Notes

1 Introduction

1. In June 2013, taped conversations between top executives of Anglo Irish Bank were revealed in the media. In one exchange, the executives candidly admit asking for 7 billion from the Financial Regulatory Authority despite knowing that the needs of their troubled bank were much larger. Had truth been told the authorities might have let the bank fail. Moreover, the bankers appeared to have abused the guarantee by chasing deposits from the United Kingdom and Germany. These revelations, in their content and tone, caused enormous anger and damaged Ireland’s diplomatic campaign to secure an EU recapitalisation of the banking system via the European Stability Mechanism. 2. The phrase ‘Celtic Tiger’ was coined in 1994 by Kevin Gardiner of US invest- ment bank Morgan Stanley, who suggested that Ireland’s high growth rates were comparable to those of the East Asian ‘Tigers’ (Smith, 2005:37). 3. The 1990s saw rapid growth in the indigenous software industry driven largely by people outside the business establishment who had gained experienced in the high-tech multinational corporation sector (O’Riain, 2004). 4. Perhaps the two most egregious examples of this are (i) Irish banks in 2003 borrowed the equivalent of 10 per cent of GPD from foreign banks to fuel a credit expansion, and by 2008 it was the equivalent of 60 per cent of GDP (Honohan, 2009). (ii) Between 2001 and 2008, capital stock expanded by 157 per cent; most of it went into property, with only 14 per cent went into productive investment. 5. The countries used for comparison purposes by Mjoset were Austria, Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Switzerland (Mjoset, 1992:5). 6. The original terms of reference included a second stage of investigation intended to achieve two things: First, the analysis would move towards a causal account based on comparative reasoning, and, second, specific issues for in-depth analysis would be identified. This second stage could not be completed within the time allowed (Mjoset, 1992:5). 7. The States included were Sweden, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria and Switzerland (Katzenstein, 1985:21). 8. Hemerijck (2013:44) also suggests that evolving cognitive understanding of policy elites, changing beliefs of politicians and changing normative orien- tations with respect to social justice issues can be important factors affecting welfare state reform.

2 Katzenstein’s World

1. Nationalism is a common feature in the respective histories of Ireland and Finland. Mjoset (1992:61) argues that among the smaller European countries Finland is the only one that experienced a nationalist mobilisation similar to Ireland to liberate itself from Russia.

206 Notes 207

2. Interview 28 September 2012. 3. Interview 27 September 2012. 4. Interview 28 September 2012. 5. Interview 22 May 2012. 6. The Danish manufacturing sector is very diverse. In 1991, only about 100 firms employed more than 500 people. Due to the lack of indigenous raw materials, industry is mostly confined to reprocessing and light indus- try. The dominant sectors were food processing, chemicals, furniture and engineering. The value of industrial goods sold in 1991 was equivalent to $64.8 billion (Economist Intelligence Unit, 1993/4). 7. Interview 12 September 2012. 8. Smaller and medium enterprises are represented by MKB (the literal trans- lation of SME). The overall organisation rate of employers is about 85 per cent. On the union side there is also the Dutch Christian Unions (CNV) and a smaller union for medium and higher skilled workers (De Unie/MHP). Union density was 22 per cent in 2006. (Houwing and Vandaele, 2011:28). 9. Interview 12 September 2012. 10. The author is indebted to Mr Padraig O’hUiginn, former Secretary General of the Department of an Taoiseach for providing him with a copy of this paper in December 2010. 11. A Constitutional Referendum on the abolition of the Seanad on 4 October 2013 was narrowly rejected.

3 1994–2001: The Age of Employment Miracles

1. The purpose of the Act was to protect depositors’ money against specula- tive investment activity by banks. It was repealed in the US Senate by the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999. The banking industry had been lobbying for the repeal since the 1980s. Ultimately this contributed to the 2008 crisis. 2. Interview 28 September 2012. 3. Interview 28 September 2012. 4. Interview 28 September 2012. 5. Interview 27 September 2012. 6. Interview 26 September 2012. 7. Interview 21 May 2012. 8. Interview 22 May 2012. 9. Interviews 21 and 22 May 2012. 10. Interview 22 May 2012. 11. Interview 22 May 2012. 12. In 1993 Ireland expected support from Germany for the Irish Punt within the ERM against speculative attacks. It was not forthcoming and Ireland had to devalue by 10 per cent. However, Denmark was supported (Connolly, 1995). 13. The President of FNV Trade Union Confederation, Agnes Jongerius, did not agree. She argued that workers and employers were paying the bill through their social insurance contributions. She referred to her own experience of restructuring the inland shipping industry and said she had no moral qualms about using disability to cover people who might have lost their jobs after 30 years. But she acknowledged that high insurance contributions made labour 208 Notes

costs very high. The issue was one of sustainability rather than morality (interview, 12 September 2012). PvdA Chairman, Ruud Vreeman, added the important point that the restructuring concerned older industries predom- inantly and that the disability allowance was higher than unemployment benefit (interview, 12 September 2012). 14. Prior to the initiation of reforms, 27 per cent of Dutch citizens were in receipt of a transfer payment of some sort (Esping-Andersen, 1996; Lindert, 2007; Visser and Hemerijck, 1997). 15. Interview 12 September 2012. 16. What happened in the Netherlands with the emergence of a Temporary Agency Workers’ employment placement industry almost certainly informed the EU Lisbon Strategy and the eventual emergence of an Agency Workers’ Directive. Wim Kok was a major player in that process. 17. Interview 12 September 2012. 18. Interview 12 September 2012. 19. Interview 12 September 2012. 20. Interview 11 September 2012. 21. Interview 12 September 2012. 22. Interview 12 September 2012. 23. Interview 12 September 2012. 24. Interview 12 September 2012. 25. Interview 11 September 2012. 26. According to O’Sullivan (2006), this was a major embarrassment to Ireland’s policy making community who had tried to be exemplary members of the ERM. He observes that Mr Trichet (subsequently President of ECB) was indif- ferent to Ireland’s plight. Interestingly, the Bundesbank intervened at that time to support Denmark’s currency. Former Secretary of the Department of Finance, Tom Considine, recalls how this period was when the power of markets in a world of free movement of capital manifested itself. He was struck by the fact that Britain had available a fund of £20 billion Sterling to defend the currency but this was swept aside by markets. Asked about the failure of Germany to come to the aid of the Punt when they had supported the Danish Krone, he opined that this could be explained by the realisa- tion that Denmark was a lot more stable – it would not have been affected by movements in an adjacent currency – whereas Ireland was exposed to Sterling. He posed the question; how would the Bundesbank know that Sterling might not drop again and expose the Punt to further speculative attack? If they had tried to help Ireland there was no knowing how far and for how long they would have had to back to Punt (interviewed, 24 May 2012). 27. Interview 13 January 2012.

