Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-U: Through the Donggyeong Daejeon and the Yongdam Yusa* 1

218 Understanding God in the Context of Interreligious Dialogue

❚Special Issue❚Understanding God in the Context of Interreligious Dialogue □ ISSN (Print) 1225-4924, ISSN (Online) 2508-3104 Catholic Theology and Thought, Vol. 79, July 2017 http://dx.doi.org/10.21731/ctat.2017.79.218

Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-u: Through the Donggyeong Daejeon and the Yongdam Yusa* 1

Sr. Myongsook Moon 〔Lycée International Xavier, Korea〕

1. Introduction 2. Understanding Suun’s Mysticism 3. Donghak’s Morality and Religious Worldview 4. The Distinctiveness of Choe, Je-u’s Mysticism 5. Conclusion

1. Introduction

During the latter part of the 19th century, Choe, Je-u (최제우: 崔濟愚, 1824-1864), better known by his honorific name, Suun (수운: 水雲) founded the Donghak movement, or the Movement for Eastern Learning. Choe, as a patriot and the Movement’s first leader, was trying to both

*1This research paper is commissioned, supported, and originally published by the Founda- tion of Theology and Thought, 2017. This paper was translated from the original Korean by Fr. Patrick McMullan, SSC.

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counter the influence of Seohak, or Western Learning, and give support and comfort to the people, Boguk anmin.1 His writings, including the Donggyeong Daejeon (『동경대전』: 『東經大全』, Great Scripture of Eastern Learning) and the Yongdam Yusa (『용담유사』: 『龍潭遺詞』, Songs of Yongdam), articulated a sense of the mounting national anxiety and distress created by the incursion of Western religious culture.2 His trenchant criticism is directed at Western Learning, and Catholicism in particular.3 He points to the gap between the rhetoric about a God-centred life which promotes the common good and a selfish life that is lived for oneself only. His extensive criticism addressed Western Imperial aggres- sion, as well as what he observed to be the irrational and illogical emphasis on outward religious conformism and the lack of proper reverence for dead parents.4

1 “In April 1860 the country was in chaos, and the minds of the people were confused, and no direction or solution was known”, in Nonhakmun (A Discussion on Learning), in Chondogyo Scripture: Donggyeong Daejeon (Great Scripture of Eastern Learning), ed. by Yong Choon Kim, University Press of America, 2007, no. 4, p. 8. 2 Choe, “How poor is this country […]”, in “Ansim-ga” (“The Song of Comfort”), Yongdam Yusa (Songs of Yongdam), Je-u Choe, Donggyeong Daejeon, Yongdam Yusa, pp. 159-161. 164 (in Korean version). “However, in current times the people of the world have selfish minds, and do not follow the Principle of Heaven nor care for the Will of Heaven. Therefore, my mind is always anxious and fearful, and I don’t know what will happen in the future”, in Po- deokmun (On Propagating the Truth) in Chondogyo Scripture, no. 4, p. 4; “Recently, our country has been filled with evil things. The people live in a time without peace. This is an indication of the bad fortune of our nation”, Ibid., no. 8, p. 5. 3 “Is the reason for their success none other than the way that they call the Western way: the learning they call Catholicism and the religion that they call holy religion”, in Nonhakmun, no. 4, p. 8. 4 “In 1860 there were rumours that in order to serve God’s will, the Westerners were not seeking wealth or glory, yet they attacked and conquered the world, and built their churches and spread their religion. I also wonder whether it was true and why they did that”, in Po- deokmun, no. 4, p. 4; “The Western powers are victorious whenever they fight, and they suc- ceed and takeover where they attack. There seems to be nothing that they cannot achieve”, in Podeokmun, no. 8, p. 5; “Strange rumours were rampant in the country: the Westerners have realized Truth and Virtue, and through their inventions they can accomplish anything, and if they attack with their weapons, no one can withstand them. If China is destroyed, wouldn’t Korea face the same fate?”, in Nonhakmun, no. 4, p. 8; “The Westerners have no order in their

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Nevertheless, once we go beyond these overt criticisms of Western Learning what becomes noteworthy is, in fact, Suun’s experience of a personal God. Moreover, in a context of tremendous social upheaval, this experience of God and his encounter with Western monotheism lead him to reimage the traditional polytheism which dominated the religious landscape of the later Joseon era. This paper will, through the lens of the Donggyeong Daejeon and the Yongdam Yusa, examine Suun’s experience of God as well as the Donghak understanding of God, morality, religious worldview and spirituality with a view to understanding some of its implications for us who live in the 21st century.

2. Understanding Suun’s Mysticism

2.1. The Name of God

Entering into the Donghak understanding of God requires that we distinguish between Suun’s formal, traditional designation of God as Cheon- ju (Heavenly Lord, God), but more often called Hanullim (God in Kore- an) and the impact of his mystical experience where we discover expressions for the divinity such as Sangje, Gwishinja (ghost), and the Tao. The former can be found at the beginning of the Podeokmun (On Propagating

words and logic in their writings. There is no genuine service of God but they only pray for selfish ideas. Their religion is close to emptiness and their theology is not really for God. Therefore, how can one say that there is no difference between the Wester religion and my teaching?”, in Nonhakmun, no. 9, p. 10; “the meaning of statecraft is in oppressing the world” in “Gyohunga” (“The Song of Instruction”), Yongdam Yusa, p. 120; “Even after their parents die, they do not have a ritual for their parents’ soul because they believe God does not exist and neither do the souls of the dead […] how on earth we can exist in the world without the souls of the parents and God” (tr. by the author), in “Gweonghakga” (“The Song of Encour- aging Learning”), pp. 210-211.

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Truth) where Suun describes God as imminent within nature:

Since the beginning of time, the four seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter have rotated in an orderly way. When spring runs its course, summer comes; when summer runs its course, autumn arrives; when autumn runs its course, winter arrives. The exchanges of seasons have been repeating in an orderly fashion without error since the beginning of the world. The natural environment, in which humankind and all beings live, has been shaped according to the changes of seasons. This order of seasons, the order of nature, is evidence of the power of God, Hanullim, by which all things are made.5

However, following his mystical experience he employs a variety of words to describe his experience of the divinity. Again, we turn to Po- deokmun for an extensive quote:

Unexpectedly, in April, my mind felt chilled and my body shook. I felt ill but did not know exactly what was wrong and I could not describe the condition of my feeling. Then, suddenly, a mysterious voice came to my ear, and I was frightened and woke up and asked, “Who are you?” The voice said: “Do not fear and do not be afraid. Humankind call me Sangje (God): don’t you recognize Sangje?” I asked, “Why do you reveal yourself to me?” God said: “I have not been able to find anyone to teach the Truth. Thus, I am sending you to the world to teach the Truth. Therefore, do not ever doubt it.” I asked God, “Shall I teach the Western (Christian) truth?” God said, “No. I have a talisman (spiritual symbol) which is called mystical medi-

