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Chapter 2 Atmospheric Structure and Composition © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER 2 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC AtmosphericNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION StructureNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEand OR DISTRIBUTION CompositionNOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER AT© A Jones GLANCE & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ Origin of the Earth and Atmosphere ■ Atmospheric Composition ▸ Carbon Cycle ▸ Constant and Variable Gases © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ■ Faint Young Sun Paradox NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ■ Atmospheric Structure ■ Summary ■ Key Terms ■ Review Questions © Jones & Bartlett■ Questions Learning, for Thought LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION he atmosphere is a collection of gases held the upward-directed force of buoyancy. is balance is near the Earth by gravity. It is also pulled away termed hydrostatic equilibrium. is extremely thin from the Earth© Jones because & a Bartlettvacuum exists Learning, in the LLCand delicate zone known ©as theJones atmosphere & Bartlett makes Learning, life LLC Tharsh conditions of space. One of the most funda- as we know it possible on the planet. When you look in NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION mental properties of the universe—the second law of the sky the atmosphere appears to continue innitely, thermodynamics—states that energy (and, therefore, but if Earth were the size of an apple, the atmosphere mass, because energy and mass are related by Einstein’s would have the thickness of the apple’s skin. theory of relativity) moves from areas of higher concen- Technically, the atmosphere is a subset of the air tration© Jones (in this & case, Bartlett Earth’s lowerLearning, atmosphere) LLC to areas of because ©it isJones composed & Bartlett solely of gases.Learning, By contrast, LLC air lowerNOT concentration FOR SALE (outer OR space). DISTRIBUTION e atmosphere thus containsNOT not only FOR gases SALE but also OR aerosols DISTRIBUTION—solid and represents a place where a balance is generally achieved liquid particles suspended above the surface that are too between the downward-directed gravitational force and tiny for gravity to pull downward. Solid aerosols include © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALECourtesy of Anthony OR Vega. DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 11 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. 9781284126563_CH02.indd 11 12/04/17 12:43 PM 12 Chapter 2 Atmospheric Structure and Composition © Jonesice crystals,& Bartlett volcanic Learning, soot particles, LLC salt crystals from © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC the ocean, and soil particles; liquid aerosols include NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FORclouds SALE and fog OR droplets. DISTRIBUTION Because the atmosphere is composed of the lightest elements gravitationally attracted to the Earth, many assume that it has little or no mass. Compared with the mass of the solid Earth© Jones (6 × 10 &24 kg; Bartlett or 6 × Learning,1021 LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC metric tons) and oceansNOT (1.4 × FOR 1021 kg;SALE or 1.4 OR × 10 DISTRIBUTION18 NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION metric tons), the atmosphere is indeed light. But the atmosphere has a substantial total mass of 5 × 1018 kg (5 × 1015 metric tons)! e ©mass Jones of the & air Bartlett is in constant Learning, motion, LLC giving © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC considerable impact to the surface environment. For NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION example, a tornado can cause catastrophic devastation to a location. In the case of a tornado, the mass of air has substantial acceleration. According to Newton’s second law of motion, force is the product of mass and © Jonesacceleration. & Bartlett e Learning, two factors combine, LLC in this situation, © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORto produce SALE a ORforce DISTRIBUTION capable of devastation. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION e atmosphere is an extremely complex entity that FIGURE 2.1 The Orion Nebula. Courtesy of NASA, ESA, M. Robberto (Space Telescope Science Institute/ESA), and the Hubble Space Telescope Orion Treasury must be viewed simultaneously on many levels, both Project Team. temporally and in three spatial dimensions (west–east, north–south, and vertical).