4 2001–2008: European Integration Intensifies

1. Lindgren (2011:62) is careful to point out that this trend towards corpo- rate governance liberalisation should not be overstated. It has not made much impact on the dispersion of ownership. Ownership is still quite heavily concentrated in family-owned firms. Notes 209

2. This phenomenon was identified also in the multinational sector in Ireland by McGuinness et al. (2010) who showed how the FDI sector was a significant beneficiary of the various Social Partnership agreements. 3. In 1993 Danish workers were entitled to receive 90 per cent of their wages prior to unemployment. This was subject to a ceiling of 162,000 DKK (21,800 Euro). 4. In 2005 Parliament decided that all employees should have a statutory right to occupational pensions (Mailand, 2011:87). 5. Interview 22 May 2012. 6. Interview 22 May 2012. 7. Interview 22 May 2012. 8. Interview 12 September 2012. 9. Interview 11 September 2012. 10. An employment rate of 74 per cent in 2007 was in line with Nordic achievements but a very high proportion of jobs (60 per cent) are part-time (Houwing and Vandaele, 2011:135). 11. According to the Minister for Finance, writing in The Financial Times on 24 November 2010 Ireland’s productivity in 2010 was the second highest in the EU. The Central Statistics Office (2010) also state that Ireland’s productiv- ity is 30 per cent above the EU average. However, O’Sullivan (2006:68) draws attention to the divergence in productivity between indigenous and foreign transnational corporations (TNCs). The former cannot match the achieve- ments of the latter. To compound the problem he asserts that transfer pricing for tax purposes makes it look as if the amount of added value to goods pro- duced in Ireland by TNCs is greater than it really is – hence productivity is overstated. 12. The most notable involved a dispute in 2005 in which the Irish Ferries Com- pany replaced its Irish crew with non-nationals earning half the minimum wage. 13. Legislative commitments to regulate the labour market were not fully hon- oured. The most significant gain for the unions was the establishment of the National Employment Rights Authority (NERA). 14. Interview 22 November 2011. 15. Interview 14 December 2011. 16. Interview 7 June 2012. 17. Interview 22 May 2012. 18. Interview 4 December 2012. 19. Interview 9 January 2012.

5 Beyond 2008: Coping with the Crisis

1. Interview 10 May 2011. 2. Interview 28 September 2012. 3. Interview 25 May 2012. 4. Interview 27 September 2012. 5. Interview 13 November 2012. 6. Interview 10 May 2012. 7. Interview 28 September 2012. 210 Notes

8. Interview 21 May 2012. 9. Interview 21 May 2012. 10. Interview 22 May 2012. 11. The actual distribution of seats was: Liberals 41 (31), Labour 39 (30), Free- dom Party 15 (24), Socialists 15 (15), Christian Democrats 13 (21), D66 12 (10) and others 15 (19). Seats in outgoing parliaments are recorded in brackets. 12. Interview 12 September 2012. 13. Interview 11 September 2012. 14. Interview 11 September 2012. 15. To put the scale of the problem in perspective, however, Mercers consider the Netherlands to be second only to Denmark in terms of the quality of its pensions in a review of 18 of the world’s best pension systems (www .dutchreviews.nl/news/archives2012/10/dutch.pension_system). 16. Interview 11 December 2012. 17. Interview 4 February 2010. 18. For a discussion on the role of the media in the crisis, see Donovan and Murphy (2013, Chapter 8) and Mercille (2013). 19. Regling, Klaus and Watson, Max (2010), A Preliminary Report on the Sources of Ireland’s Banking Crisis; Honohan, Patrick (2010), The Irish Banking Crisis: Regulatory and Financial Stability Policy, 2003–2008. 20. Interview 9 November 2011. 21. Interview 31 October 2013. 22. Interview 14 December 2011. 23. Interview 27 April 2012. 24. The Croke Park Agreement is an agreement to protect pay, pensions and security of employment in return for flexibility in the public sector aimed at reducing the cost base. 25. Interview April 2012. 26. Interview 2012.

6 Unpacking Ireland’s Polity from a New Institutionalist Perspective

1. Interview 22 November 2011. 2. Interview 12 January 2012. 3. Interview 9 January 2012. 4. Interview 13 January 2012. 5. Interview 4 February 2010. 6. Interview 4 December 2012. 7. Interview 13 January 2012. 8. Vice President of the European Commission (1999–2004), the former leader of the British Labour Party (1983–1992). 9. Interview 7 March 2012. 10. It is clear from the interview with Wim Kok recorded in Chapter 2 that Kohl placed a lot of value on loyalty and support. This is evidenced in the negative in Wim Kok’s belief that Kohl treated Dutch Prime Minister Lubbers badly because of his lack of support for German unification. We can only speculate Notes 211

