transport for move• inces to obtain details on these items in which ment of goods and persons. Our economy now each is particularly interested. For example, other demands that main routes be open at all times. Provinces may wish to find out in detail how Unless a particular storm is of such intensity or Ontario has managed to reverse the rising trend character (i.e. sleet or freezing rain) that it is very in unit costs of sanding and salting. obviously beyond the maximum efforts of main• tenance organizations, a delay of even a few Each province, of course, devises its own hours is unacceptable on main routes. methods of carrying out winter maintenance. With some exceptions, however, their practices are COSTS OF SANDING AND SALTING becoming more alike, which would indicate that The costs reported on sanding and salting are all are approaching the most efficient methods unit averages over the whole provincial system under existing conditions. The changes which for an average winter. It will probably come as have taken place since 1956 also indicate that all no surprise that costs have risen since 1956. of the provincial highway departments are very Most of us are now conditioned to acceptance of progressive in modifying their procedures and in a fairly continuous rise in the cost of anything. implementing the latest information available. GENERAL DISCUSSION W. P. TAPLEY: coming here a few days ago, that some of the public reaction against salt may be due to the Use of Salt on Roads use of this material in greater quantities than is The main problem in the United Kingdom is really necessary. the control and prevention of ice on roads. This ice may be the result of snow, but more often it I have noted varying statements as to the lowest is the freezing of damp roads. temperatures at which salt may usefully be used. Figures varying from 20°F to OaF have been There are no speed limits on our motorways quoted; I should like to know the real answer. (expressways) or other open main roads so we can not afford to wait for ice to form, and then treat Skidding on Chemical Solutions it with abrasives or hot sand. I was particularly interested in Mr. Brohm's Salt is spread evenly over the whole width of remarks on the reduced skid resistance of roads the road surface using carefully calibrated high• when covered by solutions of ice control chem• speed vehicles. The density of spread is usually icals wetted by water. Perhaps he could give between Y2 and % ounce per square yard of road some further details which might help to explain surface (450-600 lb/mile of 24 ft. carriageway). some accidents we experienced earlier this winter.

I, therefore, agree with Mr. Brohm that there Cost of Winter Maintenance is a great need for calibrated vehicles because the potential saving in materials, when using hundreds I agree with Mr. Ostiguy that winter main• of thousands of tons of salt, is tremendous. It is tenance costs may amount to about one-third of my opinion, based on local observations since the total road maintenance costs. Tn some of our 87 northern counties, the cost of winter maintenance constantly, especially for loading the first round can be as high as $2,000. per mile. of salt distributors rapidly before a front-end loader becomes available. Salt and Grit Loading Hoppers Nobody has mentioned the loading of spread• W.G. COOKE: ing vehicles by means of overhead hoppers. We The Ontario Department of Highways built, use hoppers a great deal in the U.K. and I should many years ago, a few experimental, large capac• be glad to hear any view on hoppers. ity, timber hoppers, or bins, usually on hillsides Motorways Bridges and Viaducts to facilitate loading. We are building 1,000 miles of motorway These were built originally to store hot sand, (expressway) which must be kept clear of ice at but as the use of hot sand did not prove satis• all times so we use salt in advance of , where factory, they were then used mainly for salt, but possible, and in advance of and during snowfalls. due to bridging trouble at the chute and the We are also building a 2-mile long prestressed development of salt storage sheds, the use of these concrete viaduct at the commencement of a hoppers was discontinued. motorway leaving London. Because large stockpiles are required (about I should very much like to hear any suggestions 15,000 cubic yards in many cases) to be laid for the winter maintenance of the steel bridge, down in the late fall, and because these are usually which avoid the use of salt. laid under contract and not always in the same place, the use of hoppers or bins are not practical The concrete viaduct will be electrically heated in our operations. but we are anxious about the danger of ingress of carry-over salt to the steel-stressing members. W.D. HURST: E. C. WALTON: The meeting was asked whether anyone had any suggestions for melting snow on bridge decks For snow and ice control, the Township of in England where the use of salt is not permissible. Scarboro has, over the last two or three years, In answer to that question I would remark that used from 9 to 10,000 tons of C.C. rock salt each while in New York recently I stood under a year. Much of this salt must be stockpiled in marquee of a theatre which was equipped with advance of winter weather, and our practice in infra-red lamps and I was agreeably surprised at the last three years has been to pile the salt in the the amount of heat directed to the sidewalk. It open without any special protection. Our proce• was not only very warm under there, despite a dure in stockpiling salt is as follows: chilly, cold wind, but the sidewalk was completely Once the complete fall shipment has been free of any snow and ice. I wondered whether delivered, the salt is stockpiled in a neat conical such an application might be possible in a climate or wedge-shaped pile with a crane and clam like England with temperatures just above or bucket. The pile is then covered with a blanket below freezing in winter, by employing infra-red of sand approximately 3 to 4 inches thick by lamps in luminaries above the bridge decks. dropping the sand on top of the pile with the same equipment. When salt is needed, one end A. LESLIE: of the stockpile is opened without disturbing the In reply to Mr. Tapley's question on skid rest. Adopting this procedure, we have only ex• resistance of roads, laboratory tests made by the perienced a small amount of caking, nothing to Department of Highways of Ontario using the the extent of causing any real difficulties. In order Portable Skid Resistance Tester designed by the to prevent lumps of salt getting into distributors, D.S.I.R. Road Research Laboratory showed that: the salt is passed by gravity through a 4-inch square screen before loading onto the trucks. "If the road surface is covered with a salt While we do have an enclosed hopper of 80 ton solution as opposed to rain-water, the skid resist• capacity, installed in 1957, it is far too small to ance of the surface is reduced appreciably below serve our general needs, and we find with modern the normal wet-road value. The magnitude of loading equipment that the open stockpile gives this reduction is of the order of 1 to 5 units for the most economical method of handling and NaCI solutions and 2 to 15 units for CaCb solu• storing rock salt. However, the hopper is used tions, in both cases increasing with increasing salt 88 concentration. This effect is probably due to ment surfaces by 40-80%. About 85-90% of worsening drainage conditions as the concentra• the total reduction is achieved by merely wiping tion and, thus, the viscosity of the solution is the surface with a moderately wet cloth, 94-98% increased. by spreading a water film of 0.1 mm nominal thickness over the surface. The minimum reading "However, it is also found that the skid resist• is reached at a film thickness of approximately ance of dry pavements is considerably reduced 1.0 mm. The addition of more water will result through the presence of fine detritus. This reduc• in a slight increase in skid resistance." tion may be as much as 40-60%, and is, thus, comparable to the effect of wetting. Coarse These tests indicated that, in comparison with sand is apparently slightly more effective in a wet surface or a dry dirty surface, the additional reducing skid resistance than fine sand, and fine loss in skid resistance due to de-icing chemicals sand is slightly more effective than silt. The effect in solution is measurable but negligible. of fine detritus on the skid resistance of wet pave• (Quotations are from Report No. 32, D.H.a., ment surfaces is small and not consistent. "A Study of the Skid Resistance of Pavement "Wetting reduces the skid resistance of pave- Surfaces" by T. I. Csathy.)

89 SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL IN THE RCAF by SjL R. GREENHALGH Directorate Construction Engineering Maintenance Royal Canadian Air Force

ABSTRACT RESUME Standards of winter maintenance required for On enurnere les normes de l'entretien d'hiver operation of RCAF aircraft are given. Station exigees pour le fonctionnement des avions de planning for winter snow removal operations is l'ARC. On decrit comment sont organisees les described. Information is presented on the RCAF stations pour les operations d'enlevement de la specifications for ice control abrasives. neige en hiver. Des indications sont donnees quant aux specifications de l'ARC pour les abrasifs de traitement de la glace.

