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Seeds, Scientists & Genetically Modified Organisms: Genetic Engineering Practices and Global Connections by Christina Holmes Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia April 2008 © Copyright by Christina Holmes, 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-39087-0 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-39087-0 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plntemet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY To comply with the Canadian Privacy Act the National Library of Canada has requested that the following pages be removed from this copy of the thesis: Preliminary Pages Examiners Signature Page (pii) Dalhousie Library Copyright Agreement (piii) Appendices Copyright Releases (if applicable) Table of Contents List of Tables viii List of Figures ix Abstract x List of Abbreviations Used xi Acknowledgements xii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Why Look at GMOs? 1 What Are GMOs?: Definition 4 Global GMO Use 4 Why Has the Issue Been Contentious? 7 Conceptual Influences 9 Situating the Research 13 Overview of Chapters 15 Chapter 2 Bringing GMOs Into Being: An Archaeology of Plant Breeding Practices 18 Introduction 18 Historical Ontology and GMOs 20 Plant Breeding Practices: From the Field to the Laboratory 23 In Situ Farmer Plant Breeding 25 Plant Breeding Beginnings and the Archaeological Record 25 Contemporary Ethnographic Accounts of Farmer In Situ Plant Breeding 32 Precursors of Scientific Plant Breeding: Botanical Investigation in the Renaissance and Colonial Period 42 The Establishment of Scientific Plant Breeding 48 The Rise of New Botany: Experimentation and Laboratory Work 50 Professionalization Among Plant Breeders 52 Combining Selection with a Greater Knowledge of Genetic Factors: The Influence of Darwin and Mendel 53 High Yield Varieties and Agricultural Changes 61 Biotechnology 63 IV Development of Molecular Biology and Biotechnological Tools 63 Tissue Culture 65 Marker Assisted Breeding 66 Genetic Engineering 67 Genetic Engineering, 'Newness', and Substantial Equivalence 69 Conclusion 71 Chapter 3 Methodology 74 Introduction 74 Methodological Framework 75 Participant Observation 77 Fieldsite 1: A Government Laboratory in Canada 79 Fieldsite 2: An International Laboratory in Colombia 81 Short Term Participant Observation and Temporary Fieldsites: 84 Colombian Laboratory Tours and Visits 84 Biotechnology Conference, September 2004, Bogota, Colombia 84 Canadian Laboratory Visits 85 GE3LS Conference February, 2003, Montreal, QC, Canada 85 Qualitative Interviews 86 Documents Examined for Ethnography 91 Data Analysis 92 Considerations of Power 94 Ethical Considerations 96 Harm 97 Privacy and Anonymity 98 Informed Consent 100 Summary 103 Chapter 4 GMOs in Laboratories 104 Introduction 104 Looking at the Local and the Global 107 Looking at Laboratories 108 Describing the Two Laboratories 116 Ottawa Government Laboratory 117 v Canada 117 A Day in the Laboratory 118 Roles in the Laboratory 122 How Do GMOs Fit? 126 Centro International de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) 132 Colombia 132 A Day in the Laboratory 134 Roles in the Biotecnologia Unit 137 How Do GMOs Fit? 141 Comparing Sites of GMO Construction 148 Conclusion 155 Chapter 5 Debating GMOs: From Objects of Contention to Boundary Objects 157 Introduction 157 GMOs as Boundary Objects 159 GMOs in the Social Science Literature 161 Public Opinion & Public Debate on GMOs 161 Connecting Political and Economic Issues to GMOs: Local and International Governance & Trade 165 Social Science and Science: Homogeneity Versus Heterogeneity in Viewing GMOs 170 GMOs and the Metaphor of the Tool 172 Classifying GMOs 174 Methods for Creating GMOs: Transformation, Plant Tissue, & DNA Source 176 General Purpose of GMO Research 178 Difference in Breeding Goals 181 Intended Use (Or Who Is It For?) 182 Yield Enhancement (Or Increasing a Farmer's Harvest) 184 Enhancement of Plant Qualities (Or Making Plants Better for You) 188 Molecular (Ph)Farming 189 Differences in Plant Species and Variety Used 191 Differences in Disciplinary Settings 195 Summary 196 VI Internal Heterogeneity and the Implication for GMOs as Boundary Objects: Into the Regulatory Realm 199 Conclusion 203 Chapter 6 GMOs in the Global: Snapshots from a Science-scape 205 Landscape: Looking at GMOs from Outside Genetic Engineering... 214 Landscape Snapshot #1: Are GMOs Useful and Where Does the Corporation Fit In? 214 Landscape Snapshot #2: GMOs and Biotechnology as Knowledge Building Tools 217 Landscape Snapshot #3: Too Much Emphasis on Science in Plant Breeding? 219 Connections: GMOs and Scientific Exchange 223 Connections Snapshot #1: Connections Through Students 225 Connections Snapshot #2: Connections Through Collaboration 226 Connections Snapshot #3: Connections to Funding & Farmers 229 Disconnections: GMOs and Inequalities 233 Disconnections Snapshot #1: Plant Scientific Capital 233 Disconnections Snapshot #2: Disconnections in Resources and Language 237 Disconnections Snapshot #3: Disconnections Though Intellectual Property 240 Why Are GMOs Important Anyway?: Scientific Motivations and Social Action 242 Motivations Snapshot #1: Genetic Engineering for the Future 243 Motivations Snapshot # 2: Neglected Crops and Searching for Solutions 245 Motivations Snapshot #3: Biodiversity in the Context of International Competition 250 Conclusion: Knowledge Building & Inequalities 252 Chapter 7 Conclusion 256 Review of Research Results 256 Implications for Understanding GMOs 257 Conceptual Implications 265 Future Research Questions and Final Comments 267 Reference List 271 vu List of Tables Table 1: Key Features of Darwinian or Population Breeding versus Mendelian or Pedigree Breeding 55 Table 2: Interviews Completed in Canada and Colombia 87 vin List of Figures Figure 1: Typology of GMO Heterogeneity as Seen by Scientists 175 Figure 2: Socio-Technical Choices in GMO Creation 198 IX Abstract Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are created within a global assemblage of practices that incorporate complex, and sometimes conflicting, scientific, economic, technological, political, and cultural elements. Not all GMOs are the same; they differ depending on, for example, the plants used or the social and scientific goals for their creation. I suggest that scientists using genetic engineering see 'GMO' as a heterogeneous category in which GMOs can take very different forms in different locations. These differences are not widely recognized outside of science by either social scientists or the media in reporting on GMOs. This tension between viewing GMOs as a homogeneous category with firm boundaries versus a heterogeneous category with many different forms makes them boundary objects. As boundary objects, GMOs must be negotiated by regulators who have to choose whether to categorize them by the suite of processes known as genetic engineering or by the differences between the products and associated risks that result from this process. Furthermore, there is a disjuncture that exists between i) the claims that GMOs will provide widespread societal benefits in the future and ii) the orientation of currently commercialized GMO products towards profitable markets, rather than humanitarian goals. Adopting a multi-sited ethnographic approach to examine plant biotechnology in the public sphere, I engaged in participant observation and qualitative interviews with scientists, regulators, and members of non-governmental organizations in both Canada and Colombia. Participant observation was based in a government laboratory in Canada and at an international research centre in Colombia. My findings suggest that the 'technology transfer' of genetic engineering for development or humanitarian purposes requires critical attention, as
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