Coros de

Villaverde, Cirilo. 1974 (1882). Cecilia Vald é s, o La popular style of the Afro-Cuban music and dance Loma del Angel [Cecilia Valdé s or El Angel Hill]. genre rumba. In addition to , there were : Ediciones Hurac á n. also groups called coros de guaguanc ó, which diff ered in certain ways, although the two are oft en discussed Discographical References as the same tradition. Scholars utilize a variety of . Teatro Amadeo Rold á n. Areito LD-3420. names to refer to the tradition, and it is likely that LP-12. 1974 : . (Contains a version of Ernesto there were diff erent appellations used in Havana and Lecuona ’ s ‘ Danza ñ á ñ iga. ’ ) . For example, in discussions of the tradi- Orquesta Todos Estrellas. Danz ó n All Stars. Mi gran tion in Matanzas, scholars have used the terms coros pasi ó n . EGREM CD-0353. 1999 : Cuba. de rumba (Grasso Gonz á lez 1989, 9; É vora 1997, Rotterdam Conservatory Orquesta Tí pica. Cuba: 187) and bandos (Mart í nez Rodr í guez 1977, 128; and Danzones. Nimbus Records CD Esquenazi Pé rez 2001, 210). Although mentioned by NI5502. 1996 : UK and USA. numerous scholars, there are no in-depth studies on Vald é s, Chucho, and Irakere. Chucho Vald é s, Piano this tradition. I . Areito LD-3781. LP-12. 1976 : Cuba. (Contains ‘ no. 1 ’ by Chucho Vald é s.) History Coros de clave were an Afro-Cuban imitation of Discography Catalan choral societies brought to Havana in the later Choose Your Partners! Contra Dance and Square Dance nineteenth century, and were named aft er a Catalan of New Hampshire. Smithsonian Folkways SFW CD composer, Jos é Anselmo Clav é , who established a 40126 . 1999 : USA. choral society made up of uneducated, working-class Conjunto Enso ñ aci ó n. ‘ Las Virginias. ’ Tesoro de la people in Barcelona in 1845 (Sublette 2004, 262 – 3). m ú sica norestense, 3rd ed. Fonateca del INAH 29. (Th e coros were not, therefore, named aft er the per- 2002 : Mexico. (Originally released 1991.) cussion instrument consisting of two wooden sticks Fern á ndez, Frank. Todo Cervantes (Danzas)/Todo beaten against each other to provide a timeline Saumell (Contradanzas) Vols I and II. EGREM , although claves were used in performance.) CD-1034-1 and 1034-2. 2010 : Cuba. Several scholars discuss the emergence of coros de Grupo de experimentaci ó n sonora del ICAIC. Grupo clave in terms of the specifi c situation of blacks in late de experimentació n sonora del ICAIC. Areito LD nineteenth-century Cuba – that is, the gradual aboli- 3450. 1974 : Cuba. Contains Emilio Salvador ’ s ‘ La tion of slavery in the 1880s and the large-scale migra- contradanza.’ tion of former slaves from rural plantations to urban La Volanta: danzas y contradanzas cubanas . EGREM centers. In addition, the tradition is oft en linked to CD-0082. 1993 : Cuba. cabildos – colonial-era mutual aid societies formed by Lecuona, Ernesto. Lecuona toca Lecuona . EGREM African slaves and their ancestors along ethnic lines – CD 0045. 1992 : Cuba. with some scholars asserting that coros de clave func- Meringues and Folk Ballads of Haiti. Lyrichord LLST tioned as a substitute in the wake of the dismantling 7340. 1978 : USA. (Contains a recording of Haitian of cabildos aft er full emancipation in 1886 (Grasso contredanse , ‘ Ba li chaise pou moi, ’ played by a Gonzá lez 1989, 9; Sublette 2004, 263). Martinican band between 1947 and 1953.) Although coros de clave and guaguanc ó are generally Th e Cuban Danzó n: Its Ancestors and Descendants . linked to Havana and Matanzas, the tonada trinitaria Smithsonian Ethnic Folkways Records FE 4066. from the central Cuban city of Trinidad is sometimes 1982: USA. (Recorded 1954– 78.) discussed as part of this tradition (see Le ó n 1984, HETTIE MALCOMSON 163). Martha Esquenazi Pé rez states that the coros de clave tradition migrated to the city of Sancti Sp í ritus Coros de Clave (near Trinidad) around 1894, and that societies were Coros de clave, literally ‘ clave choirs,’ were ambula- founded there in the early twentieth century (2001, tory choral groups that would circulate in the streets 210). She also discusses the tonada trinitaria within of the western Cuban cities of Havana and Matanzas the coros de clave tradition, specifi cally noting that the in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, diff erent choral groups were, like the coros , defi ned by particularly during the Christmas holidays. Although neighborhood of origin and engaged in competition this tradition has not been extant at least since the during the Christmas holidays (ibid., 211). 1960s, its repertoire and vocal style are thought to Th ere does not seem to be a consensus within be an important infl uence on guaguanc ó , the most the scholarship about how long this tradition lasted.

