Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000 8
CHRISTOPH H. PFAFF AND THE CONTROVERSY OVER VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY
l Kr h nd M l n M. , A rh Un v r t , n r
Introduction r th t r h t h h n r ( ." h bj t f lt pr Chr t ph nr h f ff, 28 r It h b n 200 r n Al ndr lt nv nt d ld G r n h t nd ph t th h lt h d h f p l , th f r t l tr b tt r , nd th r b r ntl b nt d. f ff lr d n n r t d n p rt nt t rt n th t xp rt n lv n p nt n t nl f r th n n , f ld f t d h f l tr t nd n t lt v t d thr h t h l n b t l f r th l t r l tr r r. n ntr b l t hn l th t th r t n t n l l tr t nd, hl h tr n f r d n p rt l r, th nd r t nd t . h l tr n h h n f lt p l d h t ll l v n r n bl b f r n W lh l tr d b t lt d v O t ld v 8 6 h r . p l d t l b t r f l tr h tr . A th bj t f nt n rd n t O t ld, f ff nt f nv t t n, "p n t n h t r n f h h n l d d th r t l lv n nd z l d d f th r n f th l f nd r f v lt " h " n tr l t n n th t d t p l r t p rt l rl n r p nt n l f nl th pr p t n f th n l t d ff r nt t l r d f lv n ph n n br ht n nt t. h n G r n (2 ." In dd t n t n f r d pr n ntl n t h n r r n l th n f th f r t h lf f tr h tr nd n r n th n n t nth nt r , nd t n l , th v r t l f ff p d ph t nd p bl h d n p p r nd h t l . Ind d, t th t b n bj t f ph , t th p r t n b t n Figure 1. Chr. . f ff ( 8 2 . r C. S h dt d n , t r l , ph nd h tr h d n t S hönb , 300 Jahre Phy sik and Astronomic an der b t n , nd ph r . t b n f t. Kieler Universität, rl . rt. K l, 6 , 2 6. t h v n n t nt t n E r p nd r In l tt r f O t b r 0, 80 t th t h n r p nd d r h d p r n l r l t n th p rt nt t t M rt n v n M r , lt r f rr d t " h hl nt t nd h l r h C v r, G , , t d G r n nt t, z l lt v t r f ph ht nb r , G l n, Ør t d, lt , rth ll t, hén rd, , n t r l h t r , nd h tr , nd th th r f 84 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000) r Lagrange, Berzelius, Liebig, Faraday, Mayer, and It won him much praise and caught the attention of Volta, Goethe. among others. After further studies in chemistry, phys- ics and medicine he obtained in 1798 a chair at the Chris- Although he was a central figure in the scientific tian-Albrecht University in Kiel. He spent most of the life of his time, today Pfaff is largely forgotten or rel- year of 180 in Paris, and it was here he met Volta and egated to footnotes in works on the history of science. witnessed the Italian scientist's famous demonstration This is probably because he made no significant dis- of the pile in front of Napoleon and other luminaries. coveries, but rather made an impact as a teacher and Pfaff was fascinated by Volta and his marvelous appa- propagator of science and through his many books, re- ratus and immediately took up his own experiments (7). views, and papers. There is indeed a Pfaff included in In 1802 the ambitious young scientist wrote to van the Dictionary of Scientific Biography, but he is Johann Marum (8): Friedrich Pfaff, a mathematician and Christoph's older brother. Curiously, when Chr. H. Pfaff does turn up in I r n t pr nt n pl t tr t n lv n , n h h I h ll bl n t t bibliographies and historical writings, his first name is rd r ll th r ll th nt f t , nd n h h I often given as Christian rather than Christoph. For ex- h ll r d th t th l f l tr t . ample, this is how he is named in the 1863 edition of Poggendorff's authoritative bio-bibliography, in the lt n about Pfaff's project, of which he approved. British Museum General Catalogue of Printed Books On January 23, 1802, he wrote to Pfaff ( : (1963), and also in the classical historical works of I v r h pl d th r d f p bl h n Edmund Whittaker and James Partington. Yet his first tr t h h pr nt v r th n th t h t n name was Christoph, such as proved by his autobiogra- pl n rn n lv n , nd t p t th tt r n th l r t l ht n n l n d t b tt r th n phy (3). . h r th t h v d n v r l r , [ nd] th rd r nd th d th t v rn th , pr v f nd C r r it. Although Pfaff's "complete treatise" never materialized, Born on March 2, 1773 in Stuttgart, young Pfaff en- his work earned him a reputation as one of Europe's tered in 1782 the nearby Karl Academy, named after foremost specialists in electrochemistry and galvanism. Württemberg's Duke Karl Eugen. He soon became fas- Ludwig Gilbert, the German physicist and editor of cinated by the