5 Podeokmun, no. 1, p. 3.

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cine. Its shape is like the Great Ultimate and its form is also like gung gung (a symbolic term of eternity). Receive this talisman and cure humankind’s illness. Receive all my incantation and teach people to honor me. Then, you too shall become immortal and the Truth shall spread to all the world.”6

The Nonhakmun (A Discussion on Learning) provides a further description:

Around this time, suddenly my body shook, I felt chill and I felt the vital force of contact with the Spirit, and inwardly I head divine words of instruction. I looked around but could not see anyone. I listened but could not hear anything. Therefore, I felt it very strange. After bracing my mind and renewing my energy, I asked, “Why is it like this?” The Divine answer was, “My mind is your mind. How can humankind know it? People know of Heaven and earth, but they do not know the Spirit. I am the Spirit. As I am giving you the eternal Truth, cultivate and refine it, write it down and teach it to the people. Establish the laws of practice and propagate the Truth (virtue). Then you will have eternal life and will brighten the world”.7

Suun uses a variety of names to describe the God he discovers within his religious, mystical experience: including the pure Korean Hanullim, and the Chinese character based appellations Sangje, Cheon, Cheonju and Gwishinja. However, when Suun was asked about God we can see a gradual coalescing of thought and expression.

6 Ibid., no. 6, pp. 4-5. 7 Ibid., no. 5, p. 8.

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They asked, “Why is that so?” I answered, “Our Way is the Natural Way. If each person preserves a good mind, rectifies the vital force, follows their original nature, and receives the Divine teaching, all will turn out well naturally”. They asked, “What is the meaning of the incantation?” I answered, “The incantation is words which honor God with the utmost sincerity. There are incantations today as there were incantations in the ancient times”.8

The attributes of God (called Cheonju, Hanullim) which he is trying to articulate are those of intimacy, affectation, and bearing God within. This shift in the way of speaking about God9 broadens to a difference between Eastern and Western Learning and their respective understand- ings of the divinity. We can see elements of consolidation, conflict and convergence within this process of change which, at one level, are vestiges of syncretism10 but, on more mature and deliberate reflection, is the process of a firming up of religious identity. In the Yongdam Yusa (Songs of Yongdam)11 we can see Suun grasping for a personal understanding of God, a process in which his seeks, in the wake of his mystical experience, to articulate this experience of God in terms which draw from the depths of tradition: Sinseon12, Cheon, Sangje, Ohaeng (The Five pri- mary elements)13, and Hanullim14.

8 Ibid., no. 9, p. 10. 9 Sang Yil Kim, employing Whitehead’s process philosophy, claimed the concept of God in Donghak is defined as “becoming”. He also believes however that using proess philosophy in this way pushes the very limits of estern metaphysics. Cf. Sang Yil Kim, Donghak and Pro- cess Philosophy, Seoul: Jisik Co., 2001. 10 Syncretic elements from Shamanism, Confucianism, and Taoism respectively appear in his writings. See, for example, “Geomgyeol”, Yongdam Yusa, p. 237; “Gyohunga”, pp. 402-403. 11 Suun’s major work which is written in Korean script. 12 A description derived from the Taoist idea of a mystical or immortal sage. 13 Namely, metal, wood, water, fire, and earth. 14 “Gyohunga”, Yongdam Yusa, p. 117; “Ansimga”, pp. 146-148.

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Of particular note is the way in which Suun begins to associate the idea of Hanullim with the concept of the Creator. “Heaven produced all people and the Truth. I did not know why everything has unique features and shapes.”15 Suun, through the fusion of creator and Hanullim, has proffered a positive and hopeful vison of humanity and the world.16

2.2. Overcoming Conflict

Choe, Je-u posits his central idea of Si Cheonju (bearing or serving God within me) as holding a meaningful space separate from the neo- Confucian concepts of the deity, Cheon, and Sanje. That is, on the one hand, Hanullim is imminently and intimately present within humans and, on the other hand, is the transcendent deity of the distant Golden palace of heaven. Hanullim and Cheonju appear to be parallel terminology. Within the context of the upheavals created by the conflict caused by the impact of Western culture and religion, Suun established the concept of Si Cheonju which helped to preserve the integrity of Korea’s traditional cultural identity. Moreover, in the moral sense, within traditional Confucian culture there was a conflict between that which is closed and that which is open. That is, having realized that the traditional moral values of benevolence and Oryun17, had lost their efficacy in the contemporary context, Suun sought to counter this tendency through the ideas of Susim jeonggi (수심정기: 守心正氣, keeping a pure mind and having right conduct) and the Jumun which contains the sacred 21-character incantation: “I pray for

15 “Ueum”, Dongyeong Daejeon, pp. 39-41. 16 Cf. “Gyohunga”, Yongdam Yusa, p. 121. 17 Oryun refers to justice and righteousness between a king and a subject; affection between a father and a son; etiquette between a husband and a wife; respectful order between young and old; friendship between friends.

Myongsook Moon / Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-u 225

the great descent of the Ultimate Energy now. God is within us and all are made well, eternally not forgetting and being aware of all things.” The Jumun is not only a prayer which expresses the divine-human relationship but also seeks to influence everyday spirituality. The influence is prefaced on the idea that his mystical experience is located within authentic human religiosity. Given the contradictions of traditional culture, he is inspired by the Susim jeonggi of original Confucianism and the Taoist-influenced idea of Jisang sinseon (지상신선: 地上神仙, A divine person living on earth). That is, the combination of Confucian idea of keeping a pure mind and having right conduct alongside the Taoist idea of the mystic. This new articulation expresses a profound religious sentiment whilst overcoming the contradictions inherent in traditional culture.18 Even though he understood the distinctions between the traditional religiosity of neo-Confu- cianism, Buddhism and Taoism, Suun was prepared to draw the above two concepts from different sources in order to make plain a religiosity which engages with his contemporary world. Suun realised that the traditional morality of the ancestors, having been reduced to mere formalism, no longer had the same power to guide human relationships.19 In respect of this problem, the idea that we bear, or carry Hanullim within not only harmonizes with tradition but is, in fact, a contribution of genuine creativity. Moreover, we can see in the idea of Jisang sinseon a concrete and realistic challenge to participate in society and the world. The French philosopher, Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973), might want to articulate this as the notion of “incarnate being”. Within the

18 Myongsook Moon, “Donghak, Life, Human: a relationship between thoughts of Donghak and that of modern philosophy”, The Korean Journal Studies of Donghak 1, 2000, pp. 151- 180. 19 Choe, Je-u stated the behavior of the contemporary folks did not accord with the traditional teaching based on the Confucian interpersonal relationships. Cf. “Gwonhakga”, Yongdam Yusa, p. 203.