© AtmosphericJones & Bartlett processes Learning, can LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC be di cult to understand. To appreciate the nature of attracted the bulk of the elements that composed the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION the atmosphere properly, we must rst understand the nebula. Planets formed as balls of dust gravitationally origins of the atmosphere and its changes since the collected over various orbits about the primitive Sun. origin of the planet. Earth was one such ball of dust. As it grew the elements fused together and collapsed under their own weight © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC and gravity. As© Earth Jones grew & in Bartlett size, its gravity Learning, increased LLC ▸ OriginNOT ofFOR the SALE Earth OR DISTRIBUTION proportionately.NOT Friction FOR caused SALE the OREarth DISTRIBUTION materials to and Atmosphere melt. Melting was also encouraged by frequent impacts with large planetesimals, which were essentially small According to the best scienti c information, the uni- planets of condensed debris moving over wildly eccentric verse is thought to have begun 13.8 billion years ago. orbits about the Sun. ese planetesimals contributed © JonesAt that& Bartlett time all matter Learning, in the universe LLC was con ned to ©heavier Jones elements & Bartlett and mass Learning, to the growing LLC Earth while NOT FORa single SALE space. OR An DISTRIBUTION explosion of unimaginable propor- NOTshattering FOR and SALE melting OR its hotDISTRIBUTION surface. A collision between tion sent this matter—mostly hydrogen—outward in all Earth and a planetesimal is thought to have created the directions. Over time, gravity caused matter to collect Moon. Remnants of early solar system planetesimals in various areas of space to form galaxies. Within the are present today in the vast asteroid eld between galaxies smaller amounts ©of Jonesmatter condensed & Bartlett gravita- Learning,Mars LLC and Jupiter. e Oort cloud© —aJones collection & Bartlett of icy Learning, LLC tionally into stars. Star formationNOT FOR began SALE to occur OR when DISTRIBUTION comets and dust that surroundsNOT the outer FOR edges SALE of our OR DISTRIBUTION hydrogen was compressed under its own gravitational solar system—also acts as a relic of conditions present weight. If the mass involved was su ciently large, in the early stages of solar system formation. nuclear fusion—a process that converts lighter elements In these early times Earth’s atmosphere is believed (principally hydrogen) into heavier elements (primar- to have consisted of light and inert (noble) gases such ily helium)—began.© Jones & Such Bartlett reactions Learning, released amazingLLC as hydrogen, helium,© Jones neon, & and Bartlett argon. Learning,ese gases were LLC quantitiesNOT of radiant FOR energySALE while OR DISTRIBUTIONcreating (fusing) all e ectively sweptNOT away FOR as the SALE solar wind OR —radioactiveDISTRIBUTION matter heavier than hydrogen. particles from the Sun moving through space at nearly Occasionally, a star exploded, sending heavier ele- the speed of light—developed. Today, Earth is largely ments outward through the galaxy. Vast clouds of dust, devoid of noble gases as a result. So how did the atmo- © Jonescalled & Bartlettnebula ( FIGURELearning, 2.1), formed, LLC and the original ©sphere Jones that & we Bartlett know today Learning, form? LLC NOT FORgravitational SALE ORaccumulation DISTRIBUTION process began anew. Our NOT FOR e composition SALE OR of the DISTRIBUTION atmosphere can be explained solar system is believed to have formed from a nebula by looking at volcanic activity, which is rather limited approximately 5 billion years ago. e Sun gravitationally over Earth’s surface today but was apparently widespread © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION. 9781284126563_CH02.indd 12 12/04/17 12:43 PM Atmospheric Composition 13 © Jones & billionsBartlett of yearsLearning, ago as the LLC early Earth cooled slowly from© Jonesrole & in Bartlett maintaining Learning, the temperature LLC of the planet at a its primordial molten state. As volcanic material cooled, level comfortable for life in its present form. Earth’s NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION gases were released through the process of outgassing, early atmosphere apparently contained far more CO2 which primarily involved diatomic nitrogen (N2) and than today’s and little or no O2. So where did most of carbon dioxide (CO2), with lesser amounts of water the CO2 go a er outgassing in the primitive atmosphere, vapor, methane (CH4), and sulfur. e condensation and how did O2 come to replace it? of water vapor into© liquid Jones water & in Bartlett the cool atmosphere Learning, LLC e evolution of Earth’s© Jones atmospheric & Bartlett composition Learning, LLC
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