scientific subjects that were taught at the Annalen der Physik, wrote that Pfaff (10): Academy in addition to the classical languages. His early knowledge of chemistry mostly stemmed from Friedrich ...h d r d t l l n th n f ld f ph [ nd] th h x ll nt r lt th t lt , h Gren's Systematisches Handbuch der Gesammten h t n r , ntr t d h th dv rt n nd Chemie (1787-1790), which he studied by himself. lt v t n h th r n G r n ... [ f ff ] rt l Among his fellow students was the Frenchman Georges n th t nth v l f Ann l n d r h (th Cuvier, four years older, who would later become such r 802, pp 2 nd 2 t ll b l n t th t a famous pioneer of zoology and paleontology. The close n tr t v nt f th th r . and, in the spirit of the time, romantic friendship with From 1801 to the end of his life in 1852, Pfaff investi- Cuvier became a turning point in Pfaff's life and rein- gated the action of the pile, defended Volta's notion of a forced his decision to devote his life to science. Cuvier metallic contact force, and wrote widely about voltaic became not only his friend but also his mentor and phenomena. He was considered an international author- teacher. When Cuvier returned to Paris, he kept Pfaff ity on the subject, which he surveyed in 622 pages for regularly informed of Lavoisier's latest works and the the new edition of Johann Gehler's Physikalisches ongoing revolution in chemistry (4). As a result, Pfaff, Wörterbuch. Ostwald later praised the survey for Pfaff's who had originally accepted the phlogiston theory, con- "commendable care and thought (11)." verted to the antiphlogistic doctrines and became an advocate of the new chemistry and its transfer to Ger- Yet galvanic and voltaic phenomena were only part man soil (5). of what Pfaff was concerned with during his busy sci- entific life. He was greatly interested in electromagne- Pfaff completed his medical studies at the Karl tism on which topic he wrote an early "history (12)," Academy with a Latin dissertation on animal electricity and in 1829 he learned from Faraday himself about the (De Electricitate Sic Dicta Animali) which in 1795 ap- new way to produce electricity by means of induction. peared in an extended and revised German edition (6). Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000) 85
Methodologically, Pfaff favored a positivistic view of chemists and pharmacists. In 1843, on the occassion of science and never tired of emphasizing that chemistry his 50-year's doctoral jubilee, the Danish king conferred and physics were solidly founded on experimentally upon him the title of konferensraad (Conference Coun- established facts. He had no patience for the German cillor), a great honor and a recognition of his services to Naturphilosophie and neither did he like Goethe's re- Danish science and culture. During the last years of his volt against Newtonian science. Having read Goethe's life, Pfaff lost his eyesight and was unable to work in Farbenlehre, he quickly responded with an anti-Goethe his laboratory. He died on April 23, 1852 in his beloved tract repudiating the views of the famous poet and het- Kiel, where he is buried. erodox amateur scientist (13). Much of Pfaff's time was occupied with medicine and pharmacy, and he also con- Polemics I: Pfaff versus De la Rive tributed significantly to analytical chemistry. He devel- oped analytical techniques and wrote in the early 1820s According to Volta, the action of the pile was due solely a practically oriented handbook of analytical chemistry to a contact force (a forze motrice, or electromotive (14), according to William Brock the "first major ana- force) arising between two different metals, and not to
Table I. Chronology of Chr. H. Pfaff
rn n St tt rt, G r n . 82 Ent r K rl A d . t r l d rt t n (M. . n n l l tr t . 8 r f r ( xtr rd n r t K l Un v r t , M d l lt . 80 St d n r . M t lt . 802 ll r f r n h tr nd ph . 804 M b r f th l n h A d f S n . 8 2 C rr p nd n b r f th rl n A d f S n . 828 r t r f th S hl l t n S n t t n rd. 82 t n r U. G . . nd nd n (W. r t M. r d . 8 0 r d nt f th ph h tr t n f th (G r n S t f h n nd t r l S nt t . 8 Ch f d t r f th S hl l t n ph r p . 8 All t r j t n f h l th r ( v n . 8 8 Gr nd E r p n t r. 84 t j r r ( r ll l . n fr Ch r. 8 2 th. 8 bl t n f h t b r ph ( b n r t r n n .