PURPOSE PRESENT STANDARDS The purpose of snow removal and ice control With the acquisition of higher speed jet air• operations in the RCAF is to permit the maxi• craft, attitudes towards snow removal and ice mum, safe, operational use of an aerodrome with control changed. The need for better airfield the best possible economy of time, labour, ma• surfaces on a continuous basis soon became ap• terials and equipment. The implementation of this parent to the people responsible for air operations, aim is governed by variables, such as the opera• and a program of research and development of tional role of the particular RCAF Station, better techniques and equipment was initiated. weather conditions, and the types of equipment This program started about 1956 and has pro• available to carry out snow removal operations. duced new techniques and new equipment that In our present role of Air Defence and Maritime are more suitable to our jet age criteria of main• Operations, this means all-weather utilization of taining a "black top" surface throughout the aerodrome facilities. winter months. Another speaker will be dis cussing this development program, as well as snow HISTORY removal and the equipment used by the RCAF; In the past, pilots of the slower piston engine I will, therefore, confine my remarks to the Sta• aircraft were generally satisfied to use snow• tion planning aspects of a snow removal program covered runways, provided they were reasonably and outline some of the RCAF criteria for ice smooth and not coated with glare ice. Rolling control. the newly-fallen snow produced a fairly stable STATION PLANNING surface and, if it became too rough, a snow drag was pulled ahead of the rollers to cut and fill Usually about September a Station snow and the uneven surface. Icing conditions were neu• ice control committee is formed and consists of tralized in a more drastic manner. The com• the Chief Technical Officer as chairman and co• pacted snow surface absorbed much of the freezing ordinator, with members drawn from the Con• rain, but when the surface became hazardous to struction Engineering, Mobile Equipment and flying, a pit run sand was spread on the runway Flying Control Sections. This committee estab• with little regard for amount of particle size, lishes priorities that best suits the Station role and except probably the exclusion of fist-size rocks discusses general aspects of pre-season planning. or frozen lumps. These winter techniques pro• The Construction Engineering Section will ensure duced many airfield maintenance problems during that all hazards to snow removal equipment, such the spring thaw, such as clogged drainage systems as broken concrete or heaved manholes, obstruc• and the removal of huge accumulations of sand, tions on the overshoot area, etc., are removed etc. and will make arrangements for the positioning of 90 markers. On the aerodrome area, we use ever• the less traction value received. Por best results, green trees with maximum height of 4 ft. to mark sand particles should be as angular as possible. A runway and taxiway lights so that they will not crushed material is, therefore, recommended. Pit be damaged during snow clearing operations. In run sands may be used, however, if they are other areas, we utilize snow fencing in the normal economical, provided the maximum particle size manner, and wooden or metal stakes are used to criteria is strictly adhered to and the sand contains locate stationary fixtures such as hydrants or a very small percentage of fines. A recommended valves, etc. The Mobile Equipment Section will guide specification for sand gradation is as fol• ensure that all vehicles and mechanical equipment lows: utilized in snow removal or ice control operations Sieve No. Total Passing are fully inspected, repaired, and overhauled dur• (U.S. Standard) (% by weight) ing the summer months, and that they are thoroughly checked in the fall to ensure opera• 4 ＨｾＢＩ 100% (Non-Jet Stations) tional readiness for the coming winter. A suc• 6 (l/s") 100% (High Performance cessful snow removal program is primarily Jet Stations) achieved by competent direction and supervision. 30 20 to 40% The final success, however, is largely dependent 50 5% when washed on the skill and experience of equipment opera• To ensure that the ice control abrasives are kept tors. Well in advance of the winter season, free from frozen lumps and other contamination, therefore, operators are carefully selected and a it is recommended that a heated building, a por• short training program is carried out. This train• tion of an unused hangar or other covered, ing usually consists of classroom lectures, fol• partially heated, storage space be utilized. lowed by practical training on the equipment and communications systems. It is essential that all CHEMICALS IN ICE CONTROL personnel be made aware of the operational role In the RCAP, we do not permit the use of of the Station and the primary aim of snow re• chemicals for ice control on aerodrome surfaces moval and ice control operations. The training because of their corrosive effect on aircraft metals. program should, therefore, include such things Various non-corrosive additives, such as crystal as organization and duties of all personnel asso• urea, have been tested. Their cost becomes pro• ciated with snow removal, details of snow removal hibitive, however, when you consider the large plan, such as priorities and familiarization with surface areas of runways that must be treated. Station layout, work hours and shifts, emergency We do, however, allow the use of chemically call-out procedures, safety precautions and oper• treated abrasives on roads, sidewalks, and parking ating characteristics of the equipment that will lots. Our general recommendation to Stations is be used. a mixture of 200 lbs. of chemical (usually calcium chloride) to every cubic yard of abrasive. Of ABRASIVES course, this will vary according to Station loca• Another important aspect of pre-winter plan• tion, temperature, icing conditions, and road ning is the stockpiling of abrasives for runway ice gradients, etc. We also recommend that a stock• control. It is usually necessary to obtain a spe• pile of chemically-treated abrasives be made avail• cially screened and graded sand in sufficient able before the winter season for instant use on quantity to last all winter. Actual cases of jet the Station roads. Where the sand must be stored engine damage and subsequent failure have been outside, the addition of chemicals will also prevent directly attributed to ingestion of sand particles the moist sand from freezing. slightly greater than l/s inch diameter. It is, there• SAND BONDING TECHNIQUE fore, RCAP policy to limit the maximum size of ice control sand to l/s inch diameter at airfields Por ice control on aerodrome surfaces, the where the operation of high performance, low RCAP has developed what we call the sand bond• intake jet aircraft (such as the Voodoo) is antici• ing technique. This method of sand bonding in• pated. At other airfields used by non-jet aircraft, volves dump trucks loaded with abrasive and we permit a maximum particle size of ｾ inch suitably equipped with spreading mechanism diameter. Sand gradation is a factor that should which applies the abrasive from one end of the be considered very carefully, to achieve maximum runway to the other, followed by a water flusher traction on a runway treated for ice control. Test truck which sprays a fine film of water over the results show that, the finer the particle size used, evenly dispersed abrasive. The dump trucks 91 precede the water flusher by a distance that must without following behind the spreader. More will be adjusted in relation to the wind velocity and be said about this technique later. direction. It has been found that if the wind is A short training film entitled "Operation Black• blowing at a speed greater than 10 to 15 mph, top" was presented. This film was made by the it is necessary for the flusher to follow as close RCAF in 1960, and stresses the importance of as possible and, in extreme wind velocities, it may planning snow removal and ice control operations be necessary for the flusher to precede the sanding showing various pieces of RCAF equipment at unit. When the wind is below 10 mph, any work. It shows a particular technique developed number of spreader units can operate independent by the RCAF for clearing runways with a high• of the flusher and the flusher can bond the area speed rotary sweeper and concludes with a demonstration of the sand bonding technique.

92 RCAF SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL PROCEDURES THE DEVELOPMENT OF EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES by F/L J. C. CAIRD Air Materiel Command Royal Canadian Air Force

ABSTRACT RESUME Regular equipment used by RCAF for snow On enumere le materiel regulier qu'utilise removal is listed. The development of the high l'ARC pour enlever la neige. On decrit le deve• speed rotary snowplough and high speed sweeper loppement de chasse-neige rotatifs a grande vi• are described. Information is given on the sand tesse et de balayeuses a grande vitesse. Des ren• bonding technique, developed by the RCAF for seignements sont donnes sur la technique d'adhe• ice control. renee par le sable mise au point par l'ARC pour le traitement de la glace.