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practical exigencies of time and space, Suun could be said to be pursuing an incarnation of responsible subjectivity. In this sense, Suun proposes a spiritual revolution in which he seeks to leave behind the Confucian ideal of the noble man and the Taoist sense of reality and embrace a dynamic transcendence localized in the heart of the mystic who walks among the pople. On the other hand, Choe, Je-u expounded on the similarities and dif- ferences with Western Religion as being similar but different: “They both have the same destiny as religions and their Way (Truth) is identical, but their doctrines are different.”20 Whilst asserting a fundamental agreement in destiny and truth, his criticism focuses on how these things are codified as religious expression. This criticism is based on a relationship with a personal, humanistic God and concern for the quality of human life. His perspective offers much to us who live in a religiously pluralistic culture, challenging us to critical thinking and holding open minds.

2.3. The Meeting of Cheonju and Hanullim: Si Cheonju and Jigi

We can see the personal, humanistic God in the way that Suun refers to Cheonju, Hanullim. This divine personalism has two fundamental aspects defined as Si Cheonju and Jigi. Si Cheonju means bearing God within one’s own mind and heart as opposed to God who is conceptual- ized as distant, separate and transcendent. Etymologically, Si Cheonju (시천주: 侍天主), or bearing God within, is the evolution of a familiar root word: Si (시: 侍) which is a constituent part of the verb meaning to carry, accompany, bear, enshrine, attend to, welcome and worship. As an

20 Nonhakmun, Donggyeong Daejeon, no. 8, p. 9.

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expression of Confucian propriety, the verb, “mosida” (모시다, to serve) is used in the context of carrying, or accompanying, or serving, someone of far greater importance. Some typical instances of this word include: accompanying, attending, supporting or waiting on one’s parents, serving a master, worshiping one’s ancestors and enshrining one’s ancestral tablet. Suun’s concept of bearing God within testifies to a religious creativity which, through a sense of fairness and respect for human life and its dignity, as well as disregarding discrimination based on gender and social position, affirms universal ideas and values of humanness. Another important concept is that of Jigi. Suun develops this concept by building on, and extending the meaning of, the traditional concept, gi (기: 氣) As an attribute of a personal God, this vital energy which perme- ates all being is an expression of the Amitabha21 of Buddhism, and the Fulness and the Void of Lao-tzu and Taoism; analogies could also be made with Western mysticism and Apophatic or Negative Theology.22 Suun’s experience of God begins with the idea that gi is spirit (영: 靈), a vital energy that is not only internalised within human beings but is also experienced as oneness with the whole universe. This conceptualization does seem to parallel the essence of the Christian God as expressed by the Pauline idea of our bodies as temples of the Holy Spirit.23 In this respect, this author is in agreement with those who assert that Choe, Je-u’s experience of an organic unity between God, humanity and nature is panentheistic.24 Moreover, the communion (“my mind is your mind”25 and

21 “The vital force (Jigi) is like the mysterious Spirit and it is vast and full in the universe”, in Nonhakmun, n. 12, p. 10. 22 John of the Cross, The Dark Night, tr. by Hyo-ik Bang, Seoul: Good News, 2005. 23 “Or do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within you, which you have from God, and that you are not your own?” (1Cor 6:19, NRSV). 24 Kyoung Jae Kim, “Donghak’s concept of the divinity”, Donghak Rovolution Centennial Memorial, 1994. In regard to panentheism, see Chan Su Yi, Yu-il-sin-lon-ui jong-mal, i-je- neun beom-jae-sin-lon-i-da [The end of monotheism, now it is panentheism], Seoul: Dongyon

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Gihwa, the ultimate expanding energy) between God and humanity which lies at the heart of his religious experience, can be seen as a panentheistic personal God. In this respect, Choe, Je-u’s Jigi and Si Cheonju (“realizing that I bear God with me”26) are very similar to the Christian concept of the Holy Spirit. Whatever which way one looks, Choe, Je-u, in comparison to contemporary 19th century-Christian believers and their understanding of the Holy Spirit, has taken a major step forward with his understanding of the divine. Suun, in his courage to critique his own experience and refusal to placidly follow, has created an intellectual current of thought which continues to challenge us today. That is, rather than remaining passive con- sumers of the reality, he invites us to actively respond to the demands of contemporary issues and challenges.27

2.4. Incarnated Theology

Within Donghak, God, understood as Jigi and Si Cheonju, is imminent. The positing of bearing God within is, given the context of a traditionally transcendent God, both an acknowledgement of the infinite otherness of

Publishing Company, 2014; Kyoung Jae Kim, i-leum-eobs-neun ha-neu-nim [Radical monotheism and religious pluralism], Seoul: Samin, 2002; Hee-Sung Keel, Sin-ang-gwa i-seong sa-i-e-seo [Between Faith and Reason], Seoul: Sechang Pub. 2015; Yong Hae Kim, “A comparison between the theism of Christianity and Cheondokyo”, The Korean Journal Studies of Dong Hak 6 (2003), 85-125. 25 Nonhakmun, Donggyeong daejeon, no. 6, p. 9. 26 “Jumun”, p. 27; for Suun’s full explanation of the meaning of these words, see Nonhakmun, no. 13, p. 11. 27 Byeong-hui Son, the third leader of Chondogyo, claimed a thought on three challenges: way challenge, economic challenge, and word challenge to realize Boguk anmin and Pyeong cheonha (peace all over the world) because he thought it is useless to combat with material arms. Byeong-hui Son, Euiam seongsa beopseol [Sermons of Revered Teacher Euiam], Chondogyo Gyeongjeon [The Scripture of Chondogyo (Korean version)], Seoul: Chondogyo Central Church Headquarters, 1998, pp. 623-645.

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the Absolute while, at the same time, introducing an imminence within humans. All believers have, through this opening to the Absolute Other, an opportunity for spiritual expression. Spiritualities are, as Maurice Zondel asserts: “expressions of the incarnation”.28 Even “incomplete in- carnations” are moving towards completion because God did not create humanity as a finished product.29 The vision of Si Cheonju reasserts the possibility of both experiencing and participating in the divine love. The twin ideas of “bearing God’s spirit” and “incarnated spirt” are ways to participate in the creative activity of God which open up alternative paths for being human. Even today, the shared greeting of Chondogyo believers, “are you bearing in peace?”, is an expression of putting into practise a respectful and humanistic religion. Humanity, through the diffusion of this ultimate energy or gi, is invited to choose the path that gives birth to life and truth. Are these not the same changes called forth from humans as a response to the God’s solidarity with humanity which lies at the heart of the incarnation? It would seem that Donghak has given Korean-shape to expressing the reality of the divine and the incarnation of Christ.30 This author suggests that the view of God expressed in Donghak is an “in- carnational theology”.31 In the broader sense, the intimate union with God means that whatever calling which emerges is not only internally infused with mutuality but also expanding outwardly towards universal value. This insight, when seen in terms of Choe, Je-u’s engagement with humanism, is the begin- ings of a major shift for all humanity. We do not find, either in the internal

28 M. Zundel, Vivre Dieu: l’art et la joie de croire, Paris: Presses de renaissance, 2007, p. 175. 29 François Varillon, Mid-neun gi-ppeum sa-neun gi-ppeum [Joie de croire, joie de vivre], tr. by Minhwa Shim, Seoul: saeng-hwal-seong-seo (Bible Life), 2000. pp. 43-76. 30 “And the Word became flesh and lived among us” (Jn 1:14, NRSV). 31 M. Léna, Patience de l’avenir, Paris: Lessius, 2012, p. 186.