lytical textbook (15)." Among his few contributions to chemical processes of any sort. This view was reflected organic chemistry was an investigation, together with in the title of Volta's famous letter to Joseph Banks of Liebig, of the chemical composition of caffeine (16). March 20, 1800, namely, "On the Electricity Excited by At the same time he did research in mineralogy, the corn- the Mere Contact of Conducting Substances of Differ- position of mineral waters, and technical chemistry (in- ent Kinds (17)." Other scientists, among them Giovanni cluding the production of acetic acid and sulfuric acid) Fabbroni, Davy, and Berzelius, questioned the contact — to mention only some of his areas of work. theory and suggested that the pile was in reality a chemi- cal machine. According to the chemical theory, chemi- During the first half of the nineteenth century (un- cal changes were necessary for the production in the til 1864) Kiel, the capital of Holstein, was part of the pile of an electrical tension or, if the circuit was closed, Danish Empire. Pfaff was often in Copenhagen and had a current. This was the beginning of an unusually long close connections with H. C. Ørsted and other Danish and complex controversy that lasted for more than half 86 ll. t. Ch ., O UME 2 , b r 2 (2000
nt r nd nv lv d n n, h n l d d th t " t p f E r p f n t h t bl t n n xt rn l nd f r nd ph t ( 8 . n r t n , th r th n th n t t, th f r th l tr t h v lt p l n d v l p d (20 ." In rd r t d n tr t d fr l r n b r tr t th pr d t n f l tr l f f l r n t nn t d n f t th t h l t n, f ff r , n r ll r f rr d t l xp r nt d th z n p " lv n " r "v lt " l p r lv n l nt n h h th nt . h h d nd t l p r r p r t d b t ll n n l nt r r t d l t n f z n lf t r f ll p d f t d l r fr d fr d lv d r. A rd n t l nd " t nd t th h l th r n ld t r" th t ld b n nd f p t th t t b l tr ll n l d r l t n. M t f th t v b z n lf t x rt n n r xp r nt n h l t n n th r z n r p d t d d r n th ntr v r p r. Y t f ff f nd th t tr n r d th th lv n l tr l ff t was pr d d, r l nt r th r th n th v l lt th t l ft l v p zzl d. f ff t p l , n n l nt r d th l tr l ff t b th nv n ntl n t t t d n th nd n r nd n l tr p d t r pr nt t n f th ( t t r t n n l tr t , nd th p l t lf. lv n t r (d n r rr nt f ff lf pr l tr t . M r v r, h h ll n d l d h p n f th n th " h t " t xpl n h th r 2. Title page of Pfaff's major t n n f th p l increases th th t t th r nd n d r d work in the voltaic controversy. h lf rd n f lt n b r f pl . v . In 8 4 h l n h d n tt n th h l f ff r n d l l t th nt t , b ttl n th r pr p d b v , rz l nd th r nd n t nl h h f pp n nt l v b t l th r f ft n r l t r h n n th rp th n t h l th h t h h l h r . h pr n p l r n r t , n l d n r f p p r r tt n b th G n v nt t r l n A t l v th t nt d t f ll d v l p d r n , M h l h l lt rn t v t th nt t th r . An th r d r d n En v t f th h l th r , th r ph t l nd, nd Chr Ant n Cé r r l, h t r t t n S hönb n nd d tt d th x t n f t ll nt t f r , nd r dr h lth h h n d r d t t b f nd r p rt n M hr n G r n . nl . d n l r n b r f xp r nt , l In 8 h v r d fr 82 n rd th t h l h n r z d h r nv r bl pr nd t n f r v lt ph n n , n " lv n v l h r , n th b n f h l t n, "th r n t " d r n d v l p nt f l tr t , t n r t n t h n th r l r th n t d r h n l t n b nt ( ." l v , d n b th pr v d th t th nt t th r r n . f ff, th t h b l v d t pr v d th t l v r n . f ff p n r 3. The cylinder-type cell, or ld ttl th galvanic element„ was frequently used n t r l, l v , nd th r dh r nt f tt r n f v r f th h l lt rn t v n l d d d f d r p t t n in the voltaic controversy. Illustration lt th r from A.-C. Becquerel and É. f lt f nd nt l nd n r xp r nt, p rf r d (2 . Becquerel, Traité d'Electricité et de n v r n v r dr d . S n h bt n d t n. On th n Magnetism, Libraire de Firmin Frères, th r lt r p rt d b lt , n l tr l t n Paris, 1855, vol. 1, 231. Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000) 87