INTRODUCTION Because there is considerable variance in winter weather conditions across Canada, it became Maintaining RCAF airfields across Canada in necessary for the RCAF to obtain a "family" of a fully operational condition 24 hours a day, SR&IC vehicles as shown in the film "Blacktop". throughout the winter season, is an extremely This family of equipment consists primarily of difficult yet vital task. Snow removal personnel general purpose ploughs, high-speed runway snow• and equipment must be capable of thoroughly ploughs, V-ploughs, snowblowers, small and large removing thousands of tons of snow from run• rotary sweepers, special purpose high-speed rotary ways, taxistrips, and airfield environs after each snow removal units, and ice control vehicles. To snowstorm, even under the severest weather con• augment these vehicles, conventional bulldozers ditions, with a minimum of time and a maximum and road graders are also utilized for snow re• of efficiency. Considering that most RCAF opera• moval on as-required basis. The number and tion airbases have over 10 million sq. ft. of paved types of equipment established (located) on any surfaces, the magnitude of the task is quite ob• particular RCAF Station is normally governed by vious. the role of the Station, (training, operational, It is, therefore, of utmost importance that Snow radar, etc.), and the geographical location of the Removal and Ice Control (SR&IC) personnel be Station. As a rule, all flying RCAF Stations are well versed in the state of the art to enable them provided with a full range of SR&IC vehicles in to employ the operating techniques that will appropriate numbers, whereas the non-flying Sta• combat any snow or ice condition with the greatest tions are normally provided with only conven- , economies of time, materials, and equipment. tional snowploughs and snowblowers. The present high degree of efficiency attained Prior to Canada's entry into NATO and the by the RCAF in maintaining their airfields in introduction of "jet" aircraft into RCAP service, "Blacktop" condition throughout the entire sea• only a relatively small number of snowploughs and son is now recognized by other nations which snowblowers were in use in the RCAF. These have, on many occasions, requested and received were augmented by bulldozers and road graders. technical assistance from the RCAF regarding With the advent of jet aircraft, however, the the problem of airfield SR&IC. In this field of RCAF recognized the need of revising SR&IC endeavour, it is to be remembered that this effi• vehicle establishments with equipment and proce• cient operation was not achieved by accident, dures that would ensure that vital airfields would rather through necessity, and as a result of ex• be fully operational within one-half hour after tensive research. each snowstorm. Additionally, the introduction 93 of jet aircraft necessitated the lengthening of main flexibility so that the "V" or rotary snowplough runways, thereby increasing the over-all SR&IC attachment could be used for light snow removal workload. duties, whereas the bankhead (blower) rotary attachment could be used for heavy or extra In view of these considerations, the RCAF pur• deep snow removal. Power for the rotary attach• chased additional snowblower vehicles and a ments was provided by an auxiliary diesel engine considerable number of high-speed runway snow• of approximately 600 hp. This engine was mount• plough vehicles. The snowplough vehicles, ed behind the vehicle cab, directly in front of the equipped with hydraulically-operated reversible chassis "drive" engine. snowplough attachments, proved highly efficient for rapidly pushing the snow to the outer edges During a two-winter test period (performed by of airstrips at operating speeds up to 30 mph. the RCAP's Central Experimental and Proving The accumulations of windrowed snow deposited Establishment) the prototype vehicle performed by the plough was then picked up by the snow• exceptionally well and proved the concept to be blowers and cast (or thrown) well clear of the quite acceptable. As was anticipated, however, runways proper. many improvements had to be incorporated as the tests progressed. Although the concept proved Although this operational technique proved feasible, certain mechanical deficiencies had to be quite effective for most snow removal operations, overcome. For example, under normal snow it was not possible to meet the stipulated one-half removal operating conditions, the auxiliary engine hour snow clearing time because of the inherent operated satisfactorily but, when operated under slow operating speed of snowblowers. It is severe operating conditions, this engine could not pointed out here, however, that because of the withstand the intermittent heavy and light loading excellent results achieved with the blower-plough shock imposed on it. Despite this deficiency, the combination, RCAF Stations are today still em• vehicle's over-all snow removal capabilities ade• ploying this conventional method of snow clearing quately met the RCAF performance specifications. where the one-half hour clearing time is not mandatory. As a result of the prototype snowblower tests, the RCAF purchased a number of high-speed PROTOTYPE HIGH SPEED rotary snowplough units and employed them on ROTARY SNOWPLOUGH certain operational Stations. These production model vehicles are of the same basic design as To meet the operational runway snow clearing was the prototype but are now equipped with a requirement and as a result of considerable re• 800 hp continental air-cooled auxiliary gasoline search, the RCAF decided to test one prototype, engine. In two winters' use, these vehicles have special purpose vehicle of radical design but with performed exceptionally well and, in fact, have excellent operational potential. This unique ve• far exceeded their original performance specifica• hicle was to be a combination snowplough and tions. They have proved extremely versatile and snowblower and was to be capable of picking up are able to remove from 2 to 20 inches of snow 2 to 6 inches of newly fallen snow and, simul• or slush at relatively high operating speeds with taneously, casting this snow to the right or left the rotary (V) snowplough attachment installed. at distances up to 200 feet while operating at a Recent field reports indicate that the snow removal forward speed of up to 30 mph. capacity of this unit has, on occasions, exceeded The prototype high speed rotary snowplough 40 tons per minute and 60 tons per minute with vehicle weighing approximately 50,000 pounds the "bankhead" rotary attachment installed. For was powered by a 370 hp drive engine, mounted example, two such units operating on an airfield on the rear of the chassis. This vehicle was are capable of clearing a main runway, 10,000 equipped with a torqmatic transmission, power feet long by 150 feet wide, after a normal snowfall steering, and power brakes. The vehicle chassis (3 inches) in one-half hour or less. was designed to accommodate a 12-foot wide REMOVING RESIDUE SNOW rotary plough attachment or an oversized "bank• head" attachment. The vehicle attaching harness Despite the success achieved in obtaining snow was designed in such a manner that either of the removal vehicles that could remove bulk snow rotary attachments could be rapidly and easily in a stipulated time, there still remained the removed and/or installed within a few minutes. problem of snow residue. With conventional This feature was designed to provide greater propeller-driven aircraft, residue now left by dis- 94 placement ploughs did not present any serious A second steel-tufted broom was operationally operational hazards. With the advent of jets, how• evaluated at RCAP Station Bagotville during the ever, residue snow became a serious operational 1956-57 winter season and proved entirely satis• hazard in that, if this snow were compacted by factory. In actual tests, this broom operated on aircraft wheels, and jets subsequently landed on asphalt and cement at 286 rpm for a total of the compacted snow at high speeds, (it is pointed 176 hours (actual broom-ground contact time). out here that jets land at much higher speeds It was estimated that an additional wear period than do propeller-driven aircraft) serious damage of 25 to 30 hours could have been obtained by to the equipment, and possible injury to the pilot this broom if the chassis frame had been modified could quite easily result. Although military jet somewhat. As a result of the Bagotville tests, a aircraft can and do land on icy airstrips, if neces• substantial number of sweeper units were sub• sary, the presence of ice nevertheless presents a sequently purchased by the RCAF and established serious operating hazard. at various RCAF airfields. Since that time these versatile sweeper units have been used extensively Realizing the problem, the RCAF considered for removing snow, slush, water, sand, dirt, and all types of equipment and methods which could general debris from airfield operating surfaces. be effectively employed to overcome snow com• Although the sweepers are most effective in pre• paction and the runway icing problem. One of venting the build-up of compacted snow from run• the methods considered was to pre-sand the air• way surfaces, they are used year-round to keep field. Although this method had some merit, the runways thoroughly free from objects that could possibility of sand ingestion into the aircraft's cause extensive and costly damage to jet aircraft engine precluded adoption of this theory. Con• engines. sidering this, it then became obvious that the best way to eliminate snow compaction was to discover RCAF ICE CONTROL TECHNIQUES a means of preventing snow compaction. With this in mind, the RCAF raised specifications to To ensure safe and efficient aircraft operations have an oversize rotary runway sweeper manu• on RCAF airfields during the winter season, one factured to meet this requirement. Primarily this of the most serious airfield maintenance problems specification stipulated that the sweeper was to that the RCAF combats is the prevention and be a towed vehicle, which would accommodate a elimination of airfield ice. As mentioned previous• rotary broom unit sufficiently wide to sweep a ly, the rotary sweepers effectively prevent the path 12 feet wide at operating speeds up to 25 formation of airfield ice by removing residue mph. This unit was to feature a reversible broom snow. Ice forming on airfield surfaces, as a result unit and remote controls to facilitate the selection of freezing rain, can not be prevented. An effec• of the various broom operations from the cab tive method of ice control, therefore, had to be of the towing vehicle. determined. The prototype sweeper was manufactured by a To determine the most effective means of re• well-known Canadian company and proved highly moving runway ice, the RCAF tested various ice satisfactory in operation. When operated after removal techniques, such as ice shavers, scarifiers, snowploughs, the broom effectively removed the flame throwers, jet engines, and other similar residual snow off the paved surfaces, and did devices. All of these methods of removing runway achieve a "blacktop" surface. In addition to the ice were either too slow, ineffective, unsafe, or rotary broom, a blower chute was fitted to the otherwise impractical. Similarly, radiant heating rear of the sweeper chassis; the purpose of the of the entire runway surface was considered but blower being to assist in removing the fine pow• proved too costly to be given further considera• dery snow that could not otherwise be removed tion. The application of "lamp black" and the by the broom action. The prototype sweeper unit burning of fuel on the runway surface was also was originally fitted with a palmyra broom unit. considered. The application of lamp black (to This broom, although effective, wore down quite absorb the sun's heat rays) proved ineffective and rapidly and had to be rebristled frequently every the burning fuel method proved extremely haz• 10-15 hours because of its "bamboo-like" texture. ardous, costly, and caused damage to the runway As a result of this, a prototype steel-tufted broom surface. unit was obtained and tested. Unfortunately, this Although chemicals will facilitate the removal metal rotary broom unit failed in less than 20 of ice from runways, the RCAF prohibits the use hours of operation. of chemicals because of the detrimental effects 95 chemicals have on the exposed metals of aircraft. and involved no costly or complicated equip• During the winter of 1959-60, however, a sub• ment, specifications were raised to convert a stance known as urea (in crystal form) was tested standard street flusher vehicle for use as an ice and evaluated as an ice control medium. Although control vehicle. Incidentally, in addition to its the substance was found to be non-reactive to primary function as a control medium, this ver• metal, it was concluded that urea is only effective satile vehicle is now in use on operational RCAF for melting ice in temperatures above 11 0 above Stations and is used to fill a variety of roles. Some zero. In addition to this, it is extremely slow of these are as follows: acting and costly. After due consideration, no further tests with this compound were performed. (a) Radiological decontamination of vehicles, buildings, and areas; When freezing rain conditions do exist, and hard ice forms on the runways, the RCAF has (b) As an auxiliary fire-fighting unit; currently adopted two methods for recovering (c) For weed control; traction. In the first technique, on stations where facilities for obtaining "hot sand" are available, (d) Flushing station roads and tarmacs; and hot sand is lightly spread on the ice-covered run• ways. The hot sand grains partially imbed them• (e) As an auxiliary water supply unit. selves into the ice and form a sandpaper-like By the addition of a foam generating system, the surface which provides relatively good traction. vehicle is now also capable of producing a two• On RCAF Stations where hot sand is not avail• inch foam path, ten feet wide, for a distance of able, a modified street flusher has been utilized approximately one-half mile. This latter function to spray a light film of cold water over a previous• is employed in the event of an emergency "wheels ly sanded surface. This technique, although sim• up" landing by an aircraft. In this emergency, it ple, has proven quite effective as an emergency has been established that the foam layer provides measure to combat icing conditions. When neces• a definite fire dampening effect. sary to restore traction on an ice-covered runway, 2000 gallons of water and 7 to 9 cubic yards of Notwithstanding the great success that has been free-running sand are all that are required to treat achieved to date in maintaining airfields and other the vital portions of an airstrip. In an extreme support formations, the RCAF is continuing to emergency this water-over-sand bonding technique keep pace with the ever-changing aircraft require• is applied to only the actual aircraft touchdown ments. More efficient equipment is being con• area (the narrow center strip), and the aircraft sidered, snow removal crews are being continually braking area. Tests have proved that this trained in the latest operating techniques, and new emergency operation can be accomplished in from or improved techniques are being developed. By 15 to 20 minutes on a jet airstrip with a total this means, regardless of weather conditions, it is area of 1,500,000 sq. ft. the intention that the ground support will be such When RCAF experimental tests indicated that that RCAF winter aircraft operations will never the hot sanding and water-over-sand bonding be hampered or limited by the lack of suitable techniques were the two most effective techniques equipment or "know how".

96 MECHANICAL EQIDPMENT TRENDS IN AIRPORT SNOW REMOVAL AT DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT AIRPORTS by H. E. A. DEVITT Civil Aviation Branch Department of Transport

ABSTRACT RESUME Reasons for increased standard of winter main• On indique les raisons pour lesquelles l'entretien tenance at Canadian airports are given. Some of hivernal des aeroports s'est ameliore. Quelques• the snow removal equipment used by the Depart• uns des appareils d'enlevernent de la neige utilises ment of Transport is described and comments are par Ie ministere des Transports sont decrits et des presented as to factors that should be taken into commentaires sont presentes quant aux facteurs consideration in the design and development of qu'il y aurait lieu de prendre en consideration dans equipment. The technique used by the Depart• la conception et dans la realisation des materiels. ment of Transport for ice control is described. On decrit la technique employee par Ie ministere An evaluation of the high speed rotary snowplough des Transports pour Ie traitement de la glace. developed for the RCAF is presented. On evalue l'interet des chasse-neige rotatifs a grande vitesse mis au point pour l'ARC.