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dialogue with Hanullim or also in terms of personalism or intellectualism, a rational commentary for this breakthrough of insight. Rather, the insight is intuitively reached through the experience of being personally chosen by Hanullim, in the major teachings and the Jumun, and in his responses to the questions of visiting scholars. The experience of bearing Hanullim within was unprecedented: not because the experience was beyond scholarly understanding but because established scholarship did not know where to inquire. Suun, in contrast to the prominent scholars of his day, was convinced that in opening their discussions they could discover their deeper calling and the beginnings of religious experience to be found in the transcendence of human rationality towards an experience of the supernatural.32 Moreover, in the Yongdam Yusa he sought to reach out to ordinary people in a more lyrical, as opposed to academic, genre of literature. The human vocation or calling is intrinsic to every religion. Do they not, through their points of convergence and divergence, open up a path to a more human existence? The individuality of each is part of what Henri Bergson (1859-1941) called “dynamic religion” and its push towards universal love. Consequently, does this dynamic not posit a “creative harmony” of religious truth and vitality which exists amongst cultures and between religions. This orientation presumes and anticipates the imminent truth which lies deep within the authentic religious landscape. For this reason, Choe, Je-u’s criticism of Christianity is worthy of note. Christians, for him, have “form but no substance”.33 This criticism can be understood as a challenge to Christians to awaken to the presence of the Spirit. Comparable to the contradictions in the lifestyles of believers in the

32 Nonhakmun, Donggyeong Daejeon, nn. 6-7, p. 9; “Jumun”, pp. 26-27. 33 Nonhakmun, n. 9, p. 10.

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post-resurrection Church, the challenge is to leave our closed religious worldview and embrace a universalism which breathes in harmony with the Spirit of God active in the world. The Donghak movement is witness to the movement of the Spirit outside the Church and within the diversity of cultural traditions. Understanding the concept of Si Cheonju we can begin to understand why Suun elevates humans “among the myriad of things in the universe which are produced through the interplay of yin and yang”.34 The idea of “bearing God within” is, it would seem, analogous to the Christian belief in the presence of the Holy Spirit within creation. Here we begin to lay bare the essence of what it means to be human. Namely, understanding that gi or the energy within humanity is, in fact, God within, is not only a realisation of true dignity, sanctity and mutuality but, even more so, the awareness that the whole of creation is imbued with the divine energy. Sangtai Shim is one thinker who believes that this perspective offers possibilities for alternative thinking in the face of the ecological crisis confronting contemporary human beings.

2.5. Aspects of Ecological Ethics in Donghak

For a long time, Shim has held as one of the key contentions of his research that “Donghak creates a convergence of the historical under- standings of God with essential elements of Western Christianity. Within this convergence, which helped people to deal with past crises, we can also discern important truths to help us overcome contemporary crises including the ecological catastrophe we now face”.35 What then, is the

34 Ibid., n. 1, p. 7. 35 Sangtai Shim, “The Korean Understanding of God”, Catholic Theology and Thought 77 (2016 Summer), The Society of Theology and Thought, p. 144.

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alternative thinking which we can discover expressed in Donghak? Above all else, Donghak points to the need for a renewed morality and an ethic of solidarity. “Only by fertilizing the land, will there be a plentiful harvest for all kinds of grains. Likewise human beings ought to cultivate the Way and the Virtue in order to have no hindrance or problems in all their af- fairs.”36 Pope John Paul II addressed this issue when he emphasised “the urgent need for a new solidarity”.37 Responsibility, following Creation, for the collapse of nature rests squarely on the shoulders of humanity. Perhaps, we might say, humans, through their misuse of freedom, have caused the earth to turn to thorns and thistles?38 In this context of human activity “provoking a rebellion on the part of nature”39 and the “growing phenomenon of ‘environmental refugees’”,40 Pope Francis has spoken forcefully of the Christian responsibility to creation: “In fact, ‘a Christian who doesn’t safeguard creation, who doesn’t make it flourish, is a Christian who isn’t concerned with God’s work, that work born of God’s love for us’.”41 Francis accentuates the paradox of human choice when he reminds us that love is “the power that created the heavens and the earth, and gives life to all creation: to minerals, plants and animals. It is the force that attracts man and woman, and makes them one flesh, one single existence. It is the power that gives new birth, forgives sin, reconciles enemies, and transforms evil into

36 “Yugo Eum” (“Song on High and Flow”), Donggyeong Daejeon, p. 51. 37 Pope John Paul II, “Peace with God the Creator, Peace with all Creation”, World Day of Peace Message, 1 January 1990, n. 10. 38 “thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you; and you shall eat the plants of the field […]” (Gn 3:18, NRSV). 39 Pope Francis, Laudato Si’, n. 117. 40 Pope Benedict, “If you want to cultivate peace, protect creation”, World Day of Peace Message, 1 January 2010, n. 4. 41 Pope Francis, “Working with God”, Morning Meditation, 9 February 2015.

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good”.42 The power of this love opens humans up to the possibility of an ecological conversion and a complete transformation of thought. There can be, in other words, “no renewal of our relationship with nature without a renewal of humanity itself. There can be no ecology without an ad- equate anthropology” which values all that is unique to human beings.43 Choe, Je-u’s doctrine of Jigi is, in the context of the ecology of the planet, an extremely important and valuable mode of thinking. Jigi is, in the words of Professor Jung-Bae Lee, “the awakening of the universe, the awakening of social community and the awakening of the ecosphere”.44 The third leader of Chondogyo, Byeong-hui Son (손병희: 孫秉熙, 1861- 1922) known by the honorific name, Euiam, taught that Suun’s concept of the Ultimate energy, or gihwa, was an awakening of human spiritual awareness. That is, the awakening of the cosmos is predicated on human reform.