trary, at that time the chemical theory gained strength, num electrode immersed in nitric acid. The two liquids in part because of Faraday's entrance in the debate. were separated by a porous wall. Together with his friend Becquerel and De la Rive continued to defend the chemi- Schönbein, the famous discoverer of ozone and a long- cal theory. Citing "thousands of experiments," time defender of the chemical theory, Grove performed Becquerel concluded in a textbook of 1842 that "the elec- in his London laboratory a number of experiments with tricity released by the pile totally originates from the the new galvanic element. The two scientists observed chemical action (22)." a considerable "chemical action" of the acid on the zinc plate, that is, the zinc corroded visibly because of the It should be noted that although Pfaff was undoubt- acid. Schönbein concluded that the powerful chemical edly the most energetic and persistent advocate of the action was connected with the equally powerful effects contact theory, he was far from alone in his criticism of of the element, and that the cell was therefore a con- the chemical alternative. In the 1830s he was followed vincing argument in favor of the chemical theory (23). by several other scientists, both chemists and physicists; Pfaff, of course, disagreed. He decided to repeat the and for a period the contact theory was generally be- experiment and had his own design of Grove's cell made lieved to be a better explanation of the pile than the in Copenhagen. His version consisted of a central zinc chemical theory. Among the German scientists who de- rod within a porous clay cylinder surrounded by a plati- fended the contact theory were Georg S. Ohm, Johann nized porcelain cylinder (Fig. 3). With this cell Pfaff C. Poggendorff, Gustav T. Fechner, and Georg F. Pohl. repeated the experiments made by Grove and Schönbein. He measured the power (Kr ft of the cell by means of an electromagnetic balance and found the very large car- rying capacity of 40 pounds (Fig. 4). He then exchanged the sulfuric acid with an amount of zinc sulfate dissolved in water, that is, a solution incapable of exerting chemi- cal action on zinc. The carrying capacity now measured 50 pounds. The results made Pfaff note that (24 : r t j , th h n t rpr , f r I f r l t nd n v lt r nd, I f nd th t th p r n h n d. In a letter to his friend H. C. Ørsted, he wrote (2 : I h t n t nf r f n xp r nt nt r l d v f r th th r f v lt , d f n t v l l n n th l n f ht tr l v r th r f l tr t n th l d [ lv n ] h n, nd pl t l n r n th tr ph f th nt t th r . r 4. An l tr n t b l n . h ll r The interpretation seemed obvious to Pfaff, who rhe- nn t d t r nd p r nd r n r , n th r t n n l tr n t v r n n tr n th torically asked his colleague in Copenhagen (2 : rd n t th tr n th f th rr nt. h C ld th r b r v nd t v pr f f th nt t l tr n t ld ttr t th p n f th b l n nd th r nd n t th h l th r ? th n bl r nt f th rr nt nt n t n v r, the experiments with the Grove cell were no t r f ht. Ill tr t n fr A. C. r l nd E. more decisive than any other of the so-called crucial r l, r té d El tr té t d M nét , br r experiments that were so common in the controversy. d r n rèr , r , 8 , v l. , 2 .
