An Overview of Researches on Biolinguistics

Home , Biolinguistics, Universal Grammar

ISSN 1712-8056[Print] Canadian Social Science ISSN 1923-6697[Online] Vol. 10, No. 1, 2014, pp. 171-176 www.cscanada.net DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720141001.4219 www.cscanada.org

WU Jieqiong[a],*

[a]School of Foreign Languages, Hubei Engineering University, Xiaogan, language to light and promote the further development China. of linguistics. Biolinguistics aims to study languages *Corresponding author. from the perspective of biology and highlights the Received 23 August 2013; accepted 15 January 2014 fact that humanistic linguistics obtains motive force of development from biology (Yuan & Liu, 2008). Abstract Biolinguistics can be interpreted in both narrow and In 1997 in memory of the 40th anniversary of broad senses. Biolinguistics in narrow sense mainly refers transformational-generative grammar, Jenkins wrote to the study on grammar attributes proposed by school the article “Biolinguistics: Structure development and of generative grammar represented by Chomsky, who evolution of language”, which helped produce a large studies languages as a natural object and regards linguistic number of scholarly monographs and papers with respect organic function as human brain’s innate biological organ. to biolinguistics. Simultaneously, a series of relevant In broad sense, the study of biolinguistics means language international academic seminars were successfully held. research from the perspectives of evolutionary biology, This paper, based on the summarization of research neuroscience, genetic science, psychology and even status quo on biolinguistics, looks forward to the future physiological basis for the research of languages (Wu, development of biolinguistics so as to help predict the 2012a). development of biolinguistic researches. Although the discipline of biolinguistics is a new branch of science, it has a long history. As early as the Biolinguistics; Transformational- Key words: 15th century, Leonardo da Vinci mentioned the concept of generative grammar; Linguistics; Biology biolinguistics, although he did not give it a formal name. After the appearance of Charles Darwin’s evolution, many WU Jieqiong (2014). An Overview of Researches on Biolinguistics. linguists attempted to study languages from the angle Canadian Social Science, 10(1), 171-176. Available from: http://www. cscanada.net/index.php/css/article/view/j.css.1923669720141001.4219 of evolution theory in the hope to find out the evolution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/j.css.1923669720141001.4219 mark of language. Among the researchers were the most unknown ones such as August Schleicher and Sigmund Freud, etc. (Wu, 2012b). In 1997 in memory of the 40th anniversary of transformational-generative grammar, INTRODUCTION Jenkins (1997) wrote the article “Biolinguistics: structure “Fictional names” which are meaningful but without development and evolution of language”, which helped referents have been one of the important focuses of produce large number of scholarly monographs and linguistic philosophy and even the whole of philosophy. papers with respect to biolinguistics. Simultaneously, a Exploration of it has found that language is not only the series of relevant international academic seminars were external physical prospect, but also human subjective successfully held. Although researches on biolinguistics creation and result. Nevertheless, researches with had been going on well outside China, for quite a long respect to linguistic philosophy have never arrived at time simply a few Chinese scholars were very much unanimous conclusions as far as the nature of language concerned with this research field. This paper analyses is concerned. It might be of great help to introduce relevant literature, briefly summarizes the research biology into linguistics so as to bring the nature of status quo on biolinguistics outside China in the hope

171 Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture An Overview of Researches on Biolinguistics that it will be beneficial for Chinese scholars to get to “Biolinguistics Investigations” held in Domingo, know the current situation with regard to researches on “Biolinguistics: Language Evolution and Variation” in biolinguistics. Venice, “International Network in Biolinguistics, First Meeting” in Arizona and “Biolinguistics: Acquisition, Language, Evolution” held in York University. In 2010 1. LITERATURE STATISTICS ENTITLED the international seminar “The Language Design” held “BIOLINGUISTICS” by scholars of biolinguistics at Université du Québec à Montréal resumed to focus on Chomsky’s Three Factors The emergence of the term “biolinguistics” can be traced in Language Design, TFLD which was published in 2005 back to 1959 and the book Handbook of Biolinguistics written by Clarence and Muyskens (Tang, 2004). For and had discussions on the special topic of language the first time the book combined the research findings design. In the year 2011 the seminar “Graduate workshop on biology with linguistics to define “biolinguistics”. In of biolinguistics” held at University of Groningen 1974, called together by Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini, also provided an opportunity of cooperation and experts such as linguists, biologists