“The awakening, what is it? Is it when heaven collapses and the earth is swallowed and gathered into one chaotic mass? That is, as if divided into two pieces. No! Creation is when the corrupt thing is made clear and new; the complicated thing is made simple and clean. The awakening of creation is through the air and the human awakening is by the spirit. My spirit is the breath of all creation. For now, think not of the things you could not achieve because the order of awakening will begin with the person and become the awakening of everything.”45

42 Pope Francis, Urbi et Orbi, Christmas, 2016. 43 Laudato Si’, nos. 118. 216-221. 44 Shim, “The Korean Understanding of God”, p. 156. 45 Byeong-hui Son, Inyeomul gaebyeoksseol, Euiam seongsa beopseol [Sermons of Revered Teacher Euiam], Chondogyo Gyeongjeon [The Scripture of Chondogyo (Korean version)],

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Suun’s Jigi and Euiam’s anthropological spiritual awakening are concepts which, in these days of struggle for insight and healthy practice in the face of ecological catastrophe, suggest to us a fruitful basis for the emerging idea of ecological conversion. This spiritual awakening, it is stressed, is not an extraordinary act of nature which envelopes humans in the space between heaven and earth but is to be found in the spiritual awakening of humans. That is, in the context of distorted and corrupt human life, human spiritual awakening becomes a stimulant for social and political renewal as well as providing a clue to solving complex problems. This interior awakening can be seen as a key to renewal of the conditions of life around the globe. The expression, ‘My spirit is the breath (air) of creation’ is an expression of solidarity between the human spirit and all created life. As such, the human spiritual awakening is directly related to change in nature. If we pay attention to the identification of the human spirit with the air then we can no longer continue to ascribe a privileged place for humans within nature. Nature and spirit is ventilated (refreshed) through a relationship of mutual equality. As Chi-ha Kim points out: “An environmentalism that only focus on the sensuous exterior world cannot help but be problematic. Environmental studies must become ecological studies and ecological studies must become life science if we are to ur- gently transfigure practical learning and the scientific technological world.”46 Likewise, Pope Francis in Laudato Si’ takes an integral ap- proach to the ecological problem. In addressing not only the relationship between humanity and nature but also personal and communal life, the pope’s fundamental diagnosis of living in our common home gives emphasis to the mutuality of all living beings in their care for our common

Seoul: Chondogyo Central Church Headquarters, 1998, pp. 666-667. 46 Chi-ha Kim, Saengmyong [Life], Seoul: Sol, 1992, p. 161.

Myongsook Moon / Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-u 235

home.47 Suun’s successor, the second leader of the Donghak Movement, Si- hyeong Choe (최시형: 崔時亨, 1827-1898), who adopted the pen name of Haeweol, extends the idea of Hanullim being tantamount to gi. He promoted the idea of Yang Cheonju (양천주: 養天主) or cultivating God within. Thus, we have been drawn to see in Donghak that the ultimate energy of life becomes the subject of its enhancement and preservation.

3. Donghak’s Morality and Religious Worldview

Rather than asking a straight “why” question, we might be better to join with the French and, instead of asking “Why Donghak?”, pose the question in terms of, pour quoi ― “for what” or “what is its aim?” Posing the question in this manner moves us away from the commonly held perception that Donghak’s emergence in this land is premised on Seohak, or Western Learning. If this were so, then Donghak is reduced to being a localised response to Seohak and, consequently, we severely limit our perceptions of Donghak’s distinctiveness. On the other hand, if we ask our question in the pour quoi-sense, we are invited to change our way of thinking. Thus, when we ask, “what did Donghak emerge for?”, our mode of thinking draws us into the world of Choe, Je-u and examining the wider reality of Donghak. Just as was mentioned in the introduction, we do well not to deny that almost all religion and philosophical thinking is born from within the exigencies of the historical context and era. Specifically, in this way we can focus on Dong- hak’s religious significance, aims, sense of authenticity and contribution.

47 Laudato Si’, n. 13.

236 Understanding God in the Context of Interreligious Dialogue

Donghak thought, which is based on the moral and religious thinking springing from Suun’s personal religious experience, has an internally consistent moral and religious structure. Hence, we will proceed with our analysis by drawing from the thought and insights of Henri Bergson’s (1859-1941) and his philosophy of religion.

3.1. From Closed to Open Morality

Bergson, in his last major work entitled, The Two Sources of Morality and Religion,48 analyses morality and religion from an evolutionary perspective. He classifies morality as either closed or open. Closed morality is found in societies which seek to preserve the establishment. Individual moral obligation or duty emerges in the amalgamation of social structure and its norms within a closed, self-sufficient society. This duty is perform- ed by members of a group executing their obligations. The individual’s adoption of traditional practice may be compared with the laws of nature. Thus, while he does not equate social pressure with biological necessity, non-adherence is made the exception. The closed system will, for the sake of individual conformity and social preservation, take a defensive position towards otherness and difference. On the other hand, open morality begins with aspiration. Aspiration, which might be called, élan vital, evokes a breakout from insular and exclusive morality. This force awakens a call to a higher, dialogic consciousness through an awareness of the structure of psychological and social mechanistic determinism and the possibilities of freedom and liberation.

48 Henri Bergson, The Two Sources of Religion and Morality, trs. by R. Ashley Andrà / Cloudesly Brereton with the assistance of W. Horsefall Carter, New York: Henry Holt and Co., Inc., 1935; originally published in French as Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion, 218th ed., Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1932 (1984), pp. 1-103.

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Open morality is a qualitive leap which stretches beyond the freedom inherent in creation. The moral person, in the moment of transcendence, no longer finds satisfaction in the created order and instead advances hope and the values of a universal humanity. This aspiration, which is different from responding to the parameters that define the natural order, is an interior movement or stirring in the personal encounters of the mystic or hero. In this movement, the hero’s elucidation of a dynamic morality comes into conflict with the exigencies of a closed society. Welling up from the deepest levels of the self, this aspiration encapsulates the collective human desire and, consequently, the resultant moral activity points to new prospects for society. Humanity, which always occupies the space between these two forms of morality, is, at one and the same time, both the embodiment of society and its creative possibility. For this reason, humans can never find fulfilment in being obedient to society’s norms alone but individually, and at the communal level as well, seek to engage with transcendent universalism and its open morality. Whilst appearing contrary, these two forms of morality are in fact mutually complimentary. Open morality does not completely abrogate closed morality but, in a qualitative leap, enlarges that which has been minimized and surpasses that which had been con- strained. This kind of morality cannot be indifferent to religion. Within the context of his closed society, Suun’s experience of God instigated a ‘creative unrest’ which not only caused his personal practice to move in a creative direction but also to advance a more open society within the Confucian world of his time. His announcing of his religious worldview was, within the context of Korean values and traditional religion, a revolutionary act. Suun, taught that “Humaneness, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are the virtues taught by former sages. Keeping a

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good mind and having the right spiritual force (Susim jeonggi) are values established only by me”.49 His teaching, posited in the religious language of Susim jeonggi and the emphasis on sincerity, reverence, and faith,50 creates a distance between himself and the traditional construction of order.51

3.2. From Static to Dynamic Religion

We can see Bergson’s idea of “creative evolution” in Suun’s writings and his movement from a mixture of animistic, polytheism towards a God uniquely expressed in personalistic terms. In Bergson’s terms, Donghak moves from a static to a dynamic religious worldview. Here, we might take a moment to critically examine Bergson’s evolutionary take on the religious sentiment in human history and the great distinction he posits between static and dynamic religion. Like some kind of biological im- perative, we can blindly accept that static religion was the religious utter- ance of our ancestors which is necessary to protect and preserve social structure and cohesion. Religion becomes a device which, through dogma, ritual and personal practice, creates and maintains a form of secure life. Rather than believing in the essence of God, this kind of religion becomes a means of escape from anxiety, hopelessness, and future insecurity as well as assuaging a vindictive God and guaranteeing the survival of the soul in the afterlife. Religion can also be seen to be as both defence and

49 Sudeokmun [On Cultivating Virtue], Donggyeong Daejeon, n. 9, p. 18. 50 “The principles of sincerity and faith are not so far apart. The word faith is based on the terms human and word, and the word sincerity is composed of word and achievement. Thus, first have faith and then sincerity. Now I have taught you clearly. Aren’t they believable words? Have reverence and sincerity, and do not disobey my words of instruction.” Ibid., n. 12, p. 20. 51 Pope Francis expresses a similar sentiment. “The ethical principles capable of being appre- hended by reason can always reappear in different guise and find expression in a variety of languages, including religious language.” Laudato Si’, n. 199.