that Ireland might have found a more sympathetic ear in Germany post 2008 if Kohl were still in office. 11. Interview 7 June 2012. 12. Interview 26 April 2012. 13. Interview 10 May 2012. 14. Interview 26 May 2012. 15. Interview 26 April 2012. 16. Interview 16 February 2012. 17. Interview 28 November 2012. 18. Interview 30 November 2011. 19. Interview 7 June 2012. 20. Interview 28 November 2011. 21. Interview 22 May 2012. 22. Interview 7 June 2012. 23. Products of an elite national university dedicated to the education of public administrators. 24. Interview 7 June 2012. 25. Interview 7 March 2012. 26. Negative integration in this context is the process of competitive market making for public utilities. 27. 112 Interview 11 January 2012. 28. In a recent paper, Ashoka Mody suggests that while the Euro was a political decision it had no operational political dynamic in a key sense. He asserts that there was never a realistic possibility that fiscal – and, hence, political – sovereignty would be surrendered (Mody, 2013:9). 29. Interview 18 September 2012. 30. Interview 24 May 2012. 31. Interview 28 November 2011. 32. Interview 9 November 2011. 33. Interview 11 December 2012. 34. Interview 16 February 2012. 35. Secretary General of the Department of Finance. 36. Interview 30 November 2011. 37. Interview 8 March 2013. 38. There were 45 speeches from Fianna Fáil, 16 from Fine Gael, 16 from Labour and 3 from the Progressive Democrats reflecting this discourse (Hay et al., 2008:183). 39. Senior Fine Gael politician who held a number of ministries over the course of a long political career. 40. Economic Advisor to Labour Party Leader Michael O’Leary and subsequently Dick Spring. He fell out of favour with the latter due to his opposition to the EMU. 41. Interview 7 June 2012. 42. The ECB’s mandate is set out in Article 105 of the 1992 Treaty on the European Union (Maastricht). It is institutionally both narrow and exclu- sive. It sets the maintenance of price stability as the ‘primary objective’ of the ECB, and of no other body. Although the ECB must support ‘the general economic policies in the community’ its support must be without prejudice to the objective of price stability’. The plurality of goals means that the FED 212 Notes

has to be prepared to work with others to coordinate policies and balance objectives (Taylor, 2000). 43. Interview 13 January 2012. 44. Interview 22 November 2011. 45. Interview 27 September 2012. 46. Interview 8 March 2012. 47. Towards 2016 was actually intended to be a 10-year framework agreement with medium-term social objectives. It was intended to negotiate pay terms every 2 years. 48. Although Hastings et al. (2007) argued that there was never a real prospect of the PDs adopting a Thatcherite approach pointing out that the party leader Mary Harney was never hostile to Social Partnership. 49. Interview 16 December 2012. 50. Interview 2 February 2012. 51. It is worth noting that what is described here represents an extraordinarily high level of coordinating responsibility being devolved to private sector employers which resonates with Hall and Soskice’s (2001) perspective of the role of the firm in Varieties of Capitalism. 52. Interview 16 February 2012. 53. According to Willie Scally, the former Economic Advisor to Tánaiste, Dick Spring, Labour made an input to the 1993 Programme for Government expanding Social Partnership to include wider societal representative groups. This was done initially by creating the National Economic and Social Forum to parallel the NESC. The Community & Voluntary groups eventually joined as full partners in 1996. 54. Interview 28 November 2011. 55. Interview 2 February 2012. 56. Interview 28 November 2012. 57. Interview 16 February 2012. 58. The Conciliation and Arbitration Scheme for the public service was estab- lished by a Fine Gael Finance Minister, Gerard Sweetman, in 1958. By the 1990s, it had become seriously dysfunctional as a system of pay determina- tion due to a propensity to fix pay mainly on internal public service grade relativities with only a small number of comparisons with the private sector. The problem is well described in Hastings et al. (2007: Chapter 6). 59. Interview 7 June 2012. 60. Interview 25 January 2012. 61. Management practices around foreign travel and other matters at the state training agency became publicly controversial in 2010 resulting in the demise of the agency and reallocation of its functions. 62. Interview 10 May 2012. 63. Interview 13 January 2012. 64. A figure in Greek mythology who kept pushing a huge rock up a cliff only to have it fall down on him again and again. 65. Interview 22 November 2011. 66. Interview 24 May 2012. 67. Interview 8 March 2012. 68. Interview 4 February 2010. Notes 213

7 Conclusions

1. Although as Smith (2005) points out globalisation is a bit of a misnomer in Ireland’s case. Ireland has three main markets and sources of FDI, viz. Eurozone, Britain and the United States. Thus, it can be said to be highly international and open but not global as such. 2. Interview 28 November 2011. 3. ‘Saltwater’ is intended to designate east coast US academies as distinct from ‘freshwater’ meaning Chicago School or neo-liberal. New Keynesians tend to accept rational expectations, but are nevertheless able to conclude that markets can fail (Skidelsky, 2009:44). 4. Interview 9 December 2011. 5. Mr. Hurley also recollects writing to the Minister for Finance in 2004 drawing attention to the risk posed by property tax reliefs. He recommended phasing out the reliefs but this was not done at the pace he suggested. This decision followed a study commissioned from Inbucon. He thought that the Depart- ment of Finance was worried about precipitating a collapse of the property market. 6. Interview 9 December 2011. 7. Eurozone banks have reduced cross-border lending within the Eurozone by $2.8 trillion since 2007 (David and Lund, 2013). Bibliography