and neuroscientists communication for researchers of biolinguistics (Elisa, who paid close attention to the mutual topic of linguistics 2011). In addition, “International Conference on the and biology attended the international academic Evolution of Language, EVOLANG” has been held every conference held by Rom. Institute of Research, Paris, and two years since 1996. It explores the issues concerning American Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). the source of human languages and their bio-mechanism At the conference the term “biolinguistics” was proposed, evolution and promotes the development of biolinguistics which obviously indicated that biolinguistics was inter- to some extent. discipline of biology and linguistics. The concept of In addition, the international linguistic journal “biolinguistics” mentioned in this paper is supposed to Biolinguistics created by Boeckx, Kleanthes & Grohmann stem from that academic conference. In 1980, sponsored was published in 2007 and has supplied a platform of by molecular biology laboratory at Harvard University, academic communication and further pushes forward the a research group of “biolinguistics” was set up, whose development of biolinguistics as a new branch of science. research fields involved theoretical linguistics, molecular biology, language learning barriers, neurology of animal communication, neurolinguistics, aphasia, computer 3. BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO BOOKS linguistics, babies’ pre-language perception, the origin and ON BIOLINGUISTICS evolvement of linguistics, and biolinguistics became an By means of careful reading of literature on biolinguistics, inter-discipline worthy of its name (Wu, 2012c). the researcher of this paper has found that academic From 1950 to 1997, there were only four bibliography papers entitled biolinguistics can be roughly sorted into entries about biolinguistics, among them were three three categories, most of which focus on the significant monographs and one academic paper. Nevertheless, correlations between transformational-generative grammar it was not until 1997 when Jenkins wrote the article and the minimalist program. In other words, the authors “Biolinguistics: structure development and evolution th of the following papers believed that biolinguistics was of language” in memory of the 40 anniversary of the synonym of transformational-generative grammar. transformational-generative grammar, and “Laboratory The papers include the following: Fujita’s (2003) for Biolinguistics” was set up at Ricken Brain Science “Progress in biolinguistics-Geneses of language-A view Institute that the spring for biolinguistics came. from generative Grammar” published in Viva Origino; Encouraged by Jenkins’ symbolic article, from 2000 to Bird’s (2006) “Biolinguistics: what is it, who does it, 2010 abruptly appeared thirty-five bibliography entries and how should it proceed” published in Chomskyan on biolinguistics, taking up 71.4% of all literature entitled Studies; Lee’s (2006) “Chomksy and biolinguistics” biolinguistics, including the nine published in 2011. published in Chomskyan Studies, Epstein & Seely’s (2007) “The anatomy of biolinguistics minimalism” published in Biolinguistics and Lebelle’s (2007) academic 2. COMMUNICATIVE PLATFORM paper “Biolinguistics, the minimalist program and ASSOCIATED WITH BIOLINGUISTICS psycholinguistic reality” published in Snippets. In addition to the relevant academic literature, researchers Besides, some literature aimed to explore the core of biolinguistics from all over the world held seven large- problems of biolinguistics such as structure of language, scale international academic seminars since “Conferencia phylogenetic language evolution and ontogenetic language Inaugural Del Grup De Biolinguistica (GB)” which was development. Among them the representatives were held in Barcelona in 2004. To be more specific, from Jenkins’s (1997) “Biolinguistics-structure, development 2007 to 2008, four influential international conferences and evolution of language”, published in Web Journal were held with respect to biolinguistics, including of Formal, Computational and Cognitive Linguistics

Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture 172 WU Jieqiong (2014). Canadian Social Science, 10(1), 171-176 and in memory of the 40th anniversary transformational- many semantic system breakdowns. Then he enlarged generative grammar, Chomksy’s (2007a) “Biolinguistics the semantic transfer to the level of the whole culture, explorations: Design, development, evolution” published changed it into cultural image, added his own analysis of in International Journal of Philosophical Studies and Di unconsciousness and at last developed it into the theory Sciollo & Boeckx’s (2011) The Biolinguistics Enterprise: of psychoanalysis. Seen from this angle, although Freud New Perspective on the Evolution and Nature of the was not a professional biolinguist, he showed great Human Language Faculty published by Oxford University concern about the issue which involved both biology and Press. linguistics. Freud’s research in some degree laid a good Finally, there were academic papers represented practice foundation for biolinguistics in a pathological by Chomsky’s (2004) “The biolinguistics perspective sense. after 50 years” which dwelled upon the emergence of In addition, in 1941 Roman Jakobson wrote a book biolinguistics and its development. The above authors entitled Kindersprache, Aphasie, and Phonologische focus on the history, current situation and anticipation of Universal in Germany, exploring the issues of children’s biolinguistics. language, the historic evolution of language and language pathology. Besides, Lorenzo believed that every species had its own hereditary ability to learn specific things. 