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resistance against the reality of unavoidable death and a necessity in the face of the realities which endanger human life. Here, the role of religious intelligence is twofold. On the one hand, in terms of a defensive posture, it can be seen to provide humans with an element of security and a ratio- nalization for life’s vicissitudes and calamities. For example, Shamanism, in the face of a natural disaster or some other tragedy, is able to give shape to the unseen force and provide a reason for the disaster through personi- fication and dramatic expression. Theistically, a myriad of specialities could be ascribed to the deity, including that of judge and king. For example, Korean Shamanism employs the term Manshin (만신: 萬神, a number of spirits) to describe the pantheon. A different name is applied to the deity according to its speciality: the Water God, the Mountain God, the Earth God, the Kitchen God, as well as the deification of local official or military heroes. For his part, Suun spoke in word and verse of the “Eternal I”52 not to reflect the eternity of God as other but to articulate the infiniteness which is etched into our own being. In this way, the human situation defines the emphasised speciality of the deity. Other deities and indeed aspects of nature may, according to human desires and immediate necessities, be given emphasis. In this, the difference between religion and magic is to be found in the fact that the latter originates in the vicissitudes confronting humans while the former focuses on obtaining the favour of the deity. Viewed from this perspective, the survival of static religion is dependent upon its ability to adapt to the immediate situation and hence driven to become a vague eclecticism. Full engagement in life and its flourishing that is access to the original creativity or what might be described as the élan vital, is frustrated and blocked because of the disposition that instinct still

52 “Heungbiga” [“The Song of the Parable”], Yongdam Yusa, pp. 235-236.

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governs intellect. Nevertheless, amongst the underlying characteristics of Bergson’s concept of static religion is the tendency to move towards dynamic religion. We can see this characteristic in Donghak. Of note is the emphasis on moving away from a supernatural God. In his major work on the origins of life, the Buryeon Giyeon or Not So, Yet So (『불연기연』: 『不然其然』), Suun appears to employ deductive and inductive biological reasoning to a assert human origins. However, the grounds of the existence of all things is governed by the principles of the universe (the Yin and Yang) which is beyond the limits of human perception. That is, there are things that can be determined but there is also transcendent existence which, while open to our experience, is we must accept, beyond our ability to describe and define. A further issue is that of mysticism, which will be addressed in a later section of this paper. Then again, dynamic religion is the institutionalization of the élan vital: “engagement with the creative energy revealed in life.” Relationship with this creative existence is able to be experience through a refined sense of intuition. The intuition is evidence within of the freedom of human consciousness and the assertion of the origin of, amongst other things, human social consciousness. Even though situated in traditional culture, this intuition is active not passive ― it is the spirit of criticism. That is, the voice of Si Cheonju speaking through one’s own language. The Creator God of the Christian tradition is experienced and revealed to humans as freedom, that irresistible force of love within humanity. Ac- cording to Bergson, this is the mystery of Christ revealed in the lives of the saints. Their experience spoke about the dynamic of life which, if it was not God, was at the very least unity with the creative energy that flows from God. The inner voice of this creative dynamic is love. Not just

Myongsook Moon / Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-u 241

our love for God but God’s love for us. Mediated through mystery, the creative activity of God is handed over to human beings. Given the encroachment of Western culture and the contemporary world’s inability to express its religious and cultural identity, Suun’s experience of God has become, for Asians, not only an indispensable guide to reflective consciousness but also its interpretive key. Moreover, aspects of his mysticism agree with Bergson’s viewpoint. We can grasp how Suun’s surroundings conveyed to him the urgency of his fate (calling). Accordingly, without self-interest, one becomes free of material and ethical obstacles (misunderstanding and slander), personal limitations and conceptual authority. With the assistance of the élan vital, human beings are able to ascend to God. Thus, our actions become an expression of our inheritance of the task of creation. Through the concept of Si Cheonju, the grounding of God as imminent within a human being, Suun establishes that human integrity is discovered in universalism. This new concept propels incomplete, created human beings toward their completion as a new creation in Christ. Significantly, the Donghak moral and religious world opens a different door through which we can enter into a deeper understanding about the Christian God. I believe that at the very same time it is being subjected to severe criticism, Christianity is being offered a creative reward. That is, through Choe, Je-u’s criticism of Christianity (in the guise of Western Learning) we can see both an instance of Bergson’s static religion and its distant relation, a dynamic religion. If we look at Western Learning’s pat- tern of behaviour reflected in Donghak we can see the nature of religion which lacks a pure heart before God, the absence of the common good and respect for freedom. Likewise, in terms of respect for parents, the Catholic prohibition of ancestor rites is criticised as an act that devalues

242 Understanding God in the Context of Interreligious Dialogue

the soul. In asking, “how do they devalue their souls?” we begin to realise how the unity of body and soul becomes problematic.53 We cannot say that this criticism by Donghak is distorted. The Church was, at the time of the decision to ban the Confucian tradition of ancestor rites as idol worship, acting with a narrow mind and lacking in proper knowledge. As it was noted earlier, Western religion was critiqued, according to the Podeokmun and the Nonhakmun, as: appearing to worship Hanullim but having no substance, offering prayers for oneself alone, lacking a true heart, being selfish and lacking a genuine service of God. Ironically, even though pursuit of wealth was not a goal the land was invaded, churches were built, and the promotion of public welfare was exchanged for political involvement. In many ways, Donghak’s incisive critique of the Chris- tian churches is very close to Bergson’s description of a static as opposed to a dynamic religion. Suun’s critique, naturally, should be read within the context of the clash between Western and Eastern learning over the understanding of pure religion. It could be said that Donghak, in its morality and religious sensibilities, invites Western Learning to move towards a more dynamic and reflective religious practice. Now, I would like to turn to Suun’s mysticism which encapsulates Donghak’s religious uniqueness and authenticity.

4. The Distinctiveness of Choe, Je-u’s Mysticism

I now investigate Choe, Je-u’s spiritual experience: looking for points of similarity with Seohak and points of contact between the two religions. Firstly, I wish to understand the distinctiveness of his mysticism found in

53 “Gwonghakga” [“The Song of Encouraging Learning”], Yongdam Yusa, pp. 210-211.