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Abdelal, Rawi, 2 Berg, Hans Ten, 107 Abrahamson, Peter, 69 Bergin, Adele, 154 active labour market policies (ALMPs), Berlin Wall, fall of, 134, 136 65, 175, 180 Blair, Tony, 74 Adshead, Maura, 4, 78, 146, 155, 176 Block, Fred, 11–13, 130, 191 agriculture, 38, 43, 45, 54, 151 Blyth, Mark, 11–12, 143, 194 Ahern, Bertie, 4, 75, 125–6, 128, 144, Bohle, Dorothee, 13 149, 151–2, 159 Bolshevik Revolution, 29 Alcatel, 100 Booth, S., 119 Allen, Kieran, 192 Boru, Brian, 205 Allison, Graham, 19, 22, 123, 136, 168 Böss, Michael, 15, 37, 69, 84, 161, 178 American Bar Association, 165 Boston V Berlin debate, 166 Amsterdam Treaty, 126, 128 Boucher, G., 146 Andersen, Gosta Esping, 16 Boyer, Robert, 18, 173 Andersen, Goul, 105 Breen, Richard, 44, 52, 53, 128, 177, Andersen, Soren Kaj, 66, 104–5 180 Anglo Irish Bank, 112, 206n British House of Commons, 118 Anglo-Irish Free Trade Agreement of Browne, Gordon, 139 1965, 3 Browne, Michael, 52 Antoniades, Andeas, 75 Bruton, John, 24, 51–2, 142, 146, 158, Arctech Helsinki, 101 167, 186 Asian tiger economies, 5 Bruton, Richard, 117, 130, 159 Atkinson, Anthony B., 71, 199 Bryman, Alan, 18 Attley, Bill, 150 Building on Reality, 47 authoritarianism, 12 Calmfors, Lars, 67 Baker, Terry, 124, 137 Campbell, John L., 15, 33, 34, 64, 84, Balkenende, Jan Peter, 87, 89 161, 178 Baltimore Technologies, 79 capitalism, 12, 16 banking sector, crisis in, 111–17 contrasting varieties of, 174–81 Bank of England, 139 Cardiff, Kevin, 93–4, 114 Bank of Finland, 31, 175 Carnegy, Hugh, 136 Barrington, Ruth, 94, 125, 199 Carr, Joe, 201 Barry, Frank, 138 Cassells, Peter, 149, 151 Battle of Clontarf, 205 Catholic Church, 51, 52 Becker, Uwe, 58, 161 Catholicism, 51 Beck, Ulrich, 7, 136 Cawley, Anthony, 157, 162 Beddy, J. P., 54 Celtic Tiger, 2–4, 6–7, 23, 46, 75, 167 Beesley, Arthur, 119 Central and Eastern European (CEE) Belgium, Social Solidarity Pact of states, 17 1945, 14 Central Bank Act, 113, 114 Benn, Tony, 188 Central Bank Stability Reports, 113 Berentzen, Anette, 66, 69, 86, 94, 132 Centre Party, 100

228 Index 229

Chambers, Anne, 46, 54, 131 de Beer, Paul, 106 Chirac, Jacques, 142 Delors, Jacques, 134, 146, 157, 204 Christian Democrat Appeal, 106 democratic corporatism, 13, 15, 30 Christian Democratic Party, 50 Denmark, 11 Christian Democrats (CDA), 70 balance of payments in, 5 Christiansen, Thomas, 127, 136, 141 convergence and divergence of, civil war, 180 49–57 Clinton, Bill, 74 crisis in, 103–5 Coakley, John, 126, 128, 129 domestic demand in, 5 Coakley, Maurice, 192 employment miracle, 64–9 Cold War, 5, 11 European integration, 84–6 Collins, G., 146 government spending as % of GDP, Common Agriculture Policy (CAP), 78 124 history and political economy of, competitive corporatism, 155–6, 161, 33–4 176 labour force participation rates in, Connolly, Bernard, 133, 136 77 Conservative Party, 83 labour market, 34, 36, 64–7, 84–5, Considine, Tom, 139, 167, 208n 95, 175, 177, 184 ‘consociational democracy’, 39 as negotiated economy, 34–7 Continuation War of 1941-1944, 29 part-time employment in, 77 Control of Manufacturing Act, 43 ‘potato cure’, 5 Coordinated Market Economy (CME), Sectoral Pension Funds, 85 63 standardised unemployment rates Copenhagen University, 66 as a % of the labour force, 77 corporatism, 27 structural reform and immigration defining characteristics of, 14 dominating in, 84–6 Dutch, 39–42 Dexia, 2, 98 in the Netherlands, 41 Diamond, Patrick, 203 Cowen, Brian, 159, 187 discursive institutionalism, 164–8 Cramme, Olaf, 195, 203 Doherty, Michael, 154, 157, 176 creative corporatism, 155, 161 Donner, Piet Hein, 89 credit rationing, 5 Donovan, Donal, 1, 59, 75, 78, 80, Creighton, Lucinda, 126 111, 166, 167, 196, 198–9 Croke Park Agreement, 115, 160, 210n Dorr, Noel, 129, 131–2, 137, 140, 142 Crouch, Colin, 153, 162, 179, 185, 203 ‘Double Irish’, 118 Crouch, David, 101 Double Movement theory, 12 Cuban Missile Crisis, 19 Driffill, John, 67 Culliton Report, 47 Dunne, John, 131, 141, 151–2, 158 Dutch Christian Democratic Alliance Dahl, Kristian Thulesen, 103 (CDA), 87 Danish Confederation of Trade Dutch Christian Democratic Unions, 132 Alliance-Dutch Liberal Party Danish People’s Party (DPP), 25, 86, (CDA-VVD), 39 103, 175 Dutch Christian Employers’ Body Dansk Folkeparti, 87 (VNO-NCW), 41, 88 Datalex, 79 Dutch Christian Unions (CNV), 207n David, Howard, 213n Dutch corporatism, rehabilitation of, Deasy, Rickard, 44 39–42 230 Index