An Indecisive Experiment: Grove's Cell Polemics II: Pfaff versus Faraday Michael Faraday's electrochemical works were another In 1839 William Grove, the British physicist and inven- challenge to the contact theory. Even before 1834, the tor of the fuel cell (also in 1839), constructed a cell of year when he announced his electrolytic laws, Faraday remarkable strength. His element consisted of a zinc was predisposed toward the chemical theory; and his electrode in a dilute solution of sulfuric acid and a plati- electrochemical discoveries strengthened him in his be- 88 ll. t. Chem., VOLUME 25, b r 2 (2000 l f. ddr d "th r t t n f h th r t [th r d r p t d h v n 84 , d t rb d b "sev- l tr t ] r n ll d t t ll nt t r t eral tt , fr G r n , It l nd l , p n h l t n" nd r p rt d xp r nt th t pr v d th h l th r f th v lt b tt r , nd f " n th t d v nn r, th t metallic contact is th p n xp r nt f n ( 0 ." nd bt dl not necessary for the production of the voltaic current r f rr d t f ff, n th r , h n nv n d (26 ." W th r d t b p bl t r b r d r nt nd nt n d h l f l n f ht r l t pr p rt n ll th t n n f th p l th th n n t th h l th r . At th th rd t n f v lv d h l ff n t nd n th n r r t S nd n v n S nt t n St h l n 842, n ft n r d b th nt t t . n h nt t, Chr t n M. l n, d l v r d p l l nt r d ddr th t b d t l r h h l th r t rl l d th p xt nt n f ff t r nt xp r nt nd r nt p rt fr r d . r x pl , n 8 6 l ( . v t t d th t (2 : The intensity of the currents developed in combina- A l t 84 th 2 r ld G r n nt t tions and in decompositions is exactly proportional d f nd d lt nt t th r n t th h l to the degree of affinity which subsists between the h ll n . tr t l r l th n th atoms whose combination or separation has given rise ntr v r th l v , n l t r t z to these currents. r d xp r nt nd n l n b h n r dr h M hr b l v d, pr b bl r n l , th t l r nt r xp r nt . f ff p t d r d t b b j r t f E r p nt t n f ll d r d d nd h xp r nt l r lt t b nfl n d b n pp rt f th h l th r (28 . Y t, lth h h h t pr v th h l th r ( 2 : r d r l n t n t th d As a staunch defender of Volta's contact theory of v t f th h l th r , th d d n t r l the galvanic chain, I found myself doubly challenged h n th t t n. h rt nl d d n t l d t ... to check with the utmost impartiality Faraday's d f t f th nt t th r r t nv r n f f ff reasons. ... I soon realized that Faraday, in his po- nd h ll . lemics against Volta's views, had not done the matter full justice, and that he maintained the chemical W th h n l 840 p p r "On th S r f theory with a kind of passion and endeavored to se- r n th lt l " r d l n h d n nd cure its triumph; for this reason I became suspicious f r f l tt n th nt t th r . Ap rt fr t n [and doubted] if all of the new experiments reported lth f xp r nt l d t (l ttl f h h r n , by Faraday were correct. h n n d r d th t n n th l ht f n r l t f ff l ddr d r d r ph l ph l pr n pl f n t r l ph l ph . r d r d th t th bj t n n t th nt t th r . r d th t th nt t th r " pr b bl " b t v l t d nt t f r , ntr r t h l f r , pr h t ld n b n n th n rv t n f f r , t v p r th t n th r n n d f xpl n t n n r n rl v r n f th n pt f n r n rv t