The Department of Transport is responsible for mill Theatre during the Second World War, the the direct operation of approximately one hundred most sought-after "standard" or "reputation" in and twenty airports in Canada ranging from major the minds of our airport managers is that it can international airports, such as Montreal, Toronto, never be said that his airport was closed through Winnipeg, Edmonton and Vancouver, in the more runway unserviceability. Our responsibility is to densely populated areas of Canada, to remote find and provide them with the right tools to get airports in the Arctic, such as Inuvik, Cambridge the job done. Bay, Coral Harbour and Fort Chimo. We live in an age of great technological ad• The extremes of weather to be encountered vances particularly in air and space travel. While between Victoria International Airport, with rela• the truth of this statement applies to every phase tively snow-free conditions, to the 120 inches or of modern life, we believe that space travel, which more of dense wet snow to be cleared at Gander is really an extension of today's air travel, is International Airport, require just as varied a striding forward at a greater rate than most other fleet of airport mobile equipments. In this fleet of fields of human endeavour. We, in the Department equipment, where our annual replacement expen• of Transport, are directly affected by the advances diture averages $1.5-$1,700,000, we operate ap• achieved within this area. Longer runways, much proximately 670 snowploughs of four-wheel drive greater pavement strengths, and more exacting and conventional-drive truck movers, 130 self• standards of surface maintenance, are synonymous propelled snowblowers, 70 motor graders, 140 with the jet and turbo-prop aircraft in airline crawler tractors, 55 airport runway sweepers, and service in Canada. Then too, the miniaturization 35 tractor shovel front-end loaders. The runway of parts and the use of transitors has reduced the surface cleared may vary from a 10,000 ft. x 200 bulk of electronic gear to the point where a small ft. asphaltic concrete or Portland cement concrete compact package installed in the aircraft can make runway pavement at an international airport, it possible for a pilot to land his ship under serving commercial aircraft around the clock, to weather conditions that even a duck would not a snow compact surface at Fort Simpson and fly in. But what does this have to do with Airport Coral Harbour, or a cleared ice landing strip at Snow Removal Equipment? It's the old adage of Baker Lake; the latter serving charter air carriers "cause and effect." Because modern-day aircraft perhaps once a week. Like the doors of the Wind- are able to land and take off in all but the most 97 severe weather disturbances, schedules are tighter, ability. Thus, our Department has fostered the flights more frequent, and disruptions more costly. introduction within recent years of prototype It will be apparent, therefore, that delays occa• equipment, some quite frankly experimental and sioned by snow removal operations can no longer some simply modifications of existing equipment be tolerated and the former practice of building adapted to a particular field maintenance task. large windrows after the storm ceases, then slowly This is not to imply that all of the equipment in and laboriously blowing these off the runway, is use today at our major airports is new or experi• far too slow a procedure to be employed on "live" mental. Not at all! While it is true that we are runways at busy International Airports in the updating some equipment and employing modern year 1964. highspeed removal techniques wherever the meth• od is warranted, it is not economically feasible The whole operating procedure has, of neces• to replace all of our older equipment. Our policy sity, been speeded up. The operational surfaces is to balance out our equipment fleet by the em• in use must be kept at or close to "blacktop" con• ployment of techniques which enable us to inte• dition * throughout the duration of the storm and grate the use of new and old equipment in those we conform to a single operator principle in equip• areas of high speed clearance which have top ment operation. Just as in the case of modern priority, in order that aircraft may continue to expressways and multi-lane highways, airport operate during the storm. Subsequently, after the snow clearance is progressively becoming more storm has subsided, the older equipment may be and more a high-speed operation. Older, slow moved into the secondary areas of snow removal speed equipment and methods are less acceptable which have been allotted a lower priority in ac• today where time is of the essence. In the Depart• cordance with the requirements of the air traffic. ment of Transport, officers who are responsible for maintaining most of Canada's large airports I would like to refer to specific types of equip• are continually seeking ways and means of im• ment in Departmental service. The procurement proving our equipment and techniques and of of prime mover vehi.cles for snow ploughing is one providing technical assistance whenever possible example of the changing trend in equipment in in the development of new ideas. the Department. Whereas in the past, nearly all snow plough trucks at Departmental airports were As you are no doubt aware, the majority of heavy-duty all-wheel drive vehicles ranging from equipment utilized for airport snow removal was 32,000 lb GVW to 40,000 lb GVW, in many originally developed for the much larger market instances our replacement for this vehicle to-day of highway snow clearance. Over the years, this is a 27,000 lb. GVW standard commercial type equipment has been modified and adapted to air• dump truck incorporating a large displacement port work. In the past, under different circumstan• motor option, of 200 net horsepower, equipped ces, the exclusive use of this equipment has served with power steering, electric windshield wipers, our needs adequately. Even today at our smaller cab guard and West Coast-type mirrors. Of airports, where limited traffic and light scheduling course, because this unit can accelerate to and prevail, we are able to utilize this equipment maintain relatively high ploughing speeds, the effectively. Some of the equipment, however, has snow plough equipment has also undergone a been in operation from fifteen to twenty years, change. The plough now incorporates a casting and while it is still capable of turning in a good ability in the mouldboard design not found in day's work, it is simply not fast enough to keep earlier types of one-way and V-ploughs. While pace with modern snow clearance equipment. the all-wheel drive truck still has an important Today's major terminals, handling as they do role to play in our snow removal program, in the a steady stream of air traffic, are big business. future it will supplement our largely conventional• Hundreds of human lives and millions of dollars type truck fleet particularly where high-speed worth of aircraft are dependent upon safe and techniques are employed. Operator acceptance speedy passage in and out of these major traffic of this vehicle has been extremely good because centres. We have reached the stage where ex• of its ease of operation and flexibility of use during pensive specialized ground maintenance equip• all seasons. In addition to providing improved ment may be economically justified, provided it ploughing performance, the vehicle's maintenance can show an improvement in runway service- is less complicated and expensive than it is with * David C. Smart, High Speed Snow Removal, Airport the older custom-built equipment. It is our policy Services Management, Volume 3 - No.9, September 1963, Page 9. to continue this change-over to conventional drive 98 trucks by the introduction of a 27,000 lb. GVW "A 27,000 lb. GVW conventional drive 4 x 2 truck equipped with fully automatic transmission dump truck with minimum engine displacement of the Allison MT 40 type before conclusion of of 400 cu. in. (Ford 800 series, GMC 98303, this winter. It will be the first of several units Fargo D900); an automatic transmission of so equipped to be placed in service at mainline four speed ranges forward; a 'cab-over' engine airports. configuration to provide optimum operator visibility and to position him above snow blow• Various types of snow ploughs are being pro• over; a 8' - 9' rollover plow fabricated of cured by the Department. It is our experience aluminum with up to two (2) wing ploughs that these must be carefully matched as to size, mounted in such a manner that the wing plow weight and tractive ability of the vehicle upon acts as an extension of the main mouldboard which they are mounted. The selection is also configuration and continues the vortex, casting influenced by the particular site application as action to the snow to achieve a maximum cast in turn dictated by the runway configuration, from the plow's cut." topography and the airport to be cleared. For example, the Power Reversible Type ploughs have Referring to airport runway sweepers, the De• been chosen for some airports where large ramp partment operates a large fleet of a type produced areas and prevailing cross-winds are involved, by a well-known Canadian manufacturer. To while at others, particularly in heavy snowfall achieve a more efficient sweeping action at areas, the Roll-Over Type have been supplied. economical cost we have this winter put into At another site the selection may be for one of operational service a modified broom bristle refill the newly-designed One-Way Casting Ploughs. or replacement. Through the efforts of Depart• This variety of types is affording us an opportunity mental officers and a Canadian wire bristle man• to compare the capabilities of each, under varying ufacturer, a modified type of replacement bristle circumstances. The Roll-Over and the Power for our runway sweeper at mainline airports has reversible ploughs have each been designed to been tested and accepted. In addition to doing a provide the same feature, that is, to plough either cleaner sweeping job than the original design, it to the right or left without changing the direction provides up to 30% longer bristle life at a of travel of the truck, thus eliminating dead head• reduced bristle cost and permits a considerable ing under adverse wind conditions. This ability manpower saving in the installation time (6 hours is accomplished, however, by a different method vs. 40 man-hours). in these two designs. Comparative evaluations For runway ice control, a hot sand distributor should enable us to determine which plough will has been under test and development at Depart• best suit our needs after another winter's opera• mental airports for the past two seasons. The tion. In the category of experimentation, a modi• machine incorporates two oil burners which heat fication to a Power Reversible Type plough is a vat of special heat transfer oil. The sand is being undertaken for the Department by a plough carried within a 5 cu. yd. hopper which is sur• manufacturer to provide hinged extensions fitted rounded by the oil vat. In addition, the oil is to the standard plough, extending its clearing path piped through coils (tubes) located in the centre from 9 feet to 11 feet under maximum extension of the sand hopper with the result that a large positioning at the extreme ploughing angle. This amount of the sand is in contact with the heat extended mouldboard will permit a path to be transfer area thus ensuring a rapid increase in ploughed compatible with the sweeping width of the sand temperature. Hot, dry sand is delivered the airport runway sweeper. It will permit the in controlled amounts to the distributor spinner two pieces of equipment to work together without where hot water from a large heated reservoir a portion of the broom extending into virgin snow, located within the unit is sprinkled on the sand. which creates a problem by overloading the Thus hot, damp sand is spread in controlled broom. amounts onto the icy surface in a manner that will ensure a quick bond and the creation of an At this stage in the evolution of conventional• abrasive coating. drive plough trucks, I would like to draw up a Our experience with the high speed rotary brief specification of what we, in the Department snowplough, which has been developed for a of Transport, think may be the ideal plough truck military requirement to plough and blow snow at for high-speed snow removal on mainline airport speeds up to 40 and 50 m.p.h., has not been runways: promising to date. While we believe the concept 99 to be sound, the several machines we have in sponsibility, the safe, swift and uninterrupted service have been plagued with a high incidence movement of air traffic, shall continue to be our of mechanical unserviceability and complicated aim. Through the refinement and adaptation of maintenance problems. The systems are complex existing equipment and a progressive replacement and sophisticated, and we have found them to policy for older equipment as it becomes obsolete require a specialized mechanical knowledge in or beyond economical repair, we are attempting the craftsmen assigned to the maintenance of this to achieve this goal. And what of the future? equipment. The operation of the rotary plough Such attractive ideas as heated operational sur• is relatively simple. The latest innovations in faces, through the use of an infra-red electrical equipment design are incorporated: (1) excellent or nuclear heat sources, non-corrosive types of visibility obtained through the use of cab-forward chemical cheap enough to permit its use to melt configuration; (2) handling ease by means of snow on contact with the pavement are but a power steering; (3) torque convertor coupling to couple of interesting possibilities. Lower oper• a semi-automatic transmission; (4) all-wheel drive ating costs may make the use of snow melt pits an and the use of a widely accepted diesel motor to attractive proposition in the future, which today power the truck. The rotary plough mechanism are ruled out on economics so long as we can haul and the interchangeable bank head are powered snow to disposal areas within airport boundaries. by a large military pattern air-cooled fuel-injected Another variation in snow removal policy has gasoline engine which in our experience has been made at our Toronto, Montreal, and Win• proven difficult to service. In view of the limited nipeg International Airports where we are making success which we have achieved in high speed increased use of contract operations for snow snow clearing to date with these machines, due in removal in certain vehicular traffic areas and for the main to the high rate of unserviceability, snow haulage from aircraft ramp areas. Working coupled with the high capital cost, reappraisal of with haulage contractors who possess large in• the role of this high speed rotary plough in our ventories of vehicles and other mobile equipment, operation has taken place. We are, however, which normally would be idle during the winter continuing to observe with interest the develop• months, we are able to employ their operator ment of both this machine and a similar type personnel and equipment under Departmental high-speed rotary blower which has received supervision and at a considerable saving in cost. general acceptance in the western U.S.A. in Besides providing winter employment for heavy mountainous highway snow clearance and which equipment and a number of operators, we are able is now being produced in Canada. to maintain our equipment inventory at a level Through the news media and by correspond• compatible with our year-round needs at an air• ence with other user-operators around the world, port, with contracted equipment for periods of the problems of snow removal are constantly peak workloads. being studied by officers of the Department of It would appear that our runway lengths have Transport in our endeavour to keep abreast of reached their maximum and that aircraft design latest developments. In passing, we might make is now trending to the vertical-take-off (VTOL) mention of experimental equipment being devel• or at least the short-take-off (STOL) and landing oped in Sweden to relate skid resistance on snow configurations. While this trend will certainly and ice-covered runways to measure aircraft braking ability. Germany is experimenting with reduce the runway requirement and consequently a truck-mounted flame type ice melter; England the amount of snow removal required, it usually with jet engines to heat and melt snow, while here follows that other maintenance refinements are in Canada and the United States mobile snow resultant with the advent of new operating con• melting machines and static pits are in prototype cepts. It would appear that the many problems stages. Whenever these and other ideas develop associated with runway snow removal are with us to the point of practicability, their application to for some years to come and we believe that it will our problems will be promptly investigated and, be necessary to continue to devote a great deal if found to hold promise, will be evaluated. of time and energy toward the development of In the immediate future, as we see it, economy airport mobile equipment in order to accomplish of operation, compatible with our primary re- this task more economically and efficiently.