4. REPRESENTATIVES OF He also proposed the concepts of genetics, physiology, BIOLINGUISTICS AND THEIR IDEOLOGY evolution and individual behavior cognizance that is associated with the adaptation of species behaviors to the 4.1 Pioneers of Biolinguistics survival value. Lorenzo’s various methods and ideas have Some scholars had begun to make systematic researches been widely applied to human biolinguistic researches on biolinguistics before it became an independent (Wu, 2012c). science and when Darwin proposed his theory of evolution. Among the researchers the most influential 4.2 Representatives of Current Biolinguistics one was the Germany linguist August Scheilurer (1821- Chomsky was worthy of the leading authority in the field 1868) who discussed about the evolution of language of biolinguistics. In the early 50s of the twentith century, from the perspective of Darwin’s theory of evolution long before biolinguistics became the hot topic for and proved to be the most representative pioneer, who relevant scholars, Chomsky (2007b) had put forward the examined language mainly by means of biology. After five core questions with regard to biolinguistic research: the publication of The Origins of Species written by (i) What constitutes the knowledge of language? (ii) How Darwin in 1859, Scheilurer earnestly compared language is the knowledge acquired? (iii) How is the knowledge with plants and animals. He believed that linguists put to use? (iv) What are the relevant brain mechanisms? were naturalists, the relationship between a linguist and (v) How does this knowledge evolve (in the species)? language was simply like the one between a planter and Lenneberg (1967) observed that language possessed its a plant, and that the method of linguistics was closely own physiological foundations and that in man’s brain associated with the methods of other natural sciences. there were some specific parts in charge of linguistic In addition, he observed that what the naturalist called function, which involved the research of biolinguistics “relatives” was named by linguist “language system” or before other scholars. In addition, Chomsky had been “language family” (Yao, 2007). As for some relatives claiming that the history of biolinguistics was simply who are comparatively more closely associated with each the history of transformational- generative grammar. other, linguists also call them relative language of the Foundations for biolinguistics are also the five questions same language family or system. The variety of relatives that Chomsky raised, and the first three were dwelt upon in biology can be called the language of a system in terms in Chomsky’s book The Logical Structure of Linguistics of linguistics. The dialect or local dialect of a language Theory (1975), while the fourth and the fifth ones is sub-branches of a type, while smaller dialect or local were touched on in Lenneberg’s book Biolinguistical dialect is equal to variety or variation. Then there is Foundations of Language. individual in accordance with personal speech manner. The viewpoints of Aniela Improta Fraca (2004), Needless to say, individuals who belong to the same type Lorenzo Messeri (2006) and Luigi Rizzi (2004) about will not be completely the same and that is also the case biolinguistics completely coincide with Chomsky’s. In with languages. Even if people speak the same category of her book Introduction to Neurolinguistics, Fraca claimed a language, their speech manners have more or less their that the biolinguistic tendency in language research own individual characteristics. originated from Chomsky’s transformational- generative Sigmund Freud was a well-known pioneer of grammar which came into being in the 1950s. In his psychological analysis. In 1890, however, he wrote a book Messeri mentioned many times that Chomsky’s book entitled Auffassung Zur Aphasie which focused on transformational- generative grammar actually dealt with the problem of aphasia. From the cases of aphasia, he saw the nature of linguistics and biology. Rizzi believed that