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Th e dates given for its disappearance range from the utilized cajones, or wooden boxes of various sizes that early twentieth century (Al é n Rodr í guez 1998, 863; functioned as drums (Esquenazi Pé rez 2001, 217; É vora 1997, 189), to the 1920s (Sublette 2004, 263), to Sublette 2004, 263), which also constituted the instru- the 1950s (Esquenazi P é rez 2001, 218). Nonetheless, mental ensemble of early rumba, before the incorpo- both É vora (1997, 187) and Argeliers Leó n (1984, 161) ration of drums in the 1930s. Esquenazi P é rez suggest that the famed Matanzas group Bando Azul implies that there may also have been a greater spirit was still extant in the early 1960s, and Grasso Gonz á lez of rivalry within the coros de guaguanc ó tradition, and asserts that it was still active into the 1980s (1989, 9). presents fragments from a few songs that constitute puyas, or lyrical battles of wit between groups. A few Musical Description of the most famous coros de in Havana were Coros de clave were constituted by as many as 150 El Paso Franco, Azules Amalianos (formed as early as choral singers, and generally included a director, 1862) and Los Roncos, the last of which became the usually the most experienced member of the group, most famous in part because its main composer was and a clarina , a female lead singer who possessed a legendary son musician Ignacio Pineiro. Some of the particularly powerful voice, and who engaged in call famous coros de rumba in Matanzas were the Bando and response with the chorus, usually singing in two- Azul, the Bando Rojo, El Marino and Los Congos or three-part harmony (Moore 1997, 92). In addition, de Angonga. Th e Bando Azul, which maintained a the decimista was the primary composer of the group, famous rivalry with the Bando Rojo, emerged in 1910 the tonista kept the group in tune and functioned as from an Arar á (Grasso Gonzá lez 1989, 11), a conductor, and the censor was ‘ responsible for the which was dedicated to preserving the religion and quality of the song texts and the beauty of the mel- traditions of slaves and descendants from the ancient odies’ (Alé n Rodrí guez 1998, 836). Th e d é cima , or kingdom of Dahomey, present-day Benin. Th is his- Spanish ten-line poetic form, was the most common tory thus constitutes evidence of the close links lyrical structure, although sometimes texts consisted between the choral societies and the Afro-Cuban of more simple rhyme schemes. Descriptions of the cabildo tradition. instrumental ensemble used to accompany coros de Although coros de clave and guaguanc ó are no longer clave vary somewhat within the literature, but the extant traditions, and unfortunately do not seem to most commonly mentioned instruments are guitar(s), have been recorded in their original manifestations, claves and viola , a string-less banjo that was struck in their infl uence lives on in secular traditions still prac- a percussive manner. In addition, accompaniment ticed in the early twenty-fi rst century. For example, could include a small harp, botija (earthenware jug the mobile performance format of coros de clave is that is blown and serves a bass function) or other echoed in the Cuban carnival comparsas , which are instruments. It is likely that there was substantial also ambulatory ensembles that parade through the regional variation in the instrumentation of central streets and engage in lyrical competition and friendly Cuban manifestations of the tradition, especially in rivalry. In fact, Le ó n (1984, 161 – 2) notes that the coros tonada trinitaria (Esquenazi P é rez, 212). oft en organized comparsas during Carnival, compos- Although coros de clave and coros de guaguancó are ing special songs for the occasion, and Cristó bal Dí az oft en discussed as the same tradition, some scholars Ayala (2003, 109) asserts that the coros de guaguanc ó note diff erences between the two, with most asserting were the basis for the renewal of comparsas aft er they that the latter evolved from the former (see Esquenazi were banned for a period in the 1910s. Th e most P é rez 2001, 215; Sublette 2004, 263). Argeliers Le ó n important legacy of this tradition is in the arena of diff erentiates them further, by noting that they devel- rumba song, and prominent rumba groups – such as oped independently of each other and that the coros the Havana-based Clave y Guaguancó (whose name is de clave repertoire was more oft en appropriated for a homage to the defunct practice) and the Matanzas- use in the teatro bufo , or comic theater, tradition based Afrocuba de Matanzas – still perform songs (Leó n 1984, 163). Robin Moore characterizes the from the coros de clave repertoire. coros de guaguancó tradition as more Africanized, more percussive and as having a higher proportion of Bibliography male singers (1997, 92). In addition, unlike the coros Al é n Rodr í guez, Olavo. 1998. ‘ Cuba. ’ In Th e Garland de clave , coros de guaguanc ó incorporated membra- Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 2: South nophones, and were generally sung in 2/4 as com- America, Mexico, Central America, and the Carib- pared with the typical 6/8 meter of the former (ibid.). bean, eds. Dale Olsen and Daniel Sheehy. New In fact, some scholars assert that coros de guaguanc ó York: Garland Publishing, 822 – 39.