Dutch disease, 40–1, 57, 174 European Community, 38, 68 see also ‘Dutch employment miracle’ European Council, 2, 10 ‘Dutch employment miracle’, 41 European Court of Justice, 17 see also Dutch disease European Economic Community Dutch Labour Party (PvdA), 39, 105, (EEC), 2–4, 8, 38, 44–6, 124, 202 174 European Free Trade Area (EFTA), Dutch Liberal Party (VVD), 87, 105 44–5, 68 Dutch Trade Union Federation (FNV), European integration 39–40 Denmark, 84–6 differential impact on development economic and monetary union models, 181–4 (EMU), 2, 8, 17, 21, 59–60, 88, 99, Finland, 83–4 122, 134–6, 175 Ireland, 123–4 managing the financial crisis the Netherlands, 86–9 within, 185–7 Europeanisation, 1–2, 9, 25 Economic and Social Research European Monetary System, 141 Institute (ESRI), 116, 137–8, 141, European Monetary Union, 64 168 European Parliament, 51, 94, 189 Economic Co-operation European Productivity Agency, 55 Administration, 54 European Social Model, 78 Economic Development (Whitaker), 44, European Stability Mechanism (ESM), 45, 127 10, 126, 206n ‘Economic War’, 43 European Union (EU), 1, 10, 36, 83, The Economist, 29, 100, 101, 104, 106, 109, 118, 173 111, 137, 187 ‘Europe 2020 Strategy’, 21, 91 Economist Intelligent Unit (EIU), 104, Europragmatism, 68, 84 108 Eurozone, 3, 8, 10, 104, 108, 115–16, Country Report on the Netherlands, 136, 146, 170, 175, 185, 187, 193 108 Excessive Deficit Procedure (EDP), 2 efficient markets hypothesis (EMH), Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), 4 166, 194 export-orientated industrialisation, 3, Eichengreen, Barry, 17–18, 37–8, 69, 149 88, 89, 127 see also industrialisation Employer-Labour Conference, 149 Ericsson, 62 Fama, Eugene, 166 Erixon, Lennart, 53–4 fascism, 13 Esping-Andersen, Gosta, 40, 208n Federal Reserve Board, 193 Essence of Decision, 19 Federated Union of Employers (FUE), EU Constitutional Treaty, 11 151 EU Country Report on Finland, 101–2 Federated Workers Union of Ireland, EU Excessive Deficit Programme, 150 115–16 Fehmarn Tunnel, 104 Eurobonds, 3 Ferriter, Diarmaid, 52 Europe, 118–20 Fianna Fáil, 43–4, 47, 52, 128, 149, identifying repertoires of action for, 176–7 187–95 Financial Emergency Measures in the European Central Bank (ECB), 1–3, 8, Public Interest Bill 2013 (FEMPI), 89, 94, 109, 136, 167, 170, 185 154 European Commission, 66, 93, 133 Fine Gael, 51, 52, 128, 150, 159, 162 Index 231

Finland, 10 Gabriel, Sigmar, 189 banking and trade crisis, 30–3 Gardiner, Kevin, 137, 206n banking crisis in, 10 Garvin, Tom, 4, 44, 51, 127, 128 consolidating recovery, 59–64 Geitner, Tim, 192 contribution of Nokia to GDP from Geraghty, Des, 125, 153 1991 to 2011, 61 German expeditionary force, 29 convergence and divergence of, Gilland, Karin, 128, 166 49–57 Gillespie, Paul, 196, 200 Eurpean integration, 83–4 Girvin, Brian, 45–6, 55, 130, 176, 177 financial crisis in, 99–103 Glass-Steagall Act, 58 government spending as % of GDP, Global Financial Markets, 73 78 globalisation, 1, 25, 127, 164–5 history and political economy of, globalisation of production, 59 29–30 Global System for Communications ICT sector of, 83–4 (GSM), 63 labour force participation rates in, Gouez, Aziliz, 126 77 Goul Andersen, Jorgen, 5, 104, 105 labour market, 61, 83, 102, 181, 184 Grafton, David, 144 Nokia and national system of Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, 207n innovation, 62–3 Gray, Danuta, 117 part-time employment in, 77 Great Britain, 118–20 standardised unemployment rates ‘Great Moderation’, 95, 184 as a % of the labour force, 77 The Great Transformation (Polanyi), 11 trade with the Soviet Union, 5 Green-Pedersen, Christoffer, 35, 39, Finnish Innovation Fund (SITRA), 32, 40, 42, 58, 66, 69, 70, 73 61 Greskovits, Bela, 13 Finnish Trade Union Centre (SAK), gross domestic product (GDP), 124 100 gross national product (GNP), 30, 124 First Programme for Economic Grundtvigian movement, 33, 178, 189 Expansion, 44 Grundtvig, Nikolai, 33 First World War, 13 Gulf War, 32 Fiscal Compact Treaty, 69, 126 Gylfason, Thorvaldur, 1, 5, 17, 58, Fitzgerald, Garret, 129, 132, 150 98–9, 114–15, 120, 174, 185, 186 Fitzgerald, John, 43, 117 Five Star Movement, 190 ‘The Haddington Road Agreement’, Flexicurity agreement, 70, 71 115 components of, 67 Haekkerup, Klaus, 86, 105 Fligstein, Neil, 18 Hall, John A., 15, 33, 34, 64, 161, 178 foreign direct investment (FDI), 4, 11, Hall, Peter A., 15 30, 111, 125, 176–7 Hardiman, Niamh, 124, 146, 153, 156, Forfás, 117, 130 159, 176 Fortis, 2, 98 Harney, Mary, 165 Fortuyn, Pim, 87 Harvey, David, 12 Foundation of Labour (STAR), 41 Hastings, Tim, 146–50, 152, 155, free trade, 1 158–61, 168, 176, 177 French National Assembly, 38 Haughey, Charles J., 48, 129, 150–2, French Revolution, 195 159 Friedman, Milton, 166 Hay, Colin, 8, 19, 143, 164, 171, 197 Fukuyama, Francis, 17 Heerts, Ton, 106 232 Index

