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Aspects of European History 1494-1789, Second Edition ASPECTS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY 1494– 1789 By the same author Aspects of European History 1789–1980 STEPHEN J.LEE ASPECTS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY 1494–1789 Second edition LONDON AND NEW YORK For Margaret First published in 1978 by Methuen & Co. Ltd Second edition 1984 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 1978 and 1984 Stephen J.Lee Photoset by Rowland Phototypesetting Ltd Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Lee, Stephen J. Aspects of European history 1494–1789.—2nd ed. 1. Europe—History—1492–1648 2. Europe—History—1648–1789 I. Title 940.22 D208 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Lee, Stephen J. Aspects of European history, 1494–1789. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Europe—History—1492–1648. 2. Europe History— 1648–1789. I. Title D228.L43 1984 940.2 84–600 ISBN 0-203-97687-8 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-415-02784-5 (Print Edition) Contents page Introduction ix 1 Renaissance Humanism 1 2 The Background to the Reformation 8 3 Political Factors in the Spread of Lutheranism in Germany Between 14 1517 and 1555 4 The Spread and Significance of Calvinism 19 5 Calvinism and the Jesuits 24 6 The Counter Reformation 30 7 The Political Development of Spain 1474–1598 35 8 The Italian Wars and the Habsburg-Valois Struggle 1494–1559 41 9 The Foreign Policy of Philip II 46 10 The Development of the Ottoman Empire to 1566 53 11 The Beginnings of Ottoman Decline 1566–1699 59 12 European Population Growth 1500–1800 65 13 The Holy Roman Empire 1493–1618 71 14 Issues Involved in the Thirty Years’ War 78 15 The Effects of the Thirty Years’ War on Germany 85 16 The Significance of the Treaty of Westphalia 91 17 The Spanish and Portuguese Empires 97 18 The Impact of the Spanish Empire on Spain’s Economy in the 104 Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries 19 Sweden as a Major Power 1611–1721 109 20 The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century 115 vii 21 France During the Administration of Cardinal Richelieu 121 22 France Under Louis XIV 128 23 French Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth Century 134 24 The Reforms of the Great Elector 141 25 The Growth of the Prussian Bureaucracy in the Eighteenth Century 145 26 Prussian Foreign Policy 1740–1786 151 27 The Reforms of Peter the Great 160 28 Russia Under Catherine the Great 168 29 Russian Foreign Policy in the Eighteenth Century 173 30 Austria Under Maria Theresa 181 31 Austria Under Joseph II 187 32 The Age of Reason 194 33 Enlightened Despotism: A General Survey 200 34 France Under the Regency and Cardinal Fleury 1715–1743 207 35 France Under Louis XV and Louis XVI 211 36 French Foreign Policy in the Eighteenth Century 217 37 The Origins of the French Revolution 223 Notes 229 Bibliography 238 List of illustrations MAPS Page The Ottoman Empire before 1700 54 The Holy Roman Empire before 1648 73 The Spanish and Portuguese Empires in the sixteenth century 98 The Dutch Republic in the seventeenth century 118 The growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 1640–1786 153 The Austrian Empire in 1738 183 FIGURES 1 Spanish Councils in the sixteenth century 40 2 Treasure imports into Spain 105 3 The Prussian bureaucracy in the eighteenth century 146 Introduction This book presents an interpretative approach to a wide range of topics in early modern European history. It is designed to be used in addition to, but not instead of, specialist works and standard textbooks. The main intention is to stimulate thought and to assist in the preparation of essays and seminar papers by encouraging the student to develop an angle or argument, whether in agreement with the chapters or in opposition to them. The chapters also suggest a variety of methods by which a theme or argument may be presented. (1) Some topics have been given straightforward chronological coverage; Chapters 7, 8 and 12 and examples of this. (2) Others have an analytical approach; Chapters 1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 13, 18, 19, 20 and 37 concentrate on issues rather than chronology. Chapters 15 and 27 examine different interpretations of the issues and suggest a synthesis. (3) Some arguments are intended to be persuasive, even dogmatic. They avoid referring to alternative views and are supported by carefully selected factual material. Examples are Chapters 3 and 28. (4) Some topics are approached from several different angles, with a certain common ground of factual material. An example is Chapter 6. (5) Chapters 21 and 27 examine the extent to which major statesmen were indebted to past achievements and the impact which their changes made on subsequent