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Diaz Ayala, Cristó bal. 2003. Musica cubana: Del Conjunto Folcl ó rico de Trinidad. Mú sica tradicional areyto al rap cubano [Cuban Music: From Areyto spirituana Vol. II: Tonadas trinitarias. Egrem 4383. to Cuban Rap], 4th ed. San Juan, Puerto Rico: 1987 : Cuba. Fundaci ó n Musicalia. REBECCA BODENHEIMER El í Rodr í guez, Victoria, ed. 1997. Atlas de los instru- mentos de la m ú sica folcl ó rico-popular de Cuba Corrido [Atlas of the Instruments of Cuban Folkloric- Th e corrido is a Mexican narrative song or folk bal- Popular Music]. Havana: Centro de Investigació n lad accompanied by one or more guitars and, in the y Desarollo de la M ú sica Cubana. later twentieth century, accordion-driven norte ñ o Esquenazi P é rez, Martha. 2001. Del are í to y otros groups or bandas (brass bands from Mexico’ s north- sones [About the Areito and Other Sones]. Havana: ern Pacifi c coast). Th e corrido is a folksong type not Editorial Letras Cubanas. primarily associated with dance, though people may É vora, Tony. 1997. Or í genes de la m ú sica cubana: Los dance to corridos when performed by dance bands amores de las cuerdas y el tambor [Origins of Cuban in polka or waltz rhythm. Th e genre has evolved as music: Th e Love of Strings and the Drum]. Madrid: a mestizo cultural form associated with the rise of a Alianza Editorial. national consciousness, especially during the early Grasso Gonz á lez, Nancy. 1989. Folklore y profesional- decades of the twentieth century, and in the context of ismo en la rumba matancera [Folklore and Profes- border confl icts with the United States. As the corrido sionalism in Matanzas-style Rumba ]. Unpublished has been transmitted predominantly by live perfor- BA thesis, Instituto Superior del Arte, Cuba. mance for much of its history, its limited appear- Le ó n, Argeliers. 1984. Del canto y el tiempo [Of Song ance in the form of leafl ets (songsheets) and its later and Time], 2nd ed. Havana: Editorial Letras Cuba- appearance in the form of commercial sound record- nas. ings represent an important source for the documen- Le ó n, Argeliers. 1991. ‘ Notes toward a Panorama of tation of Mexico’ s unoffi cial history. Corridos in these Popular and Folk Musics,’ trans. Peter Manuel. forms comment not only on political events, national In Essays on Cuban Music: North American and aff airs and natural disasters, but also on subjects such Cuban Perspectives, ed. Peter Manuel. Lanham, as crimes, family feuds, horse races, romantic entan- MD: University Press of America, 3 – 23. glements, immigration and, since the 1990s, drug Mart í nez Rodr í guez, Raul. 1998 (1977). ‘ La rumba traffi cking. As a folk genre, the corrido ’ s characters, en la provincia de Matanzas. ’ In Panorama de la events and themes represent the values and histories M ú sica Popular Cubana [Panorama of Cuban of local communities. Popular Music], ed. Radam é s Giro. Havana: Edito- Historically, the corrido is a Mexican folk ballad rial Letras Cubanas, 125 – 36. that, like the Spanish broadside ballad, stems from the Moore, Robin. 1997. Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocu- Spanish romancero , a ballad tradition that fl ourished banismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920 – in Renaissance Spain. Soldiers, adventurers, mer- 1940 . Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh chants and settlers carried the tradition to the New Press. World, where it took root among the mestizo popula- Sublette, Ned. 2004. Cuba and Its Music: From the tions with varying degrees of popular acceptance. Th e First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chicago Spanish romance was a balladry of such importance Review Press. in expansionist Iberia that it swept the whole of Latin Urf é , Odilio. 1984. ‘ Music and Dance in Cuba.’ In America: not only are Spanish romances still known in Latin America: Essays on History, Culture, across Latin America, but also several ballad tradi- and Socialization, ed. Manuel Moreno Fraginals tions stemming from the romance have developed and trans. Leonor Blum. New York: Holmes and throughout the continent bearing striking similari- Meier, 170 – 88. ties to one another. In Argentina and Chile, compo- sitions known as romances , cantares , corridos and Discography tonadas have been collected since the latter part of the Afrocuba de Matanzas. Ra í ces africanas . Shanachie nineteenth century. In its poetic forms and narrative Records 66009. 1998 : USA. subjects the early Mexican corrido is true to its roots Clave y Guaguancó . Songs and Dances. Xenophile in Iberian narrative poetry, although there are some Records 4023. 1994 : USA. non-narrative examples, such as simple love songs Clave y Guaguancó . D é jala en la Puntica. Egrem 0211. or political commentaries, that are also referred to as 1996 : Cuba. corridos . Th roughout the nineteenth century, a variety

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