Myongsook Moon / Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-u 243

two of his writings. I will follow this task by examining those points of distinction with Seohak and look a little more closely at the prospects for a mutually enhancing spirituality. Finally, I will try to present an outline of Donghak’s idea of the spiritual person.

4.1. The Uniqueness of the Calling ― Cultivating the Way

Suun proclaimed that: “There should be affection between father and son, and affection, is it not greater than fortune; and one’s family, is that not greater than fortune?”54 While he emphasised that there is nothing more important than flesh and blood relationships, specifically the father, son and fraternal relationships, Suun was at pains to suggest that the calling to go beyond the confines of blood relationships was a transcendence into freedom and true personhood. Moreover, this unprecedented call to universal benevolence, he expressed as never being seen before in the past or present. The idea of relationships based on cultivating the Way is unique, something not even considered in the state exams for government officials. In other words, Suun paid particular attention to the present moment.

4.2. Inner Freedom

“Those who follow our Way and repent of their past mistakes do not desire the wealth of the rich man Sok-sung in ancient China, and those who have utmost sincerity for our Way do not envy the intellect of Sa- kwang of ancient China.”55

54 “Gyohunga”, p. 140. 55 Sudeokmun, n. 10, p. 19.

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Firstly, this calling is a challenge to all people, even those of low standing in society such as a person who collects firewood. Even this person, lowly as they are, can make the choice to act with humility rather than arrogance Secondly, this sense of calling challenges our tendency to rank people according to their skin colour and possessions. Morally and religiously, the emphasis is on the quality of one’s virtue and not on the amount of possessions. A person who has the interiority which understands their failings before God is free in a world dominated by wealth and prestige. Thirdly, Sincerity is more important than the brilliance of intellect. In other words, “It is better that disease is healed naturally, rather than employing a famous doctor like Pyeonjak [of ancient China]”. One cannot help but wonder if it is not psychological sickness that is being addressed here? Again, Suun lays stress on the importance of sincerity, rather than intellect, in curing disease. His reasoning is that not all can have a superior intellect but all can act sincerely. He emphasises that sincerity has the possibility of achieving a huge change within humans and hence their healing. This calling to cultivate the Way does not give preference to the elite, Suun stresses, but applies to all people who desire sincerity and makes no distinction as to who be a practitioner. Suun easily recognises the limitations of his intellect and teaches that: “Even if you receive a poorly written teaching which is delivered without a sense of shame, do not laugh but honour the teaching as important.”56 On this point, he is stressing that the sacred message will, on account of the unmerited position of the one who is called, eclipse the language ability of the preacher. His saying mentioned above is challenged to be honest

56 “Gwonhakga”, Yongdam Yusa, p. 214.

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in their writings, confident of its immanence and bold in its transmission. The last part of the above-mentioned text foresees that the preacher may be subject to ridicule and humiliation but not to worry about the external packaging but be attentive to the inherent learning contained within.

4.3. Reserving Judgement, Respect for Freewill

When asked about those who disparage the teaching, Suun counselled that such actions were possible since such a message as this has not been heard until now and many will not be able to hear or accept its meaning. Hanullim, too, does not distinguish between the righteous and the unrighteous. Thus, just like the case of the sun and virtue, it is God’s place to judge the actions of others and is not our jurisdiction.57 Suun references human freewill in mentioning that no human beings should judge the other.58

4.4. The Primacy of Self-reflection

In interpersonal relationships, it is important to practise firstly reflective introspection in order to avoid the all too common mistake of appor- tioning blame. Secondly, it is advisable to be deliberate about one’s talents and abilities in order that one can be of service to the other: “Do not discuss others’ minor mistakes. Give others your wisdom even if it may be small.”59 It might be said that perhaps starting with the small mistakes of

57 “So that you may be children of your Father in heaven; for he makes his sun rise on the evil and on the good, and sends rain on the righteous and on the unrighteous” (Mt 5:45, NRSV). 58 Nonhakmun, Donggyeong Daejeon, n. 17, p. 12. 59 “Tando Yusimgeub” [“Lamenting the Hasty Mind of the Disciples”], pp. 36-37.

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other is the beginning of recognising the primacy of the other?60 Thus, rather than interest in the other’s failings, we are invited into self-reflection and, in particular, the opportunity to discover our own talents. Putting the issue another way, Suun is proposing that all people have the ability and the responsibility of helping the other to develop. Moreover, he is encouraging us to see that fulfilment is not found in receiving only but in the practice of sharing our wisdom with the other.61 Suun’s insight reminds us that our talents are not our private possession but are to be shared with the other and are an invitation to participate in communal life. It seems to me that this insight speaks to the Gospel verse about specks and logs in eyes (Mt 7:3-5) and the need for communities which are constructed on the basis of always taking one further step, for the sake of the other,

4.5. Criterion of Value, Respect for the Deity

Respect is not only due God but valued by God. Suun admonishes and advises that if we do not know what we fear or respect then look to the standard by which we distinguish and divide between what is public and private. The first amongst the universal values is respect for God. Even- tually, we must bear in mind that we act out of what we consider to be universal values: “If you do not know whether or not you fear God, consider whether you are fair to others and not selfish. If you do not know whether your mind is fair or not, then observe whether your mind is used

60 St. Paul echoes this advice: “but in humility regard others as better than yourselves” (Phil 2:3b). 61 Emmanuel Lévinas gives vitality to the Suun’s words: “I always have more than responsibility for all people. […] A genuine relationship with the other is always a conversation, in which, to be more precise, a response leads to responsibility […] I, as the first person in any relation with the other find within me sufficient energy to call and respond.” Ethique et infini, Paris: Fayard, 1982, pp. 79-83.

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for the good of others or for selfish purposes.”62 Even from a totally selfish position we have to start by evaluating everything as to whether it is public or private. As we affirm the public good we begin the process of leaving our selfishness and entering into the world of God. It is my suspi- cion that saints carry an awareness that they live alongside all beings within the gaze of God.

4.6. Patterns of Sinfulness

“If you do not know how much fear you have for God, regard all places as sinful, though they may not be sinful.63 If you do not know whether you have an unselfish heart or not, think now about your past mistakes.”64 He emphasised that an aspect of sin is that we do not know how to discern that which we should hold in awe. There is frequently a gap between God’s majesty and truth and the reality of human existence, which means it is impossible to say that there is no sin. In many circum- stances, even though there may seem to be no outward (towards society) failings involved, internally there is a disjuncture between the individual and magnanimity of God. As a result, Suun directs flawed humanity to always revere truth. Suun, in the latter part of the above quotation, invites us to discover freedom through the daily practice of self-reflection. He understands that cultivating the self involves not fixating on yesterday’s fault but under-

62 “Jeon Paljeol” [“The First Eight Verses”], Donggyeong Daejeon, nos. 7-8, pp. 42-43. 63 Suun’s advice gives an insight into the significance of the humility of Jesus accepting bap- tism from his cousin, John the Baptist (Mt 3:14-15); and the meaning of John’s words in the following verse: “If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. If we confess our sins, he who is faithful and just will forgive us our sins and cleanse us from all unrighteousness” (1Jn 1:8-9, NRSV). 64 “Hu Paljeol” [“The Second Eight Verses”], Donggyeong Daejeon, nos. 7-8, pp. 44-45.

