Monitoring the State of Watchington

Kelly Redmond Western Regional Climate Center Desert Research Institute Reno Nevada

University of Washington Scoping Workshop June 15, 2007 So, you wanna run a climate network? A Checklist Guidelines prepared for CIRMOUNT Mountain Climate Network, and for NPS

Climate versus Weather

Climate measurements require consistency through time.

Network Purpose

Anticipated or desired lifetime. Breadth of network mission (commitment by needed constituency). Dedicated constituency—no network survives without a dedicated constituency.

Site Identification and Selection

Spanning gradients in climate or biomes with transects. Issues regarding representative spatial scale—site uniformity versus site clustering. Alignment with and contribution to network mission. Exposure—ability to measure representative quantities. Logistics—ability to service station (Always or only in favorable weather?). Site redundancy (positive for quality control, negative for extra resources). Power—is AC needed? Site security—is protection from vandalism needed? Permitting often a major impediment and usually underestimated. Running a network - 2

Station Hardware

Survival—weather is the main cause of lost weather/climate data. Robustness of sensors—ability to measure and record in any condition. Quality—distrusted records are worthless and a waste of time and money. High quality—will cost up front but pays off later. Low quality—may provide a lower start-up cost but will cost more later (low cost can be expensive). Redundancy—backup if sensors malfunction. Ice and snow—measurements are much more difficult than rain measurements. Severe environments (expense is about two–three times greater than for stations in more benign settings).

Communications

Reliability—live data have a much larger constituency. One-way or two-way. Retrieval of missed transmissions. Ability to reprogram data logger remotely. Remote troubleshooting abilities. Continuing versus one-time costs. Back-up procedures to prevent data loss during communication outages. Live communications increase problems but also increase value. Running a network - 3

Maintenance

Main reason why networks fail (and most networks do eventually fail!). Key issue with nearly every network. Who will perform maintenance? Degree of commitment and motivation to contribute. Periodic? On-demand as needed? Preventive? Equipment change-out schedules and upgrades for sensors and software. Automated stations require skilled and experienced labor. Calibration—sensors often drift (climate). Site maintenance essential (constant vegetation, surface conditions, nearby influences). Typical automated station will cost about $2K per year to maintain. Documentation—photos, notes, visits, changes, essential for posterity. Planning for equipment life cycle and technological advances.

Maintaining Programmatic Continuity and Corporate Knowledge

Long-term vision and commitment needed. Institutionalizing versus personalizing—developing appropriate dependencies. Running a network - 4

Data Flow

Centralized ingest? Centralized access to data and data products? Local version available? Contract out work or do it yourself? Quality control of data. Archival. Metadata—historic information, not a snapshot. Every station should collect metadata. Post-collection processing, multiple data-ingestion paths.

Products

Most basic product consists of the data values. Summaries. Write own applications or leverage existing mechanisms?

Funding

Prototype approaches as proof of concept. Linking and leveraging essential. Constituencies—every network needs a constituency. Bridging to practical and operational communities? Live data needed. Bridging to counterpart research efforts and initiatives—funding source. Creativity, resourcefulness, and persistence usually are essential to success. Running a network - 5

Final Comments

Deployment is by far the easiest part in operating a network. Maintenance is the main issue. Best analogy: Operating a network is like raising a child; it requires constant attention, and the kid never leaves home.

Source: Western Regional Climate Center (WRCC)

Cooperative network Operator: National Weather Service Archive: National Climatic Data Center, many others Measurement interval: Daily Record length: 100+ years Manual Max temp, min temp, precipitation, snowfall, snowdepth Reporting interval: Monthly, many now daily via Weathercoder and SHEF Purpose: General climate of the United States Approximately 130 stations if all are reporting. Biased toward where people live and work, not many at high elevations. Not in the wettest places. Are in the driest places. Observation times vary by site and through history. Record for an observation day. A well maintained station furnishes an excellent climate record. Subset called Historical Climate Network meet standards for longevity, data completeness, number of station moves. Data quality and maintenance were not considered in selecting this network. Overall quality about like the rest.