100 RUNWAY SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL METHODS AT AIRPORTS MAINTAINED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT by L. M. E. HAWKINS Civil Aviation Branch Department of Transport

ABSTRACT RESUME The Department of Transport clears runways Le ministere des Transports deblaie des pistes equivalent to 2,600 miles of two-lane highway equivalentes a 2,600 milles de routes a deux and compacts, for ski-equipped aircraft and drift voies, et il tasse pour les aeronefs equipes de control, the equivalent of 975 miles of highway. skis et pour empecher la neige de voler, l'equiva• Runway snow removal practice of the Depart• lent de 975 milles de routes. On decrit la methode ment of Transport is described. Specifications for employee par Ie ministere des Transports pour sand used for ice control are presented. Opinions enlever la neige des pistes. On donne les specifi• are given as to other possible methods of ice cations du sable employe pour traiter la glace. control. On evalue les autres methodes possibles de traite• ment de la glace.

In the early days of winter flying, light ski• are strips of pavement 200 feet wide, bordered equipped aircraft operated from untouched level by lights spaced at 200 foot intervals, projecting snow-covered areas. Runways at the few existing 14 inches above ground level. Taxiways are simi• airports were maintained by rolling or dragging lar except for being 75 feet wide. Working down the snow to form a hard level surface. the centre the plough or ploughs cast long parallel windrows of snow at a speed of 15 m.p.h, Two With the development of heavier planes which or three ploughs usually work together in echelon were not equipped with skis, it became necessary formation. The windrows of snow created by the to manipulate the snow to a greater density. This ploughs are picked up and blown over the lights, was done by the use of crawler tractors, heavy clear of the runway, by the auger-type blower drags and rollers. However, spring breakup pro• mounted on truck chassis, operating at a maxi• duced soft spots and icy surfaces in these runways mum speed of 3 m.p.h. This means that to clear which temporarily restricted flying. a runway 5,000 feet long, of 2 inches of snow, The first major change in snow handling took with 2 plough trucks and 2 blowers, requires 4 to place following the advent of the trans-continental 5 hours. This is the basic operation on the air service in 1937, and the inauguration of the secondary airports. British Commonwealth Air Training Plan in 1940. At International and mainline airports, continu• It then became necessary to remove the snow ous runway serviceability is required. The high• from runways in the same manner as it was done speed, all-weather type of passenger travel has on city streets. In those days, aircraft were resulted in the development of higher speed snow grounded during bad storms because there were removal techniques. The large jet of the DC8 few navigational aids. Therefore, there was no and 707 type requires runway lengths up to, and extreme urgency to clear the runways. exceeding, 12,000 feet and "Black" pavement at Today's faster aircraft and all-weather flying all times. Even though this type of airplane is demand near perfect runway conditions, especially comparatively less tolerant than older piston types at main airports. However, the actual over-all to ridges of snow and ice and is grounded when plan of the snow removal procedure has changed slush exceeds 112 inch, it is capable of operating little since the early days. in all but the most severe weather conditions. The Snow removal equipment starts to work on the "on the ground" result, then, of the "jet age" in upwind runway, the one required first. Runways Canada, adds up to a colossal snow removal task. 101 High-powered single axle drive trucks with First, by removing water and residual snow as it casting ploughs are operated at speeds up to 40 occurs, with the power sweeper. The second m.p.h. and the same blowers that lugged along method is to provide friction by the use of an at 3 m.p.h. are blowing much smaller windrows abrasive. Because piston and turbine engines are of snow at speeds up to 18 m.p.h. In order to prone to damage by ingestion of foreign matter, eliminate the residual snow from these high speed it is of prime importance that the abrasive be operations, the runway is swept clean with the bonded to the icy surface. This bonding also power sweeper in passes 12 feet wide at 20 m.p.h. provides the necessary friction value. Our present This unit incorporates a 12,000 c.f.m. air blower practice is to use a material having the following to assist in this cleanup. Snow removal is con• properties: tinued 25 feet beyond the lights to reduce drifting (a) At least 90 per cent of the largest size and to maintain unobstructed visibility of the particles must have two or more fractured lighting system. At these airports snow removal faces; operations commence at the fall of the first few flakes and continues until the snow stops and the (b) When distributed the material should be runway is clear. A 10,000 foot runway can be above freezing temperature to allow partial cleaned of 2 inches of snow by this technique in imbedment into the ice; 40 minutes, using 3 ploughs and 2 blowers. (c) The material should be damp to facilitate The method of immediate attack is also used bond and to add weight for uniform dis• when there is a heavy rainstorm and "bird baths" tribution and to resist being blown away; of water on the paved surfaces are removed with (d) Because of the relatively small friction the sweeper. This operation reduces the possibility value of granular material passing the No. of the formation of ice or slush. 50 sieve size, this fraction should not A successful and economical method of snow exceed 5% of the total sample; and removal has been developed and is used under (e) The material should be composed of a light snowfall conditions. This method utilizes a stone that is of a non-friable nature, one straight 20 foot piece of angle iron, slung between which will not quickly break down under two rubber-tired wheels. It is towed at speeds tire pressure or water contact. The abra• between 35 and 45 m.p.h., the metal edge just sive is distributed on the runway in widths touching the pavement. The success of this opera• of 40 ft. by trucks provided with 5 cubic tion requires cross-winds in excess of 20 m.p.h., yard sand hoppers. The usual salt com• light snow, and temperature below freezing. pounds employed for ice removal on road• Under these conditions, this equipment can main• ways are corrosive to aircraft metals and tain entire runways completely free of snow. The can not be used on runways. action of the metal drag is to create a strong current of air behind the inverted VangIe of the It may be interesting to note some of the ice iron. The draught sucks the snow, which has control techniques that have received our atten• been dislodged by the leading edge, into an angled tion: screen located above and behind it. The chunks Urea (which is manufactured nitrogen) is rela• of snow break and disperse in a fine cloud and tively non-corrosive but slow acting and effec• blow clear of the runway. tive only down to +11"F. Another method of snow removal, in limited Glycol is effective and non-corrosive but pro• use, utilizes the high speed blower. This unit, hibitively costly for large-scale use. It creates which is basically a snow plough with a blower, a greasy residue difficult to remove. can remove snow 12 feet wide at 45 m.p.h. Its best performance requires the snow to be light. Lamp Black, Prussian Blue possess limited ice We have found that its high initial cost and melting properties by absorption of solar heat. operating and maintenance expense is not justified They are slow acting. by its performance. Whether modifications in the design can make this blower more serviceable Truck-mounted aircraft jet engine has been tried in England, and, we understand, in remains to be seen. with some degree of success but here again A major problem in runway maintenance is the besides being damaging to pavement surfaces formation of ice. This is handled in two ways. the operating cost appears to be impractical. 102 Radiant Heating by the use of heated glycol D.O.T. on Canadian Airports the following statis• circulation in piping placed in the pavement is tics are cited: employed by the Department in limited areas Snow removal to a clean pavement is in con• of strategic importance, such as inclined vehicle tinual progress on an area equivalent to 2,600 ramps and pedestrian walks. The operating and miles of two-lane highway. The average depth of maintenance costs of this equipment is ten times that of conventional snow control methods. snow which was removed from this area last winter was 6 feet. Radiant Heating utilizing in-pavement electrical wires, although promising, we feel can not be Snow compaction for ski-equipped aircraft and justified for large-scale application, at present• for drift control covered an area equivalent to day hydro rates. 975 miles of two-lane highway. During the past three or four years, it has been Approximately 40,000 tons of sand were dis• our practice at Montreal to haul snow by contract. tributed for ice control. The areas involved include roadways, parking If navigational aids increase at the rate they lots and aircraft ramps where the snow can not be blown clear of the pavement and must be have during the last decade, it seems reasonable to hauled to disposal areas. In order to assure maxi• assume that the weak link in the entire chain of mum dependability and minimum time lapse, spe• wintertime travel in Canada will be the ability cifications require that the contractor own the to provide a continuously serviceable runway free equipment he proposes to use and that the haulage of snow and ice. It appears impractical to develop trucks be of minimum capacity of 12 cubic yards. much larger and faster snow removal equipment Departmental staff and equipment is utilized in than that which is now in use. Before the arrival loading these vehicles using the rotary blowers of the supersonic airplane, therefore, instead of working from windrows. increasing the number of pieces of equipment, it In order to illustrate the size of the snow may be desirable to evolve a totally new concept handling job undertaken each winter by the of snow removal.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