Hemerijck, Anton, 1–3, 6, 21, 22, 25, Ireland 40–2, 53, 69–72, 96, 120–2, 146, Agricultural Credit Corporation, 43 161, 174–5, 181, 184, 187, 191–2, approach to European integration, 194, 204 123–4 Hillery, Paddy, 132 banking crisis in, 10 Hill, Steven, 86 convergence and divergence of, Hinchman, Lewis, 203 49–57 historical institutionalism analysis, crisis in, 109–11 130–3, 135, 139–41, 151–7 Dairy Disposal Company, 43 Holocaust, 33 Department of Finance, 45 Honohan, Patrick, 1, 111, 113, 137 Department of Industry and Honohan Report, 113 Commerce, 45 Hooghe, Lisbet, 183 economic growth in, 90 Houwing, Hester, 39, 41, 73, 94, Electricity Supply Board, 43 184 European integration, 90–4, 118–20, ‘How Good Can We Be’ (Hutton), 123–4 119 Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), 4 Huber, E., 40, 51–3, 176, 181 government spending as % of GDP, Human Development Index, 84 78 Humphrey Hawkins Act, 193 Great Britain and, 118–20 Hurley, John, 113, 140, 186 historical institutionalism analysis, Hutton, Will, 36, 66, 96, 119 130–3, 135, 139–41, 151–7 Hvinden, Bjorn, 69 history and political economy of, 43–7 Hypo Real Estate, 2, 98 job creating machine of, 74–80 labour force participation rates in, ideational institutionalism, 164–8 77 import substitution industrialisation, labour market, 21, 91–3, 122, 126, 3, 149, 202 145, 162, 169–70, 186, 199–200 see also industrialisation membership of EEC, 3–4 Industrial Development Authority migration and natural increases in, (IDA), 130 92 Industrial Development National Economic and Social Organisations, 47 Council (NESC), 41 industrialisation part-time employment in, 77 export-orientated, 3, 149 ‘Programme for National Recovery’ import substitution, 3, 149, 202 in, 23, 176 industrial policy rational choice institutionalism tax competition and its implications analysis, 124–7, 136–8, 150–1 for, 117–18 recapturing developmentalism for, industrial rebalancing, 201 195–205 information and communications Social Partnership, 4 technology (ICT), 62, 82, 101 social policy and social pacts in, Institute of International and 146–50 European Affairs (IIEA), 119 sociological institutionalism institutional reform, 201 analysis, 127–9, 141–5, 157–60 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 1, standardised unemployment rates 98, 109, 112, 187 as a % of the labour force, 77 Iona Technologies, 79 Trotskyist movement, 192 Index 233

turning the corner, 47–9 Kristensen, Per Hull, 36 unemployment in, 3 Krugman, Paul, 80 unsustainable boom in, 90–4 Kunola, Kirsi, 101 wage cuts in, 3 Irish Agricultural Organisation Society Labour Foundation [Stichting van de (IAOS), 54 Arbeid (STAR)], 38 Irish Business and Employers’ labour movement, 14 Confederation (IBEC), 119, 131 Labour Party, 40, 50, 128, 149, 176 Irish Central Bank, 113, 115 Laffan, Brigid, 127 Irish Congress of Trade Unions, 52, Laissez Faire, 43 148 Lane, Orla, 78 Irish Industrial Development Lane, Philip, 138 Authority (IDA), 200 Larkin, Jim, 52 Irish Parliamentary Party, 51 Lawrence, Paul R., 172 Irish Times Trust, 94 Leddin, Anthony, 138 Irish Trade Union Congress, 149 Lee, Joe, 51 Irish Transport and General Workers’ Lee, Joseph J., 51, 54 Union, 52 Lehman Brothers, 98, 105, 173 collapse of, 2–3, 16, 21 Jacobson, David, 201 Lemass, Sean, 45, 124, 130, 149, 202 Jessop, Bob, 34, 178 Lenihan, Brian, 114 Jones, Erik, 6, 53, 178 Lewis, Michael, 3 Jongerius, Agnes, 71, 89, 106, 107, liberal capitalism, 13 207n liberalism, 27 Judt, Tony, 89 Liberal Market Economy (LME), 49, 63 Juncker, Jean Claud, 142 Liberal Party, 103 Lijphart, Arend, 14, 22, 50–1, 198 Kan, Alexander Rinnooy, 72, 89, 107 Lilja, Kari, 63 Kaspersen, Lars Bo, 84–5 Lindert, Peter H., 73 Katzenstein, Peter J., 9–10, 13–19, 21, Lindgren, Karl-Oskar, 32, 59, 64, 83–4 25, 27–8, 34, 49, 55, 58, 82, 94–5, Lipponen, Paavo, 59–60 120–1, 152, 161, 184, 188–9, 198, Lisbon Agenda/Treaty, 17–18, 21, 91, 202 96, 126, 128, 173 Kekkonen, Sirpa, 101 List Pim Fortuyn (LPF), 87 Kelstrup, Morten, 69, 175 Loughrey, John, 129, 133 Kenny Report, 170, 201 Low Pay Commission, 162 Keynesianism, 41 Lubbers, Ruud, 39 Keynes, John Maynard, 11–12, 164 Luca, Robert, 166 Kilcourse, James, 200 Lumsden, John, 152 Kirby, Peadar, 4, 6–7, 48, 51, 91, 93, Lund, Susan, 213n 146, 165, 198 Lykketoft, Mogens, 34, 36, 57, 65–6, Kjaer, Peter, 178 86 Kjaersgaard, Pia, 103 Lyly, Lauri, 102 A Knowledge Development Box, 118, Lynch, Jack, 164 118 Kohl, Helmut, 129, 135, 142 Maastricht Agreement/Treaty, 2, 9, Kok, Wim, 40, 42, 53, 66, 69, 71, 73–4, 17–18, 21, 28, 37, 59, 68, 77, 80, 87, 89, 106, 150, 174, 191, 204 126, 128, 138, 140, 142–3, 167, Korkman, Sixten, 32, 61–2, 102 173, 175, 211n 234 Index