Fire Weather Cooperative Network Operator: Fire agencies Archive: US Forest Service Measurement interval: Daily Record length: Several decades Manual Max temp, min temp, precipitation, snowfall, snowdepth, sky state, humidity, wind Reporting interval: Daily, by 1 pm local time Purpose: Assessment of fuel and fire conditions

Once daily readings usually at 1 pm. Number of stations has greatly reduced because of growth of RAWS network. Many were in interesting and unusual locations: ranger stations, fire lookouts, remote locations. Had humidity and wind. Very bad time for observations, but needed by 2 pm to calculate fire danger rating. Generally seasonal, warm season (fire season). Not much used any more but these did record for many years. RAWS Network Operator: multi-agency, primarily BLM and USFS, other federal and state Archive: Western Regional Climate Center Measurement interval: Hourly Record length: earliest about 1983, mostly 1985 onward Automated Temp (was 10-min just before reporting time), relative humidity, precipitation, wind (usually 20 ft), solar radiation (varies, instantaneous to hourly), fuel temperature, some have soil temperature. Reporting interval: Three hourly, or hourly. Purpose: Originally fire, now becoming more multi-purpose

Approximately 1600-2000 sites meeting FPA (Fire Program Analysis) standards, approximately 2400 altogether. Maintained out of NIFC. Remote locations, unheated unshielded tipping bucket precip gages. Can get buried by snow. Some are turned off over winter but most keep functioning. One-way GOES transmission. Minimal quality control, thus far. This will probably be changing.

Snotel network Operator: National Resources Conservation Service Archive: NRCS Water and Climate Center, Portland Measurement interval: 15 minutes Record length: late 1970s / early 1980s to present Automated Instantaneous temperature every 15 min, snow water equivalent, snow depth (recently), accumulated water year precipitation, soil temperature and soil moisture at some sites Reporting interval: Mostly hourly, some 3 or 6 hourly Purpose: Water supply evaluation and forecasting

A rugged all weather system, designed for heavy snow and rain, resolution to 0.1 inch, remote and elevated locations, snow zone up to near or below timberline. Generally very good measurements. Site exposure history not always well documented, or else hard to access. Report via meteorburst, thus 2-way communication.

June Lake Snotel.

Sasquatch PAWS (Public Agricultural Weather System), Ag Weather Network Operator: WSU Center for Precision Agricultural Systems, Prosser Archive: WSU Center for Precision Agricultural Systems, Prosser Measurement interval: 15 minutes. Record length: 100+ years Automated Temp, precip, relative humidity, solar radiation, wind (about 2 m), soil moisture, soil temperature (multiple depths), leaf wetness Reporting interval: Hourly Purpose: Agricultural weather and climate

Approximately 59 stations at present. Stations are in agricultural settings, often near vegetation, many climate heavily modified. Sensing at 10 sec intervals, averaged to 15 min, reported hourly.

PAWS Standard Weather Station

CR10X: CR10 datalogger w/CR10WP and 64K RAM ENC 12/14: Enclosure w/mounts (12"x 14") MSX10R: Solar Panel w/regulator HMP35C-L10: Vaisala temp and RH probe w/10 ft lead 41002-2: 12 plate gill radiation shield LI200S: LI-COR silicon pyranometer LI2003S: LI-COR Py. Base and leveling fixture 03001-5: Wind set RM Young TE525: Tex. Elec. Rain Gauge (0.01"/TIP) 227: Soil moisture block 237: Wetness sensing grid 105T: CU-Const thermocouple w/10 ft lead 10TCRT: Thermistor reference for CR10 P50UHF: 5 watt UHF transceiver RF95: RF modem Tripod: cross-arm, mounting arm and grnd kit 019ALU: Aluminum Crossarm Sensor mnt 025: Pyranometer crossarm stand. Battery enclosure 10 ft antenna cable w/connectors UHF Yagi antenna 70 AHR battery Padlocks Leaf wetness mounting bracket

Agrimet network Operator: Bureau of Reclamation Archive: Bureau of Reclamation Measurement interval: 15 minutes Record length: 1983 (earliest) and late Automated Temp, precip, wind (2 m), relative humidity, solar radiation, soil temperature, leaf wetness, pressure, evaporation at some. Reporting interval: Hourly Purpose: Agriculture and especially water use and irrigation

Approximately 70 sites, mostly in Columbia Basin and Pacific Northwest. Mostly in agricultural settings. Well maintained, well managed system, with good quality control.

ASOS Automated Surface Observing System Operator: National Weather Service, some are FAA, some DOD Archive: National Climatic Data Center Measurement interval: One minute. Record length: Most installed 1994-1996, some later. Previous hourly data often dates back to 1948 or earlier at most major stations. Automated Temp, precip, wind (sustained, gust, peak), dewpoint, pressure, visibility, ceiling. Reporting interval: Hourly, plus each minute when a special is needed (when weather meets pre-specified reporting criterion) Purpose: Get a plane down safely. Also used for NWS forecasting purposes.