W. E. BOTTOMLEY: men and equipment during snow and ice storms be done ahead of time for good and successful It was interesting to discover how many of the results. The rest is governed by the information problems across the country are common, and yet we can obtain in advance on weather conditions each service, such as the Air Force, Railways, and the reports that come in by radio from the Cities and Highways, have a separate problem highway itself. related only to their type of service. Our partic• ular problem in the mountainous area is ice con• We have sufficient and good equipment to trol. handle the snowfall even in areas where the average is up to 350 inches per year, and a snow• The snow and ice problem varies greatly from fall of 111 inches in five days did not create too one section of highway to another because of many problems as we are blessed with places to altitude, prevailing temperatures and precipitation. dispose of it. In one section of 20 miles, we The conditions change as to both volume of snow have 74 avalanche paths that cross the highway and range of temperatures over very short dis• and, with the defences we have, these are not too tances, and in a foreman's section, which is usually bothersome. I will not attempt to describe what approximately twenty-five miles, he can have all we do with them as ice control is the subject conditions possible at the same time. As a result, under discussion. it is impossible to lay down a set of rules that will apply to any section of the highway; decisions During the day, as the sun travels from east for maintenance have to be left almost entirely to west, it is not high enough in the winter months with the foreman on the section. to clear the tops of the mountains, and, as a We find it most important that men and equip• result, we have shady spots all day throughout ment are made ready in advance of snow emer• the length of the highway, which are turned to gencies and that careful planning for the use of ice as soon as the sun disappears. When the sun 103 sets in the evening, we can have miles and miles (3) Since it is dry, it passes through the sander of slippery road in a matter of minutes if we are with less trouble and can be put on with• not prepared for it. The other critical time is out having a second man with the sander. early in the morning after a light snow during (4) We have hauled the sand up to 37 miles, the night. and while it was cool at the edges, the During a storm, we do not attempt to maintain main bulk of the sand was effective. bare pavement as we feel that chemicals are (5) It is effective on which is usually necessary to do this. We have not made use of very thin, but a finer gradation should be chemicals generally for the following reasons: used such as that passing a %" screen. (1) Salt is $40.00 per ton in the West com• (6) The distance between stockpiles should be pared to approximately $15.00 in the short as most time lost with a sander is East; returning for another load. This would (2) Our traffic count has not been high enough require several heating plants along any to break up the ice nor to justify the cost; length of highway, for instance, a stock• (3) Salt creates the problem of animals on the pile and heater at least every ten miles. travelled portion of the road when it is (7) Heating is slow and it is difficult to have used in a National Park. a sufficient quantity hot when it is In the past, we have followed standard practice required. of using abrasives wherever and whenever re• (8) Heaters must work more or less continu• quired. Our traffic is gradually increasing and ously to have hot sand available whenever the time is almost here when we will have to go it is required. after bare pavement preferably without the use of salt. The Air Force paper on their problems (9) Chemicals should not be added to the offers some hope for us; at least it will give us stockpiles when the abrasives are to be something to attempt, that is, the use of the heated. broom and the "sand bonding technique". It is hoped that we will be able to assess the economics of this technique next spring as we This year we started heating our abrasives, in feel that it is a big improvement over the standard Banff National Park, to find out if it is an im• methods of placing abrasives. provement over the standard methods. For abra• sives we use a pit run gravel that has been put One other point that might be mentioned is through a half-inch screen, heated in a standard that we have modified some of our sanders in Barber Green dryer of approximately 15 tons Glacier National Park to make a cavity all around the hopper by welding a steel plate to the frame per hour capacity. The gravel is put on the high• of the hopper. This area is heated by passing the way with a standard Brantford 5 cu. yd. hopper exhaust from the truck through a four-inch flex• disc sander at the rate of from one to two cubic ible hose to the front of the cavity and out the yards per mile placed down the centreline of the back. While we have not tried this with the hot highway. sand, it has been very effective in keeping abra• We have not done enough nor has our set-up sives from sticking to the inside of the hopper been such that we can ascertain costs per cubic during cold weather. yard or mile, but the following are the conclusions P. ISBERG: we have reached to date: Studs or inserts of cemented carbide for rubber (1) The hot sand either freezes to the ice on tires are very helpful when braking a vehicle on contact or creates a pocket of moisture so an icy road. They have gained very wide accept• that it is not blown off the road by wind ance for cars in Sweden during the last few years, nor kicked off by fast-moving traffic. and they are just becoming known over here. (2) On a snow road it remains in place and Linjeflyg, which is the domestic subsidiary air• can be brought up to the surface again by line of SAS in Sweden, has also done some ex• the use of a grader equipped with serrated• perimenting with carbide studs for airplanes re• edged blades. cently. I have not heard anything about their 104 results so far. Do you have any experience of tute for Snow and Avalanche Research copies of this kind of safety device in Canada ? reports of a study on snow removal and ice control undertaken by the Society of Swiss Highway The Chairman noted that in a recent issue of the Experts. Two of these reports, "Snowdrifts and New Scientist (No. 373, January 9, 1964) there Winter Ice on Roads" and "The Calculation of was an interesting article on "Studded Tires for the Amount of Salt Required to Melt Ice and Skid Prevention". Snow on Highways", have been translated by the In reply to a question on aircraft planning, the National Research Council and are available in Chairman also noted that in the December 26, its Technical Translation Series. The National 1963 issue of the New Scientist (No. 371) there Research Council has good liaison as well with was an article entitled "Taking Off When the the Urban Snow Removal and Ice Control Project Runway is Wet", which gives some interesting of the American Public Works Association de• information on co-efficient of frictions on wet scribed earlier by Mr. D. C. Wagner, the Project runways. Director. Mr. Rebizant pointed out the desirability of ex• One of the difficulties in exchanging informa• changing information with other countries con• tion with other countries is to develop the right cerning snow removal and ice control practices. contact. Snow removal and ice control has grown so rapidly in the past 20 years that there has L. W. GOLD: been little opportunity to record experience and make it available through one or more appropriate The National Research Council has developed and is continuing to develop channels of com• organizations. One of the purposes of the present munication with appropriate organizations in conference was to begin to develop a record of other countries through which it would be pos• Canadian experience. It is hoped that when this sible to exchange information on snow removal record is made available, it will provide stimulus and ice control. For example, through such chan• and create opportunities to expand the exchange nels it has received from the Swiss Federal Insti- of information with other countries.