MacCarthy, Clare, 103 Morgenroth, Edgar, 119, 196 MacManus, Padraig, 133 Morning Ireland, 1 Macron, Emmanuel, 189 Mortiar, Raffique, 186 MacSharry, Ray, 4, 43, 46–8, 75, 176, multinational companies (MNCs), 8 202 Murphy, Antoin E., 1, 59, 75, 78, 80, Madden, David, 78 111, 166, 167, 196, 198, 199 Madsen, Per Kongshoj, 36, 65–7, 85 Murphy, Enda, 191 Maher, D. J., 45 Murphy, Gary, 44, 52 Mailand, Mikkel, 67, 86 Murphy, Mary P., 51 Mair, Peter, 185 Murray, Peter, 4, 44, 55, 130, 200 Mangan, Pat, 152 Mutual Security Agency, 54 market liberalism, 12 Marks, Gary, 183 NASDAQ, 79 Marshall Aid Plan, 3, 29, 38, 44, 54, Composite Index, 82 55, 81, 130, 134 National Centre for Partnership and Marsh, David, 3, 98, 185–6 Performance, 155 Martin, Cathie Jo, 34–5 National Coalition Party Mason, Paul, 3, 17, 58 (Conservative), 100 Max, Watson, 210n National Competitiveness Council, May, Simon, 136 151 Mazzucato, Mariana, 35, 117, 118, National Economic and Social Council 180, 201 (NESC), 4, 41, 47, 48, 95, 109, McCabe, Conor, 192 137–8, 164, 184, 202 McCarthy, Colm, 8 National Employment Rights McCarthy, Dermot, 113, 126, 131–2, Authority (NERA), 209n 139, 152, 156–7, 160, 168, 180, National Farmers’ Association, 44 186 nationalism, 51, 180, 206n McCoy, Danny, 114, 117, 119, 196 National Social Insurance Institute McCreevy, Charlie, 93, 94, 129, 132, (LISV), 72 143–5, 158, 166, 187, 200 National Social Partnership McGilligan, Patrick, 131 Agreement, 152 McLoone, Peter, 158, 186 National Wage Agreement, 149 Mercille, Julien, 191 NATO, 101 Merrill Lynch, 98 Neary, Peter, 138 Messina conference, 10 neo-liberalism, 12, 25, 78, 91, 165–6, Metsamaki, Janne, 62 184 Meyer, Thomas, 203 the Netherlands, 5–6, 10–11 Microsoft, 100 convergence and divergence of, Millar, Michelle, 78 49–57 Milne, Richard, 101 corporatism in, 41 Minas, Christos, 49 crisis in, 105–9 Mjoset, Lars, 4–8, 11, 28, 29, 48, 54, Dutch ‘Polder’ model under stress, 57, 95, 121, 130, 161, 172, 180, 86–9 185, 202 European integration project and, Mody, Ashoka, 211n 10, 86–9 Moen, Eli, 62–3 government spending as % of GDP, Monetarism, 41 78 Monetarist Agreement, 37 history and political economy of, Morgan Stanley, 206n 37–9 Index 235

labour force participation rates in, O’Connor, Emmet, 53, 149, 153, 200 77 O’Connor, Jack, 157 labour market, 23, 41, 66, 71, 95, O’Donnell, Rory, 54, 68, 78, 160, 178 108, 155–6, 179, 184 O’Donoghue, Martin, 93, 115, 124, new Constitution of 1938, 14 144, 164, 196 part-time employment in, 77 O’Driscoll, Eoin, 117, 130, 131 physical and social distances in, 41 OECD (Organisation for Economic pillarisation, 10 Cooperation and Development) rehabilitation of Dutch corporatism, countries, 30, 64, 84, 104, 112, 39–42 170 social pacts negotiated in, 41 O’Hagan, J. W., 77 standardised unemployment rates O’Hearn, Denis, 8, 44, 46 as a % of the labour force, 77 O’hUiginn, Padraig, 152 welfare state reform and the ‘Jobs Oireachtas Foreign Affairs Committee, Miracle’, 69–74 94 Nevin Economic Research Institute O’Leary, Jim, 211n (NERI), 199 O’Malley, Eoin, 159, 195 new classical macroeconomics (NCM), Organisation for Economic 166, 194 Cooperation and Development New Course, 70 (OECD), 30, 64, 84, 104, 112, 170 New Deal, 203 Organisation for European Economic New Deal Settlement, 12 Cooperation (OEEC), 44 ‘The New Labour Movement’, 106 Organisation of the Social Security Nice Referendum, 166 Act, 72 Nice Treaty, 17, 128, 173 O Riain, Seán, 6–7, 48–9, 79, 130, Nixon, Richard, 195 155–6, 161, 168, 194 Nohria, Nitin, 172 Ornston, Darius, 49, 146, 155–6, Nokia, 10, 23, 32–3, 61–3, 81, 83, 160–1, 176 100–1, 174 O’Rourke, Kevin H., 54 and Finland’s national system of Ostergard, Uffe, 33 innovation, 62–3 O’Sullivan, Turlough, 151, 157, 165 and finnish GDP, 61 O’Toole, Joe, 94, 128 Nordic countries, 1 Nordic Union, 45 Parthus, 79 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Party for Freedom (PVV), 106, 195 (NATO), 46 Party for Freedom in the Netherlands, Norton, William, 52 25 Norway Paus, Eva, 51, 59, 75–6, 81, 95, 131, Basic Agreement of 1935, 13–14 198 Noten, Han, 74, 107 Peace Agreement of 1937, 14 Notre Europe-Jacques Delors Institute, Pedersen, Ove K., 34, 37, 161, 175, 178 126 Peel, Quintan, 136 Nyberg, Peter, 31 Pesonen, Pertti, 29–31, 60, 64 Nyberg Report, 167 Petersen, Thor, 105 Pew Research Religion and Public Life O’Boyle, Brian, 192 Project, 86 O’Brien, William, 52 Pickett, Kate, 199 Occupy movement, 203 Piketty, Thomas, 58, 199 O’Ceallaigh, Daithi, 196, 200 pillarisation, 10 236 Index