967 sites in the USA (28 in WA). Replacement for the old Surface Airways stations, mostly at airports. Generally high quality data. ASOS is generally better than AWOS, and AWOS precipitation is often not present or not accurate. AWOS Automated Weather Observing System Operator: Mostly FAA, some NWS and DOD Archive: National Climatic Data Center Measurement interval: One minute. Record length: Most installed 1994-1996, some later. Previous hourly data often dates back to 1948 or earlier at most major stations. Automated Temp, precip, wind (sustained, gust, peak), dewpoint, pressure, visibility, ceiling. Reporting interval: Hourly, plus each minute when a special is needed (when weather meets pre-specified reporting criterion) Purpose: Get a plane down safely. Also used for NWS forecasting purposes.

Another 978 stations in the USA (4 in WA), 633 are stored and archived, 345 are phone modem only, about 3 weeks in the data logger. Replacement for the old Surface Airways stations, mostly at airports. Generally high quality data. ASOS is generally better than AWOS, and AWOS precipitation is often not present or not accurate. MSY

Climate Reference Network Operator: National Climatic Data Center Archive: National Climatic Data Center Measurement interval: 5 min Record length: About 2004 onward Automated Temperature (3 sensors, aspirated), precipitation (3 wire Geonor), supportive wind speed (no direction), wetness sensor, surface skin temperature, Reporting interval: Hourly Purpose: Climate change detection

About 115-120 when the final configuration is laid out. Exceptional attention to siting and metadata.

ID Arco 17 SW, Craters of the Moon National Monument & Preserve (Hdq. Area) 43.5 N 113.6 W 5955’ July 10, 2003 AK Barrow 4 ENE, NOAA (CMDL Observatory) 71.3 N 156.6 W 15’ Non-Commissioned July 22, 2002

WA Darrington 21 NNE, North Cascades National Park (Marblemount) 48.5 N 121.4 W 376’ April 3, 2003 Soil Climate Analysis Network (SCAN) Operator: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Archive: USDA NRCS Water and Climate Center, Portland Measurement interval: Hourly Record length: Mid 1990s and later. (Lind 1994) Automated Temp, precip, relative humidity, solar radiation, pressure, wind, soil moisture and temperature at 2, 4, 8, 20, 40 inches (also salinity and soil real dielectric constant) Reporting interval: Hourly via meteorburst Purpose: Primarily soil moisture, and the quantities that affect soil moisture

Approximately 120-125 have been installed. Haphazard, opportunistic, and thus very uneven station placement, driven by willing or helpful hosts. Many sites often missing one or more parameters. Soil moisture is difficult to keep recalibrating (disturbs the soil).

Hanford mesonet Operator: Hanford Meteorology Network Archive: DOE Hanford Measurement interval: Hourly Record length: 1955-current. Hourly wind at 408 feet since December 7, 1944. Automated with manual supplements Temperature, wind, humidity At HMS also sky conditions, sky cover, pressure, solar radiation, visibility. Reporting interval: Monthly, many now daily via Weathercoder and SHEF Purpose: Hanford operations, and radiation movement

Approximately 31 stations around the Hanford nuclear reservation. Approx $1-2 M annually to keep this functioning.

Road Weather Information System (RWIS) Operator: usually state and federal departments of transportation Archive: It’s never been clear, and there doesn’t seem to be one Measurement interval: hourly or less Record length: several years Automated Temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction, soil or roadway temperatures Reporting interval: Hourly or less Purpose: Road weather conditions on or near roads and road bed

Very fancy and expensive equipment. Right next to highways. Often are 10 meter towers. Often have web cams. Very poor metadata and history. Often within splash and snow throw zone. Many are located on local highway summits. Very difficult to obtain data, very poorly documented. OK for weather, not much value for most climate purposes, except maybe those relating to wind. Data Buoys Operator: NOAA Archive: National Data Buoy Center Measurement interval: Hourly Record length: 1982 and later Automated Air temp, water temp, wind, humidity, wave height, pressure, wave period Reporting interval: Hourly Purpose: Marine conditions

Moored buoys. Expensive and very large and quite stable. There are other data sets along shore such as Coastal Marine Automated Network (C-MAN)

Northern California Central California Southern California Current Stations

RED = NWS COOP PURPLE = SNOTEL DARK BLUE = RAWS LIGHT BLUE = SURFACE AIRWAYS YELLOW = MISC (CURRENTLY CIMIS, CDEC, BUOYS) 2005 August 11 1700 GMT Whale Point (600 ft) and Highlands Peak (2500 ft), Big Sur. 2 miles apart.

Whale Point 600 ft

Highlands Peak 2500 ft Whale Point, Big Sur, 600 ft, 10-min Temperature, July 2006 Heat Wave. Highlands Pk, Big Sur, 2470 ft, 10-min Temperature, July 2006 Heat Wave. South Central Sierra Snow Lab East

6883 ft / 2098 m Photo: Dave Simeral Slide Mountain, Lake Tahoe Basin, 9650 ft. Slide Mountain Toward SSW Slide Mountain Toward ESE Slide Mountain Toward NW Slide Mountain Toward South Operations? or testing ?