FINAL DISCUSSION PERIOD Chairman - L. W. Gold

On the morning of 18 February, an ad hoc can be best applied, including quantities committee, composed of Mr. J.-V. Arpin, Mr. required for satisfactory use taking into W. D. Hurst, Mr. F. E. Ayers, Mr. H. Gray, Mr. account temperature and the development W. L. Barrett, and Mr. D. C. Wagner, met to of equipment for controlling rate of ap• discuss the session on Snow Removal and Ice plication. Control in Urban Areas and to prepare recom• (3) That a study be made on current practices mendations for future action for consideration by of snow removal and ice control in Cana• the Snow and Ice Subcommittee of the Associate dian cities. This includes ploughing prac• Committee on Soil and Snow Mechanics. These tices for sidewalks, streets, and lanes; recommendations were as follows: application of abrasive and ice melting (1) That studies be conducted with the pur• chemicals and mixtures thereof; and the pose of establishing suitable recording and removal of snow from streets and the accounting systems for snow clearing, re• disposal of the removed snow. moval and disposal, and ice control, and (4) That studies be made of the ordinances, to develop a suitable classification of regulations, and by-laws now in effect in accounts. connection with snow removal and ice (2) That research be undertaken to determine control including the clearance of side• the damaging effects of ice melting chem• walks, driveways, and restrictions in con• icals on machines and structures; to nection with the parking of vehicles. It is ascertain what can be done to provide further recommended that an attempt be chemical substitutes for existing chemicals; made to develop model ordinances, regula• and to determine bow present chemicals tions, and/or by-laws. 105 (5) That benefit cost surveys of snow clearing and ice control experience and practices of large and removal be undertaken. industrial enterprises, shopping centers and housing developments. (6) That studies be made on the means, meth• ods, and desirability of clearing service I would suggest that a ninth recommendation driveways. be added which would read as follows : (7) That a study be made on defining what "(9) That a study be made of the effect of weather information is required for the snow removal operations on city ap• purposes of snow removal and ice control pearance and on city planning which and the determination of what services can includes street layout and parking lot be provided by the Meteorological Service requirements, pavement and boulevard of the Department of Transport. widths, and sidewalks and driveway (8) That research be undertaken on new locations. Furthermore, it is important methods, equipment, and techniques in to receive suggested recommendations snow removal and disposal, and ice con• as to design provisions necessary to trol, including thermal melting systems and facilitate snow and ice removal based problems connected therewith. on the problems encountered and their suggested solutions." During the final hour, these recommendations were submitted to the conference for comments, It is hoped that the above reflects the need additions or changes. The following were re• for detailed information so that planning prob• ceived: lems related to snow and ice control may be clearly understood and solved. P. REBIZANT: M. S. KUHRING : The paper and comments presented to the conference on urban snow removal described I have been rather worried about the vast techniques used in metropolitan areas. The quantities of salt mentioned by the various study should be extended to include smaller speakers as being used to melt ice and snow. cities and towns, with particular reference to It would appear that in many cases this salt, areas of very heavy snowfall. along with snow from the streets, is being dumped into lakes, streams, or rivers. This is Investigation into the application of heated possibly a matter that will greatly disturb health pavements requires further attention. No de• authorities and wildlife people. Before we spend tailed discussion was presented at the con• a lot of time or money in looking into the best ference on this topic. A record of Canadian way to use chemicals, it might be well to check experience in overhead or subsurface heating that the discharge of specific quantities of these of parking areas, walkways or streets should chemicals into streams or lakes would be ac• be prepared, with emphasis given to costs, cepted by the Health and Wildlife people. methods of construction, efficiencies and related problems. For the above reason I suggest that in Re• commendation No. 2 the words "water con• My final comments are a supplement to the tamination" be added to read " ... ice melting recommendations of the conference. I believe chemicals on water contamination, machines that the first sentence of the second recom• and structures." mendation should read as follows : "(2) That research be undertaken to deter• H. E. A. DEVITT: mine the damaging effects of ice melt• A problem which is common to the majority ing chemicals on machines, structures, of conventional and rotary snow plough trucks including pavements, and on vegeta• is restricted operator visibility during snow tion". clearing operations. Restricted visibility is The third recommendation should include caused by snow blower, windshield misting by practices of snow removal from parking lots. hot air heater, ingestion of fine snow, ice Further to this recommendation, an effort buildup on wiper blades through faulty ineffec• should be made to record private snow removal tive defrosters and defroster fans. 106 We understand that the problem is confined In our experience, none of the available to the areas of snow clearing where ploughing heating or defrosting devices are fully effective and blowing is undertaken by equipment at rela• under our normal conditions of high-speed snow tively high speeds, such as on airports and high• clearing. Any investigation into ways and means ways, although under certain removal condi• of improving operator visibility on current snow tions, it must also be prevalent in urban snow plough trucks will result in improved safety to clearing. the travelling public and the equipment oper• ator and effect economies in ploughing/blowing patterns with more precise equipment operation.

APPENDIX A

LIST OF THOSE ATTENDING THE SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL CONFERENCE OTTAWA, ONTARIO 17 and 18 FEBRUARY 1964