Plunkett, Sir Horace, 54 Samson, Diederik, 105 PNR agreement, 48 Sargent, Thomas, 166 Polanyi, Karl, 7, 11–13, 16, 180, 191 Scally, Willie, 112, 140, 187 Polyanian ‘Double Movement’, 25 Scharpf, Fritz, 14, 19, 28, 40, 162, Pontusson, Jonas, 40, 181 194–5 Porter, Michael, 34 Schengen Accord, 86 Post Office strike, 43 Schmidt, Vivien, 164 Prasad, Monica, 10 Schmidt, Vivien A., 2, 94, 103, 121, Programme for Economic Expansion, 45 184, 188 Programme for National Recovery, 23, Schoof, W., 119 47, 109, 176 Schraven, Jacques, 88 Progressive Catholics, 37 Schwartz, Herman, 214 Progressive Democrat Party, 150 Science and Technology Councils, 63 Prophet Muhammad, 86 Science Foundation Ireland, 131 protectionism, 13, 43 Scmidt, Helle Thorning, 103 Public Employment Service, 72 Scottish National Party, 196 Purple’ coalition, 69 Second World War, 29, 33, 54, 81, 127, Putin, Vladimir, 101 177, 203 Sectoral Pension Funds, 85 Quinn, Ruairi, 127, 131, 136, 142, Segers, Mathieu, 38 150, 158–9, 176, 181 Senghaas, Dieter, 29, 172, 174 Services, Industrial, Professional Trade Rasmussen, Anders Fogh, 14, 66, 86 Union (SIPTU), 125 Rasmussen, Hjalte, 35 Single European Act, 16–18, 55, 119, Rasmussen, Lars Lokke, 103 126, 128, 130, 134, 179, 202 Rasmussen, Poul Nyrup, 35–6, 65–6, Single Market Act, 23, 166 86, 104, 105, 175 rational choice institutionalism Sinn Féin, 128, 195 analysis, 124–7, 136–8, 150–1 Sipila, Juha, 100 Raunio, Tapio, 17, 29, 124, 173, 174 Skidelsky, Robert, 213n ‘Red forces’, 29 small and medium-sized enterprise Redmond, John, 51 (SMEs), 11, 32 Referendum Bill, 118 Smartforce, 79 Regan, Aidan, 153, 154, 160, 161, 176 Smith, Nicola Jo-Anne, 4, 44, 47, 49, Regling, Klaus, 112, 113 51, 75, 93, 121, 125, 130, 145, Rehn-Meidner plan, 26 147, 148, 160, 164, 168, 197 Research Institute of the Finnish Social and Economic Council (SER), Economy, 61 107 Rinne, Antti, 100 Social and Economic Council of the Riverdeep, 79 Netherlands, 19 Roche, Bill, 154, 157, 160, 162, 176 Social Democratic Party, 105 Rosatom, 101 Social Democrats, 33, 35–7, 69–70, Ruane, Joseph, 124, 165 100 Russian Empire, 29 Social & Economic Council Russian Revolution, 13 [Sociaal-Economische Raad (SER)], Rutte, Mark, 105 38 Social Insurance Council, 72 Saltsjöbaden Agreement, 179 Social Insurance Organisation Act, 72 Salverda, Wiemer, 178 social investment, 201 Index 237

Socialist Federation of Dutch Trade Thorsager, Linda, 84, 85 Unions (FNV), 71, 87, 106–7 Thygesen, Niels Christopher, 69 social movements, 203 Tiilikainen, Teija, 29, 124, 173, 174 Social Partnership, 4, 6, 9, 15, 146–8, Tonra, Ben, 127 151–2 Tory Party, 119 Social Partnership agreements, 47 Towards 2016, 159, 161, 212n Social Partnership project, 48–9 trade union movement, 52 sociological institutionalism analysis, Transparency International, 50 127–9, 141–5, 157–60 Traxler, F., 179 Sociologisk Institute (FAOS), 66, 104 Traynor, 189 Soini, Timo, 100 Treaty of Rome, 10, 38 Soskice, David, 15 Trichet, Jean-Claud, 98 Soviet Union Trigilia, Carlo, 12 collapse of, 58 Trintech, 79 Spring, Dick, 112, 128, 136–7, 142, Trotskyist movement, 192 158 True Finn Party, 25, 87, 100 Stability and Growth Pact (SGP), 2, 17, 93, 112, 142, 143, 183 United Shipbuilding Corporation, 101 stagflation, 28 US Economic Cooperation Act, 54 statism, 27 US Federal Reserve Board (FED), 144 Stauning, Thorvald, 33 Staunton, Cormac, 53, 199 Vandaele, Kurt, 39, 41, 73, 94, 184 Steinmo, Sven, 84 Van der Meer, Marc, 41, 42, 70, 87, 88, Stephens, J. D., 40, 52, 53, 176, 181 109, 161, 176, 178 Stewart, Jim, 117 Van Gogh, Theo, 87, 88 A Strategy for Development, 47 Vanhanen, Matti, 32, 101, 146 Streeck, Wolfgang, 167, 193 Vanhannen, Mattie, 62 Strickler, Martin, 72, 74 ‘Varieties of Capitalism’, 15 ‘structural competitiveness’, 36 Varieties of Capitalism literature, 11, Stubb, Alexander, 100 22, 51 Suarez, Sandra, 149, 177 Varieties of Capitalism School, 12, 103 Sutherland, Peter, 126 Vartiainen, Juhana, 5, 14, 29–32, 53, Sweden, Saltsjobaden Agreement of 59–60, 83, 99, 102, 103, 174, 177, 1938, 14 180 Swedish Trade Union Confederation, Verdun, Amy, 17, 127, 136, 141, 172–3 180 Verity, Phil, 201 Switzerland, Peace Agreement of 1937, Vihriala, Vessa, 32, 61, 101 14 Visser, Jelle, 6, 40–2, 69, 70, 72, 87–8, 109, 161, 174–6, 178 Talani, Leila, 196 Vreeman, Ruud, 74, 208n Taylor, Christopher, 212n Taylor, Cliff, 138 Wage Act, 71 Teahon, Paddy, 152 Wall Street Crash, 58, 82, 203 Telesis Consultancy Group, 47 Wassenaar Accord/Agreement, 23, 39, Thatcher-Reagan neo-liberal 41–2, 55, 106, 109, 150, 155, 176, revolution, 53 179 Therborn, Goran, 40, 174 Wassenaar Social Pact, 81 Think Tank for Social Change (TASC), Waterford Glass, 162 53, 199, 201 The Way Forward, 47 238 Index

Weeks, Liam, 53, 180 Wilthagen, Ton, 66 ‘Welfare Without Work’, 40 Winstone, Ruth, 188 Werner Report, 134 Winter War, 29 Whitaker Report, 130 Wolf, Martin, 167 Whitaker, T. K., 44–6, 54, 127, 131, Workers’ Union of Ireland, 52 202 World Economic Forum, 84 ‘White Army’, 29 White, Padraic, 4, 43 Yeates, Padraig, 176, 177 Whittaker Report, 47 Wientjes, Bernard, 89 Zelikow, Philip, 19–20, 123, 136, Wilders, Geert, 87, 106 168 Wilkinson, Richard, 199 Zhou Enlai, 195