Ice + Wind + Imbalance + Shaking + Clouds + Battery Discharge + Persistence = “Interesting data” Ward Peak. Lake Tahoe Basin. 8600 feet. Photo: Arlen Huggins

ACIS – Applied Climate Information System

ACIS Web page rcc-acis.org Brochure at http://www.srcc.lsu.edu/BrochureScreen (Screen Version) 7MB http://www.srcc.lsu.edu/BrochurePrint (Print Version) 20MB Brochure at http://www.srcc.lsu.edu/BrochureScreen (Screen Version) 7MB http://www.srcc.lsu.edu/BrochurePrint (Print Version) 20MB Stations

Stations selected by NCDC with NWS input

• 1,000 HCN stations

• Expansion capability to collect other measurements (e.g., NIDIS soil moisture, snowfall & snow depth, etc.)

Area No. of Stations CONUS 941 Alaska 45 Pacific Region 14 Total 1,000 System Architecture

Raw Data & HCN-M Raw Data Central Processed Data Climate Platform Data Processing Post- Processing Metadata & Archive MADIS

n o ti Processed Data a in Processed Data rd o o C ta a d ta e

Site Maint. M

O&M UserUser CommunityCommunity System Architecture CRN Connection

HCN-M leverages CRN in these aspects:

• Equipment standards • Instrumentation • Software and algorithms • Siting standards • Metadata standards • Calibration standards • Documents and plan • Lessons learned Resources - Budget

• Current Status: • FY07 funding is $4.2M for execution by NWS • FY08 and beyond still in NOAA planning stages • 100% program plan funding ($6.7M) will complete HCN-M in FY13. • If budget flat-lines at current $4.2M, significant delays in completion occur. Resources - Staff

Staff being assembled:

– 3 NOAA FTE’s + 8-10 contractors – interviewing for HCN-M Program Manager soon – filling contractor positions/needs periodically Resource Requirements

Cost per HCN modernized station

Program Management: $2K

Site Preparation and Installation: $8K

Hardware/Calibration/Spares/Supplies: $19K

IT (Communications/data processing): $6K

O&M: $3K

Average Costs per station: $38K

Objectives • Enable continued monitoring and assessment of regional climate variability • Sustain the historical climate record • Provide climate observational data and metadata • Improve data quality and availability • Distribute data to customers for current and future use • Integrate with NOAA’s Global Earth Observing Integrated Data Environment (GEO-IDE) • Plan and program resources to complete Project by FY13 (i.e., complete 1000 sites) Food for thought

With complicated topography, we can never have enough stations Therefore, what is the most judicious placement of stations? Redundancy is bad, costs resources. Redundancy is good, helps QC and data credibility. Current quality control of daily data. Very difficult in western terrain. Estimate nationwide by Ken Hubbard of HPRCC is that 60 percent of all daily coop data edits are Type I errors (good data are judged to be bad). More mistakes introduced than fixed.

Quality control: Best bang for the buck is to produce high quality data right out of the starting gate, rather than fix the data later on downstream. Consider working toward an SC-ACIS. State Climatologist – Applied Climate Information System. In complex terrain, at what point are we willing to consider ground truth as being in gridded form just as well as in station form? Combining networks for a de facto mesonet: Local versus central needs

Locally perceived and defined needs, and funding More often funding is mainly for deployment Not often the luxury of identifying maintenance source (deployment becomes deplorement)

Centrally perceived and defined needs What is the incremental value of a station to a system ? A very common problem, nobody has solved it. Value may occur from contribution to a grid (eg, forecast initialization) Hard to quantify value, if it clearly exists Forecast and modeling grids are getting finer and finer This drives up the need for fine scale ground truth

Biggest issue – how to apportion costs when benefits are distributed Station benefits provided to, and received from, other communities Network X as a contributor to a network of networks

In the face of a continual push toward more fine scale information demand … How can we edge toward greater coordination of station networks? Joining with other networks ASOS, AWOS, Snotel, Coop Modernization, RAWS, special mesonets Have broached this with other agencies, such as USDA Snotel A national mesonet consortium ? Cost / benefit assessments have difficult time with whole-system analysis Leveraging of assets and activities across federal agencies Different missions and justification processes

Who’s looking at the big picture ? Value of a tree (station) vs. Value of a forest (network) Different species of trees, too. (Different agencies) Full quantification impossible – expert judgment and intuition are essential Logical venue to work these issues out? Grass roots, to start with. Has never been dealt with from the top. Thank You.