n r tr t d b th r r d pr n pl f n xh t b l t (2 : r M r n pr n pl f f r n rv t n. A rd ... the chemical theory sets out with a power the ex- n t f ff, th nt t f r b l n d t th t istence of which is pre-proved, and then follows its r r v t , " h h nd tr t bl nd n xh t variations, rarely assuming anything which is not bl nt n th l f f th l r masses n h supported by some corresponding simple chemical t n th rd r f th n v r d p nd , th t t fact. The contact theory sets out with an assumption, n d n n n r h nt fr th t d th t r p t to which it adds others as the cases require, until at dl r ndl t t v t (33)." last the contact force, instead of being the firm un- changeable thing as first supposed by Volta, is as f ff 84 b pr r l d r t d n t variable as chemical force itself. Were it otherwise r d , nd nd r l n t S hönb n nd G l n than it is, and were the contact theory true, then, as it b t t l f nt r t b t n l d d th f r t d appears to me, the equality of cause and effect must n v r f J. b rt M r 842 p p r n th be denied. Then would the perpetual motion also be h n l v l nt f h t ( 4 . M r p bl true; and it would not be at all difficult, upon the first t n, n h h h ntr d d th d f n rv t n f given case of an electric current by contact alone, to produce an electromagnetic arrangement, which, as n r ( r f r , l t r t b r n z d l nd to its principle, would go on producing mechanical r p p r n th h t r f n b t n t ll t effects forever. n r d b l t ll nt t . h x pt n f ff, Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000 8
h v d t l d nd r t l nt f M r v 134. In the 1971 edition of Poggendorff's ( . M r n l d d th d n f th "v r Handwörterbuch, Vol. 7a (Akademie-Verlag, Berlin), the d t n h d nt t" nd n h t b r ph l n t first name is correctly given as Christoph. His posthu- h r f rr d r t f ll t f ff. mously published autobiography is C. H. Pfaff, Lebenserinnerungen von Christoph Heinrich Pfaff, On th n th t f ff j t t bb rn nd Schwers, Kiel, 1854. p bl n l d f nd r f rth d x v lt , h 4. W. Behn, Ed., Georges Cuvier's Briefe an C. H. Pfaff f l d t r l z th t th th pr n pl f n r n aus den Jahren 1788 his 1792, Schwers, Kiel, 1845. rv t n "th nt t th r h d b n d lt rt l 5. For the dissemination of Lavoisier's ideas to Germany, bl ( 6 ." But see K. Hufbauer, The Formation of the German Chemi- th n t th . h pt n cal Community (1720-1795), University of California f th l f n r n rv t n d d n t pl th t th Press, Berkeley, CA, 1982, which includes a section on h l th r b n v r ll pt d nd th Pfaff. nt t th r d rd d. Alth h th h l th r 6. C. H. Pfaff, Uber Thierische Electricität und Reizbarkeit, b h r p p l r n th 840 , t n d Lebsech und Crusius, Leipzig, 1795. For a detailed t t r pl pl t l th nt t th r . At th analysis, see M. J. Trumpler, Questioning Nature: Ex- t f f ff d th th ntr v r n d l n , nd perimental Investigations of Animal Electricity in Ger- t nt t h d l t nt r t n h t pr v l h d many, 1791-1810, Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University, b n h tl d b t d t n. h r n n t th t 1992. th t n h d b n r lv d, h v r, nd f r v 7. On the relationship between Volta and Pfaff, see H.