A. A. Albert, W. L. Barrett, Dept. of Public Works, Engineering Dept., Fredericton, N.B. City of Fredericton, Fredericton, N.B. D. M. Annand, Plant Manager, Jean Bastien, Northern Machine Works Ltd., Maintenance Engineer, Bathurst, N.B. Hotel du Gouvernement, D. G. Arklie, Quebec, P.Q. c/o RCAF Hdqts., R. K. Beach, Ottawa, Ont. Division of Bldg. Research, R. Armour, National Research Council, Division of Bldg. Research, Ottawa, Ont. National Research Council, Ottawa, Ont. D. C. J. Beauclerc, Roads and Traffic Engineer, F. E. Ayers, City Hall, Director, Planning and Works Dept., Peterborough, Ont. City of Ottawa, G. Beltrami, Ottawa, Ont. Engineering Dept., J.-V. Arpin, City Hall, Director, Roads Dept., Kingston, Ont. City of Montreal, Montreal, P.Q. W. E. Bottomley, Regional Hwys. Maintenance Off'., H. R. Bailey, National Parks Branch, RCAF, ATC, Trenton, Northern Affairs & Nat. Resources, c/o RCAF Hdqts., Banff, Alta. Ottawa, Ont. E. C. Bain, N. Bothwell, Dungarvon Company, Twp. of North York, 46 Elgin St., 5000 Yonge St., Ottawa, Ont. Willowdale, Ont. 107 H. K. Bourne, G. R. Chambers, U.K. Scientific Mission, Terrance St., British Embassy, New Glasgow, N.S. 3100 Massachusetts Ave. N.W., T. R. Chambers, Washington 8, D.C. Dow Chemical of Can. Ltd., D. W. Boyd, Sarnia, Ont. Division of Bldg. Research, F. M. Cline, National Research Council, Miller Paving Ltd., Ottawa, Ont. 56 Blake St., G. F. Bradbury, Toronto, Ont. Civil Aviation Branch, D. Cochrane, Dept. of Transport, Planning and Works Dept., No. 3 Temporary Bldg., City of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont. Ottawa, Ont. W. L. Bradley, F. Cook, City Engineer, Engineering Dept., City of Kitchener, Twp. of Scarboro, Kitchener, Ont. 116 Eastville Ave., D. Brohm, Scarboro, Ont. Maintenance Engineer, W. G. Cooke, Ontario Dept. of Highways, Superintendent of Equipment, Downsview, Ont. Ontario Dept. of Highways, F. P. Brooks, Downsview, Ont. National Capital Commission, L. F. Cooper, 291 Carling Ave., Planning and Works Dept., Ottawa, Ont. City of Ottawa, G. E. Bulger, Ottawa, Ont. Civil Aviation Branch, C. Coppedge, c/o Dept. of Transport, USAF, Downsview, Ont. c/o RCAF Hdqts., W. Butler, Ottawa, Ont. Alderman, J. L. Courtney, City of Kitchener, Civil Aviation Branch, Kitchener, Ont. c/o Dept. of Transport, J. C. Caird, No. 3 Temporary Bldg., Air Materiel Command Hdqts., Ottawa, Ont. RCAF Station Rockcliffe, R. E. Crowley, Ottawa, Ont. U.S. Army Standardization Group, L. A. Caissie, c/o Directorate of Equip. Policy, Dept. of Public Works, Canadian Army Hdqts., City of Fredericton, Ottawa, Ont. Fredericton, N.B. J. R. Daye, G. D. Campbell, City Engineer, Canadian Good Roads Assoc., City of Westmount, 270 Maclaren St., 4333 Sherbrooke St. W., Ottawa, Ont. Westmount 6, P.Q. G. Cavadias, J. A. Desjardins, Graduate School of Business, Engineering Dept., McGill University, City of Hull, Montreal, P.Q. Hull, P.Q. 108 H. E. A. Devitt, J. Fox, Civil Aviation Branch, Asst. Engineer of Track, Dept. of Transport, Canadian Pacific Railway, No. 3 Temporary Bldg., 401 Windsor Stn., Ottawa, Ont. Montreal, P.O. N. W. Diakiw, P. A. H. Franche, Streets Engineer, City Manager, Met. Corp. of Gr. Winnipeg, City Hall, 455 Ellice Ave., Alma, P.O. Winnipeg 2, Man. P. Francoeur, A. Deschuttes, Salt Representative, Sicard Inc., Domtar Limited, 2055 Bennett Ave., 7044 Notre Dame E., Montreal, P.O. Montreal, P.O. D. Deugo, A. French, Planning and Works Dept., Roads Dept., City of Ottawa, Metro Toronto, Ottawa, Ont. 75 Eglinton Ave. E., W. Dunford, Toronto 12, Ont. Maintenance Engineer, City of Pointe Claire, C. P. Gilman, 451 St. Johns Rd., c/o RCAF Hdqts., Pointe Claire, P.O. Ottawa, Ont. D. R. Evans, M. A. Gilmore, City Engineer, Salt Sales Control Manager, City of Sault Ste Marie, Imperial Chemical Ind. Ltd., Sault Ste Marie, Ont. P.O. Box 7, Northwick, T. Fell, City Engineer, Cheshire, Eng. City of Port Arthur, G. Givens, Public Utilities Bldg., c/o RCAF Hdqts., Port Arthur, Ont. Ottawa, Ont. W. H. Finnbogason, Streets and Traffic Engineer, F. A. Glasser, Met. Corp. of Gr. Winnipeg, Tamper Div. Canada Iron, 455 Ellice Ave., Montreal, Oue, Winnipeg, Man. L. W. Gold, E. H. Fisher, Division of Bldg. Research, Manager of Work Equipment, National Research Council, Canadian National Railway, Ottawa, Ont. 935 Lagauchetiere St., Montreal, P.O. H. Gray, Engineering Dept., H. C. Fisher, City of Edmonton, Directorate of Works, Dept. of National Defence, Edmonton, Alta. Ottawa, Ont. W. H. Gray, A. D. Ford, Wheel & Brake, Dept. of Public Works, Div. of Frink of Canada, City of Toronto, 32 Park St. E., Toronto, Ont. Dundas, Ont. 109 R. Greenhalgh, J. P. Johnson, Directorate Construction Frink of Canada, Engineering Maintenance, 118 Stewart Ave., RCAF, Galt, Ont. Ottawa, Onto J. W. Johnston, L. M. E. Hawkins, RCAF, St. Huberts, Civil Aviation Branch, c/o RCAF Hdqts., Dept. of Transport, Ottawa, Onto No. 3 Temporary Bldg., E. W. Kelly, Ottawa, Onto Directorate of Works, D. R. Harvey, Army Headquarters, Sheridan Equipment Ltd., Dept. of National Defence, 1661 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Onto Ottawa, Onto W. P. Kerr, M. P. Heitshu, Asst. Director Operations, City Engineer, Nova Scotia Dept. Highways, City of Eastview, Provincial Bldgs., 180 Montreal Rd., Halifax, N.S. Eastview, Onto E. N. King, B. B. Hercus, Technical Info. Service, Canrand Ltd., National Research Council, Don Mills, Ont. Ottawa, Ont. A. A. Hink, G. Klein, Trans-Canada Airlines, Div. of Mech. Engineering, Dorval, P.O. National Research Council, Ottawa, Ont. G. Hurlburt, Twp. of North York, M. S. Kuhring, 5000 Yonge St., Div. of Mech. Engineering, Willowdale, Ont. National Research Council, Ottawa, Ont. W. D. Hurst, City Engineer, C. A. Kunz, City of Winnipeg, Associate Director, 223 James Ave., Snow Removal & Ice Control Proj., Winnipeg 2, Man. American Public Works Assoc., Philadelphia, Pa. R. W. Huson, c/o RCAF Hdqts., G. R. Kutzschan, Ottawa, Onto Civil Aviation Branch, Dept. of Transport, D. B. Hyland, No. 3 Temporary Bldg., Canadian Salt Co., Ottawa, Ont. 53 Beverley Ave., Montreal 16, P.O. J. G. Laberge, Sales Manager, P. Isberg, Interprovincial Equipment Ltd., Swedish Embassy, 9501 Ray Lawson Blvd., 2249 R St., N.W., Montreal, P.O. Washington 8, D.C. 20008. B. E. Langley, A. A. Johns, Asst. Director Operations, Planning and Works Dept., Nova Scotia Dept. Highways, City of Ottawa, Provincial Bldgs., Ottawa, Onto Halifax, N.S. 110 J. L. Lapointe, K. T. McLeod, Works Superintendent, Superintendent, City of Shawinigan, Public Weather Service, Shawinigan, P.Q. Met. Branch, D.O.T., Toronto, Ont. M. A. La Salle, Canadian Good Roads Assoc., W. M. Metcalfe, 270 Maclaren St., City Engineer, Ottawa, Ont. City of Brockville, Brockville, Ont. J. K. Latta, Div. of Bldg. Research, B. Michel, National Research Council, Universite Laval, Ottawa, Ont. Ste-Foy, Que. R. F. Legget, L. D. Minsk, Director, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research Div. of Bldg. Research, and Engineering Lab., National Research Council, P.O. Box 282, Ottawa, Ont. Hanover, N.H. (03755) U.S.A. A. J. H. Litzenberger, Development Engineering Br., M. G. Myers, Dept. of Public Works, c/o RCAF Uplands, Sir Charles Tupper Bldg., Ottawa, Ont. Ottawa, Ont. F. B. Nighbor, 285 Catherine St., A. Leslie, Pembroke, Ont. Materials & Research Div., Ontario Dept. of Highways, M. Ostiguy, Downsview, Ont. Regional Engineer, Parliament Bldg., W. K. Lombard, Quebec, P.Q. Vice-President, Thermal Research & Eng. of Can., J. J. Penner, 3130 Dixie Rd., RCAF Uplands, Cooksville, Ont. Ottawa, Ont. L. Perron, E. Loos, Engineering Dept., L.C.M. Engineering Ltd., City of Quebec, 65 E-3rd Ave., Quebec, P.Q. Vancouver 10, B.C. L. C. Peskin, J. B. Lucas, Thermal Research & Engineering of Canada, c/o RCAF Hdqts., 3130 Dixie Rd., Ottawa, Ont. Cooksville, Ont. R. Lefebvre, K. F. Peters, Ford Tractor & Equip. Sales, District Manager, Montreal, P.Q. Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton Corp., 1560 Lawrence Ave. W., Apt. 605, J. G. Macdonald, Toronto 15, Ont. Director of Development, R. J. Phillips, The Dominion Road Machinery Co., Engineering Dept., Goderich, Ont. City of Kingston, S. McKelvey, Kingston, Ont. Wheel & Brake, E. Pounder, 331 York St., McGill University, Hamilton, Ont., Montreal, P.Q. 111 J. Purdie, Editor, L. A. Scammell, Civic Administration Magazine, Canadian Salt Co. Ltd., 481 University Ave., 2555 Highway 122, Toronto, Onto Clarkson, Onto R. Piche, R. A. Scott, Ford Tractor & Equipment Sales, Maintenance Engineer, Montreal, P.Q. Saskatchewan Dept. of Hwys., Regina, Sask. A. Rath, Frink of Canada, L. Seheult, 777 Laurell St., Faculty of Forestry, Preston, Ont. University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. P. Rebizant, Architectural & Planning Div., R. Silversides, C.M.H.C. ,Head Office, Abitibi Power & Paper Co. Ltd., Montreal Rd., 408 University Ave., Toronto 2, Onto M. F. Reeves, P. E. Simard, Dept. of Highways, Engineering Dept., Charlottetown, P.E.I. City of Alma, R.A.S. Reid, Alma, P.Q. Directorate of Equipment, J. R. Simpson, Army Equip. Engineering Est., General Manager, 323 Chapel St., Thermal Research & Engineering of Canada, Ottawa, Onto 3130 Dixie Rd., F. Raby, Cooksville, Onto Ford Tractor & Equipment Sales, J. S. Smith, Montreal, P.Q. Canadian Pacific Railway, 150 Windsor Station, R. G. Rhodes, Montreal, P.Q. Engineering Dept., City of Pembroke, J. R. Sumner, Pembroke, Ont. Sumner Equipment Ltd., 965 Weston Rd., J. G. Ripley, Toronto 9, Onto Engineering & Contract Record, 1450 Don Mills Rd., R. H. Smith, Don Mills, Onto RCAF Trenton, c/o RCAF Hdqts., G. Rodger, Ottawa, Onto Chief Engineer, Frink Sno-Plows Inc. R. J. Stewart, 205-227 Webb St., RCAF St. Huberts, Clayton, N.Y. c/o RCAF Hdqts., Ottawa, Onto J. H. Ross, Frink of Canada, C. F. Taylor, 777 Laurell St., Executive Vice-President, Preston, Ont. Northern Machine Works Ltd., Bathurst, N.B. E. M. Ryll, Maintenance Engineer, L. Thauvette, Engineering Dept., Engineering Dept., City of Calgary, City of Hull, Calgary, Alta. Hull, P.Q. 112 M. K. Thomas, J. R. Warren, Meteorological Branch, Town Engineer, Dept. of Transport, City of Mount Royal, 315 Bloor St. W., 90 Roosevelt Ave., Toronto 5, Onto Mount Royal, P.Q. W. P. Tapley, W. J. Washburn, Mechanical Engineering Branch, Engineering Division, Minister of Transport, National Parks, St. Christophe House, Ottawa, Ont. Southwark St., L. F. Webster, London, S. E. 1. Editor, R. Vanier, Canadian Municipal Utilities, Engineering Dept., Toronto, Ont. City of Outremont, G. P. Williams, Outremont, Que. Div, of Building Research, D. C. Wagner, National Research Council, Fels Inst. of State & Local Gov't., Ottawa, Onto 39th and Walnut Sts., L. E. Wood, Philidelphia, Pa. Miller Paving Lt., L. E. Walker, 56 Blake St., Ont. Dept. of Highways, Toronto, Onto District Engineer, L. B. Walker, 530 Tremblay Rd., Chief Engineer, Ottawa, Onto Sicard Inc., E. C. Walton, 2055 Bennett Ave., Engineering Dept., Montreal, P.Q. Twp. of Scarboro, 116 Eastville Ave., Scarboro, Ont.

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