Evaluating the Influences of Karst Hydrogeology on Freshwater Harmful Algal Blooms in Kentucky Lakes Robert T
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Western Kentucky University TopSCHOLAR® Masters Theses & Specialist Projects Graduate School Summer 2016 Evaluating the Influences of Karst Hydrogeology on Freshwater Harmful Algal Blooms in Kentucky Lakes Robert T. Schaefer Western Kentucky University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses Part of the Geochemistry Commons, Geology Commons, Marine Biology Commons, and the Natural Resources and Conservation Commons Recommended Citation Schaefer, Robert T., "Evaluating the Influences of Karst Hydrogeology on Freshwater Harmful Algal Blooms in Kentucky Lakes" (2016). Masters Theses & Specialist Projects. Paper 1619. http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/1619 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by TopSCHOLAR®. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses & Specialist Projects by an authorized administrator of TopSCHOLAR®. For more information, please contact [email protected]. EVALUATING THE INFLUENCES OF KARST HYDROGEOLOGY ON FRESHWATER HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS IN KENTUCKY LAKES A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Department of Geography and Geology Western Kentucky University Bowling Green, Kentucky In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science By Robert T. Schaefer III August 2016 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Completing this thesis, and, to a large extent, graduate school in general, to say the least, has been a journey. Journeys are often fraught with heartache and hardship, but they are also full of fun and excitement, and this adventure was no different. I was fortunate enough to be surrounded with a group of amazing friends and a mentor without whom this thesis would not have been possible. It was through this journey that I learned that the completion of a thesis, and graduate school survival, is not a feat completed by an individual alone, but by a group effort propelling an individual to a singular goal. Friends have always played a large role in helping me push through hardships. If it were not for my two of my closest friends, Ellen Barringer and Zack Sullivan, my sanity would have long ago fled. Thanks to Ellen for lending me an ear when times were most dire and Zack for being by my side throughout this adventure. I would have likely quit long ago without their support. I also need to thank Caleb Koostra and Kegan McClanahan, as they were instrumental in the collection of my research data and, without them, this study would have been very difficult. Helping others with their work helped propel me forward as well. I want to say thank you to Jonathan Oglesby, my fellow artist and friend. Weekend GIS sessions with Joneo kept my skills sharp and our discussions always proved to be a highlight of my week. I want to thank the USACE and, specifically, the Louisville District Biologist, Jennifer Thomason. She helped me navigate the maze of federal policy and research, as well as provided me with much needed data. So many of my friends have helped me with the completion of this document, even if it was not through direct means. Every smile, cheesy joke, and terrible prank kept my spirits high and helped drive me to finish this work. Thank you to all of my friends and colleagues. iii My family and loved ones also played a role in the completion of this project. They always supported my efforts from the shadows, even if their only contribution was a simple “you can do this” at the end of a phone call. Thank you all for the never-ending support and well wishing. None of this would have been possible without my mother, Yvonne Woods, my two brothers, Jonathan and Joseph Schaefer, and my best friend, Skylar Bisono. All of my labors were well validated when I came home to those smiling faces and warm hugs. I also want to thank the people I have come to see as mentors during my time at Western Kentucky University. Dr. Leslie North, your guidance and tutelage in all things education made me the educator I am today. I hope to have a long and great career in this field and I go forward from here with the strong knowledge base you helped me build. Dr. Pat Kambesis, thanks for being “one of the three” and generally being awesome. I revere your knowledge of caving and mapping and, someday, hope to be able to live up to your legend. Finally, I want to thank my biggest supporter, mentor, guide, thorn-in-my-side, and advisor, Dr. Jason Polk. I have grown so much throughout this process and you have been there to guide me every step of the way. You fought off the demons of paperwork and administration while I toiled in the field, cultivating a thesis. Thank you for helping me become a better writer, scientist, leader, and person. So much of this was only possible because I knew you had my back every step of the way and, for that alone, I will forever consider you my friend. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Chapter 2. Literature Review ...............................................................................................4 2.1 Karst Landscape and Hydrogeology ..................................................................4 2.2 Eutrophication of Lakes .....................................................................................7 2.3 Contamination through Nutrient Loading ........................................................10 2.4 Groundwater Contaminants .............................................................................18 2.5 Freshwater Harmful Algal Blooms ..................................................................20 2.6 HABs in Karst Areas .......................................................................................25 Chapter 3. Sourcing and Dynamics of Karst Hydrologic Inputs on Harmful Algal Bloom Occurrences in Kentucky Lakes ........................................................................................27 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................27 3.2 Study Area .......................................................................................................32 3.3 Materials and Methods .....................................................................................39 3.4 Results/Discussion ...........................................................................................45 3.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................................77 Chapter 4. Broader Impacts ...............................................................................................80 References ..........................................................................................................................81 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1. Karst landscape diagram....................................................................................5 Figure 2.2. The Nitrogen Cycle .........................................................................................13 Figure 2.3. Interpreting δ15N-NO3 and δ18O-NO3 with a graphic mixing model ..........16 Figure 2.4. Electron microscope pictures of potentially harmful algae .............................22 Figure 3.1. Hydrology and karst features of Rough River and Nolin River Lakes’ modified hydrological units ...............................................................................................28 Figure 3.2. Cyanobacterial HABs that formed in Nolin River Lake on 9/17/15 ...............30 Figure 3.3. Surficial lithology of the Rough River Lake and Nolin River Lakes’ modified hydrological units...............................................................................................................33 Figure 3.4. Study Survey Sites, with four sample sites per lake ........................................34 Figure 3.5. Land coverage of the Rough River Lake and Nolin River Lakes’ modified hydrological units...............................................................................................................36 Figure 3.6. HAB survey and weather data for Nolin River Lake from July-Dec. 2013 ....41 Figure 3.7. 2013 Cell count survey data from Rough River Lake .....................................41 Figure 3.8. Nolin River Lake (A) and Rough River Lake (B) KDE maps ........................42 Figure 3.9. Nolin River Site 3 – Average Air vs Surface Water Temperature. .................48 Figure 3.10. Nolin River Lake Study Data ........................................................................53 Figure 3.11. The relationships between SpC, Ca, and Mg ................................................54 Figure 3.12. Rough River Lake Study Data .......................................................................57 Figure 3.13. Rough River Lake Ca/Mg/SpC Relationships ...............................................58 Figure 3.14. The mixing model for Nolin River Lake .......................................................65 Figure 3.15. The mixing model for Rough River Lake .....................................................68 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1. Descriptive statistics for the study data collected at Nolin River Lake ............50 Table 3.2. Descriptive statistics for the study data collected at Rough River Lake ..........51 Table 3.3. The seasonal and total nitrate loadings for Nolin and Rough River lakes ........61 vii EVALUATING THE INFLUENCES OF KARST HYDROGEOLOGY ON FRESHWATER HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS IN KENTUCKY LAKES Robert Schaefer