-R. Wiedemann, "Alessandro Volta e it Fisico Tedesco r l r d d th h l th r nd th nt t Christoph Heinrich Pfaff," Periodico della Società th r nt n d t x t. Storica Comense, 86 8 , 52, 39-48. At l t b 8 0 t h d b l r th t th lt 8. E. Lefebvre and J. G. De Bruijn, Ed., Martinus van Marum: Life and Work, Nordhoff International, Ley- pr bl ld n t b t f t r l lv d th n th den, 1976, Vol. 6, 277. Pfaff and van Marum collabo- l t f nt p r r n nd th t ph n n rated in proving the identity of voltaic and frictional elec- l l ppr h t b pr f rr d. S h n ppr h tricity: C. H. Pfaff and M. van Marum, "Account of nv t d pr b t n th t p . It Some Comparative Experiments made with Teylerian nl n th 880 , f ll n pr r n l tr h Electrical Apparatus and Volta's Metallic Pile," Philos. l th r , th t th t t n h n d nd t b p Mag., 802, 12, 161-164. bl t nd r t nd th p l n h l t r , t l t 9. Ref. 7, p 43, translated from French. p rt ll . " h h l th r h f ht t b ," 10. Introduction to C. H. Pfaff, "Ueber Volta's Fundamen- O t ld rt d n 8 6, dd n th t t h d n "f n l tal-Versuch," Ann. Phys., 82 , 68, 273-302. v t r ( ." O t ld pt pr t r , h 11. Gehler's Physikalisches Wörterbuch, Schwiekert, Leipzig, 1825-1842. Vol. 4 (1828), article on v r. h pr bl f th r n f th v lt f r "galvansim" and Vol. 8 (1836), article on "pile;" Ref. 2, v n r pl t d th n h n d. It nl p 66. lv d b t 40, h n t t rn d t th t b th f th 12. C. H. Pfaff, Der Electro-Magnetismus. Eine Historisch- r v l v , th h l th r nd th nt t th r , Kritische Darstellung [etc.], Perthes und Besser, Ham- r n d d n rd r t nt f ll f r v lt ff t burg, 1824. ( 8 . It n l n th t f ff ld n t h v l d. 13. C. . Pfaff, Ueber Newton's Farbentheorie, Herrin von Goethe's Farbenlehre und den Chemischen Gegensatz E E E CES A O ES von Farben, F. C. W. Vogel, Leipzig, 1813. 14. C. H. Pfaff, Handbuch der Analytischen Chemie für 1. Epistolario di Alessandro Volta, Zanichelli, Bologna, Chemiker, Staatsaerzte, Apotheker, Oekonomen und 1953, Vol. 4, 73. Bergwerkskundige, 2 vol., J. F. Hammerich, Altona, 2. W. Ostwald, Electrochemistry: History and Theory, 1821-1822, with a second, revised edition of 1824-1825. American Publ. Co., New Delhi, 1980, Vol. 1, 142 and 15. W. H. Brock, The Norton History of Chemistry, W. W. 66. The German original appeared in 1896. Norton & Co., New York, 1993, 181. 3. . C. Poggendorff, Biographisch-Literarisches 16. C. H. Pfaff and . Liebig, "Ueber die Zusammensetzung Handwörterbuch zur Geschichte der Exakten des Caffeins," Ann. Chem. Pharm., 8 2, I, 17-20. Wissenschaften, Barth, Leipzig, 1863; E. Whittaker, A 17. Philos. Mag., 800, 403-431, and reprinted in B. Dibner, History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, Nelson Alessandro Volta and the Electric Battery, Franklin & Sons, London, 1951, Vol. l, 74; J. R. Partington, A Watts, New York, 1964, 111-131. History of Chemistry, Macmillan, London, 1970, Vol. 4, 18. See Ref. 2 and, for recent surveys, H. Kragh, "Confu- sion and Controversy: Nineteenth-Century Theories of 0 ll. t. Ch ., VOLUME 25, b r 2 (2000
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