173 Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture An Overview of Researches on Biolinguistics although biolinguistics had long theoretical foundation, linguistic biological property hypothesis through empirical its history was short. The reason for the former lied in researches, the value of extracting contrastive data from that Rene Descartes’ linguistic philosophy provided deep various biological species by means of biology research fertile soil for it in terms of theory. It had short history method and the tendency of inter-discipline cooperation because Chomksy’s transformational-generative grammar between linguistics and biology. After a series of debates, was produced along with Lenneberg’s Biological Basis of the research focus of biolinguistics has gradually turned Linguistic. to linguistic recursion (Wu & Zheng, 2012). Linguistic Di Sciullo et al. (2010) observed that the rise recursion research from biolinguistic point of view mainly of biolinguistics was the inevitable outcome of the involves three aspects, namely the testing of linguistic interdiscipline research of biology and linguistics in recursion existence by experimental psychology (De the 1950s-1960s while Jenkins (1997) believed that vries, Christiansen & Petersson, 2011; Poletiek, 2011), biolinguistics, transformational-generative grammar the significant role of linguistic recursion in linguistic and inner speech were not synonyms, but the birth of theories (Zwart, 2011; Roeper, 2011) and the position of transformational-generative grammar in the late 1960s linguistic recursion in human brain nerve area (Friederici, meant a new discipline produced by human linguistic and Bahlmann & Friedrich, 2011; Russo & Treves, 2011). biological mechanism which transformational- generative grammarian had studied for many years. Cedric Boecks and Norbert Hornstein (2003) followed CONCLUSION Jenkins’ research and divided transformational-generative Biolinguistics proves to be a young discipline with long grammar study into three stages, namely the combinatory history and relevant researches both inside and outside stage, the cognitive stage and the minimalist stage. The China are at the initial stage. By means of analysing early phase of the cognitive can be traced back to the literature, the author of this paper has found that the end of 1960s while the late one to the 1980s. According current research with regard to biolinguistics mainly to Boecks and Hornstein, nothing but the research of discusses the topic from three aspects: (a) The definition the early phase of the cognitive was equal to that of of “biolinguistics” and its research scope; (b) The most biolinguistics and the later researches on biolinguistics frequently discussed issue: the reason and motivation were far beyond the theoretical framework and practice for the rise and prevail of biolinguistics; (c) Linguistic domain of transformational- generative grammar. researchers’ knowledge and understanding of the On the other hand, Martin Nowak (2002) and Charles opportunities and challenges that language research has to Yang (2002) deemed that biolinguistics originated in face under the background of biolinguistics. the 1970s. They believed that biolinguistics was not the The author of this paper observes that biolinguistics is new wine and transformational-generative grammar an inter-discipline produced by the integration of biology was not the old bottle but that biolinguistics was a new and linguistics which involves relevant disciplines turning of linguistics-biology research paradigm initiated and scopes such as linguistics, biology, anthropology, by transformational-generative grammar. In the 1970s, psychology and neuroscience (Wu, 2012b). Biolinguistics transformational-generative linguists held that human takes human brain/ mind as the main object of research langauge possessed biological properties, and this and proposes that naturalist methodology should be discipline belief was approved and accepted by many adopted, as language can be regarded as a natural geneticists and module biologists, thus biolinguistics came phenomenon. It strives to find the answers to the questions into being. Hence the foundation of biolinguistics also of the nature, origins and usage of human language marked the turning of biological paradigm with regard to knowledge. By searching the relevant literature both at linguistic researches. home and abroad, the author of this paper has found that In recent years, in the debate between Hauser et al discussions with an understanding of biolinguistics in a and Pinker & Jackendoff, elicited by the paper “The broad sense are simply limited to reference books such faculty of language: what is it, who has it, How does it as encyclopedias and dictionaries. In addition, analysis evolve?” (Hauser, Chomaky and Fitch, 2002), Hauser of academic papers reveals that biolinguistics research et al believed that the nature of language research in shows more concern about the contents of biolinguistics view of biolinguistics meant linguistic function research, in a narrow sense. In other words, academic papers while linguistic functions, just like other organs of man’s tend to put the focus of biolinguistics on the grammar body, were determined by inheritance and might grow, properties proposed by generative grammar school of develop and become mature in appropriate environment. thought represented by Chomsky, who took language Both sides of the debate reached an agreement to some as a natural object, and linguistic functions as human extent with regard to biological properties of linguistics brain’s innate biological organ (Wu, 2012b). The author (Fitch, Hauser & Chomsky, 2005). For example, both of of this paper believes that the main reason for the above them recognized the necessity of disintegrating linguistic phenomenon lies in that encyclopedias or dictionaries as component mechanism, the significance of testing reference books are supposed to offer an overall definition

Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture 174 WU Jieqiong (2014). Canadian Social Science, 10(1), 171-176 to biolinguistics in both broad and narrow senses, since that has made linguistics closely associated with cognitive to elaborate biolinguistics from a comparatively broad science and other branches of biological science; (v) The perspective proves to be the nature of reference books. transition of comparative psychology perspective. The Nevertheless, as far as academic research is concerned, it early comparative cognitive research adopted the top- turns out to be impossible for any linguistic researchers down method but more and more people have realized to be so learned that they not only have a good command that cognitive factors may be shared with other species, so of biology, but also linguistics. Hence it is the inevitable bottom-up method is to be required, which accords with outcome that they are always seeking their own academic the research approaches of neuroscience and evolutionary interest within the narrow framework of biolingustics. biology (Boecks, 2011). The origin of biolinguistics attributes success to Under the background of biolinguistics, opportunities generative linguistics represented by Chomsky. In the and challenges coexist for linguistic researchers. The 1970s generative linguists observed that human language so-called opportunities refer to the formation and possessed biological properties and this scientific belief development of the minimalist program. Nevertheless, has been approved and accepted by many geneticists and large number of researchers who claim to approve the module biologists. In recent years Chomsky has explicitly minimalist program actually are still struggling with pointed out that people would find sooner or later the description of individual language and explanation of genetic variant foundation for language competence and the differences between languages instead of showing that once scientists discovered the variations, human sincere concern for the universal properties which make it beings would be able to seek other brand new methods possible for human languages to evolve. Hence linguistic to study the inner properties of language competence research still has a long way to go. The most serious (Chomsky, 2007b). Accordingly man’s brain or mind challenges that linguistic researchers have to face turn becomes the main study subject of biolinguistics and out to be the fact that whether they are open-minded or language research can be made at the levels of both able to find a way of diversification. Different theoretical physiology and psychology which support and direct each assumptions do not repel each other. On the contrast, other. Chomsky once borrowed the unity of physics and language researches based upon different theories chemistry in scientific history to illustrate the unity of are beneficial for the exploration of human organs’ brain scientific research and linguistic one. Jenkins made a complexities (Boecks, 2011). Besides, biolinguistics is parallel comparison between standpoints of hard sciences an interdiscipline of linguistics and biology. It is very and linguistic ones and proved that research methods in difficulty for linguists or biologists to possess professional hard sciences could be also applied to biolinguistic study knowledge of both disciplines. Hence future research has so as to unify natural science and mind science (Tang, to rely on work in cooperation of biological and linguistic 2004). Hence seen from the angle of intemalism, language researchers, or else it may be hard for biolinguistics to research has become one part of biology, which enables make a breakthrough. biolinguistics to come into being. In addition, the rise of Based on the above analysis of relevant literature biolinguistics directly benefits from the new discoveries with regard to biolinguistics, it can be concluded that of biology, neuropsychological system, etc. mainly in the future biolinguistic researches will be made in three following aspects: (i) The new synthesis and expansion aspects: (1) The evolution of language; (2) Ontogenetic of biology domain. This demands that biology research language development; (3) Language mechanism and should tend to be diverse, internalized and structuring, faculty of language (Wu, 2012c). Language researchers while intemalism exactly conforms to the anti-behaviorism are supposed to start with biolinguistics in narrow sense, followed by Chomsky’s linguistics. Accordingly Chomsky such as language recursion mechanism and physiology introduced Evo-devo into biolinguistics in the first place, basis, children acquisition mechanism, etc. On the which opened a sky window for language research to other hand, biolinguistics in a broad sense can be left look at the stars far away (Wu, 2012a); (ii) Knowledge of to biology researchers, which makes it possible for the key problem of inter-discipline related to language. linguistic researchers to exploit their advantages to the The problem appeared to be significant in the field of full and is also favorable to the harmonious and healthy neurolinguistics, namely compared with unitary discipline, development of biolinguistics as inter-discipline of inter-discipline lacks a common characterization level; (iii) biology and linguistics. The discovery of FOXP2 gene. Research indicates that FOXP2 is not a unique gene. 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