events; the emphasis, therefore, is very much on overall historical perspective. (6) Occasionally, comparisons and contrasts are drawn, as in Chapters 5, 17 and 33. This technique is widely demanded in essay work. It is assumed throughout that the reader will have a certain amount of preliminary factual knowledge or, alternatively, that he will follow up any terms with which he is unfamiliar. All chapters should be regarded as separate units, although there are overlapping themes. The themes for the chapters are, for the most part, political, but there is also some treatment of economic, social, cultural and religious factors. x Finally, it is hoped that the book will assist examination revision, by providing a series of summaries, by stimulating thought and criticism and by giving some structure to what must sometimes seem an inert mass of facts. 1 Renaissance Humanism Humanism was a basic source of inspiration for all the cultural changes of the Renaissance, heavily influencing literature, history, painting, sculpture and political ideas. Humanist scholars devoted themselves to the studia humanitatis by examining the texts of antiquity with renewed interest. Although classical works had some influence on medieval thought, they had acquired an extensive superstructure which scholars from the fourteenth century onwards set about dismantling. Increasing emphasis was laid on understanding the classics in their original form, and this was inevitably accompanied by an insistence on grammatical precision and stylistic purity. A particularly important development was the revival of Greek. This language, which had virtually disappeared from the West during the Middle Ages, spread during the fifteenth century not, as is often supposed, with the flight of scholars from the East after the Turkish capture of Constantinople in 1453, but as a result of invitations extended to Byzantine scholars like Manuel Chrysoloras to lecture in Florence and Rome in the 1390s. A widespread search for Roman and Greek manuscripts followed. By the end of the fifteenth century interest had reached dramatic proportions, with 27 principal editions of Greek works published between 1494 and 1515. Meanwhile, various humanist circles had been established, the most important of these being the Platonic Academy in Florence (1439). At times their members were excessively concerned with detail and produced commentaries on the classics rather than works of originality. Leonardo da Vinci, himself excluded from the inner sanctum of humanist study, observed bitterly of the members of the Platonic Academy: ‘They go about puffed up and pompous in fine raiment and bejewelled, not from the fruits of their own labours, but from those of others.’ But, although the humanists were often, in Leonardo’s words, ‘trumpeters and reciters of the works of others’, they performed a service of inestimable value for the arts either by opening the renaissance world to the influence of little known Greek and Roman writers or by re-examining, in the original, works which had already had an impact on the Middle Ages. The result was the emergence of humanism as a broader intellectual influence which was more significant than the sum of its humanist parts. Following the maxim of the Greek, Protagoras, that ‘man is the measure of all things’, it 2 ASPECTS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY 1494–1789 focused attention on the nature, achievements and potential of humanity rather than on the power and mystery of divinity. It was not necessary to be a member of a humanist academy to be influenced by humanism. Painters expressed it when they represented the human figure with greater accuracy and grace, made possible by a more extensive anatomical knowledge. Architects incorporated it into the circular and domed structures so characteristic of Italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Writers emphasized it through introspective analysis of the emotional and rational sides of man’s nature. Historians reflected it in their conception of the past, which underwent a radical change in the fifteenth century. Medieval scholars had regarded their world as existing on a higher plane than antiquity, suffused with the glow of Christianity and solidly based on political institutions and social structures which were permanent because they had divine authorization. Antiquity, by contrast, had been insecure and unenlightened, certainly until the Christian faith had established itself in the Roman Empire. By the fifteenth century, however, humanist historians had permanently reversed the entire emphasis. The medieval world was now associated with a superstition and barbarism that choked the more positive achievements of antiquity; the Middle Ages had been superseded by a better era.
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