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standing its cause and thus constructing a better today.

4.7. The Importance of Contemplation

“In the bottle there is a mystical wine, and it could give life to millions of people. It was brewed a thousand years ago, but I have stored if for a special and useful occasion. If I open it once without a good reason, the smell will disperse and the taste will diminish. Today the people who follow our Way should keep their mouth like this bottle.”65 Suun is em- phasising how his disciples should cultivate the Way. Through his parable of smell, taste and the Way, he focuses on the extreme vigilance which is required for spiritual healing. He counsels that we not proceed brashly along the Way but embrace a deliberative, contemplative mode of living which will enable us to serve others gracefully. By this, he means that through a deliberative, reflective life we avoid opposing the life-giving wisdom which renews and heals humanity

4.8. From Individual Spirituality to Community

In one of his poems Suun wrote: “I found a narrow path and walked on the hazardous road step by step. I saw one mountain after another and faced one river after another. At last, I arrived at a vast place and realized that there was a great Way.” His description of the hazardous road, mountain after mountain and river after river is an allusion to the various stages of struggle inherent in the spiritual journey. He observes that, through this rite of passage, the human body changes like the daily blossoming of a flower. “If one day one flower blossoms, and in two days two flowers

65 “Gita Simun” [Other Poems], pp. 53-54.

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blossom, in 360 days 360 flowers blossom. One person blooms like a flower, and the whole family is in spring.”66

4.9. Normalizing the Image of the Divine Person on Earth

Exemptions are not made just for particular and specific persons. “Anyone (regardless of social ranking or class affiliation) who enters the Way becomes, from that day, a superior man; it is the natural becoming67 of the divine person who walks on earth. Are you not such a person?”68 The path to enlightenment, of becoming a divine person on earth, is open to all people. In contrast to the sentiments of this teaching, Suun’s society was dominated by the Confucian system of class and status. He challenges this class consciousness by redefining the Taoist concept of the mystical sage as those who can come from any walk of life and find their enlightenment amongst people and not in some solitary existence on a distant mountain. This concept is worthy of attention.

4.10. Emptying of Self

“The Way of cultivation is endless. Even if I am not teaching, the fortunate man learns slowly and teaches slowly. It is just as well I am not there.” “Do not believe me, believe Hanullim only.”69 Suun emphasises, in contrast to the exclusivity of traditional teachers of the Way, that any-

66 Ibid. 67 Natural Becoming/Muwi ihwa: The principle of nature is also the way of God. Through human effort and divine grace, the individual can have a natural and authentic life. An en- lightened person can live a morally pure life without unnatural effort. Chondogyo Scriptures, p. 70. 68 “Gyohunga”, Yongdam Yusa, p. 130. 69 Ibid., pp. 137. 142.

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one who has received the calling can become a teacher. For him, the experience of bearing God within is never absolute nor exclusive. This experience must be open to others and is an invitation to all people to participate in a genuinely religious world by growing in a personal relationship with God.

4.11. The Uniqueness of the Way

Suun was forthright in expressing his utter conviction that the spiritual quest cannot be replaced by wealth and precious goods: “The Way cannot be replaced by silver or gold.” However, Suun saw that, on account of his conviction, he had to accept the misunderstanding of a Western philosopher of the time and the suffering caused his family.70 “What is the point of family? They are treating me like an enemy, as if I have killed my father […] Even though I am treated like this, I am without fault. Like any ordinary person, I have not sinned. Do I have to listen to this slander? This fortune, how can I avoid it? […].”71

4.12. Susim Jeonggi

The ascetic practice of susim jeonggi is, in terms of its religious significance, without doubt on a par with the teachings of the sages of old. Although he agreed with the teachings of Confucius, he claimed that the spirituality to practice them was taught only by him.72 “Cleanse impure energy and nurture clean energy. One should have the utmost diligent

70 “Ansimga”, pp. 155-158. 71 “Gyohunga”, p. 136. 72 “Keeping a good mind and having the right spiritual force are the virtues established only by me.” Seodeokmun, Donggyeong Daejeon, n. 9, p. 18.

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mind but also an upright heart […] The mind is originally void and there is no trace of matter in it. When the mind is cultivated one knows virtue, and when the virtue becomes bright it is identical with the Way. The real- ization of the Way comes from the grace of God, not humankind.”73 The Confucian values are important but in themselves lack the spirituality to put them into action. The cultivating of a pure mind and an upright moral character is the Way of Susim jeonggi.

5. Conclusion

Following Bergson’s concept of “creative evolution”, the vision of God, morality, religiosity and spirituality which emerged in the context of the uncomfortable meeting between Donghak and Seohak, provides, this author suggests, the impetus for a fruitful contemporary dialogue between Donghak ― Chondogyo ― and Seohak ― Catholicism. Given that religion is a fundamental characteristic of human life, inter-religious dialogue and understanding can only but serve to broaden our vision and mature our religiosity. Pope Paul VI emphasized words to the effect that the truth of our mission is to be found in caring for creation and inter-religious dialogue. Taking these words to heart, Paul Knitter proposed that this is the era of religious pluralism because knowing one’s own faith only is not knowing one’s faith.74 The Second Vatican Council spoke of “those who compose the one

73 Nonhakmun, p. 40; Tando Yusimgeub [Lamenting the Hasty Mind of the Disciples], pp. 36- 37. 74 Paul F. Knitter, Without Buddha I could not be a Christian, London: Oneworld Publications, 2013; originally referred to a Korean version, tr. by Kyeong-il Chung et al., Seoul: Clear Minder, 2011.

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People of God, both pastors and the general faithful, can engage in dialogue with ever abounding fruitfulness”. 75 Nevertheless, we need to understand the influence of the traditional Western categories of “distinction” and “difference” in order to understand that these terms are not being used in terms of peer-to-peer mutuality but of superior and inferior hierarchy.76 Cardinal Ratzinger coined, a new technical term, interculturality, “to express more precisely ‘the meeting of cultures’ that is to take place when the culture of Christian faith encounters other cultures”. His hope was that this new term would be adopted because “‘inter-culturality’ recognizes that when two cultures meet-meeting is a key element of the concept – one does not destroy but enriches the other.”77 As identified above, the interplay between Donghak and Seohak has, during the course of the last 150 years, produced many rich points of contact. Looked at from the outside, Suun may have appeared to be a contrary figure but from a different perspective his teaching of the Way offers us a unique and challenging form of mysticism for our contemporary moment, Again, to continue the quote from Gaudium et Spes cited above: “For the bonds which unite the faithful are mightier than anything dividing them. Hence, let there be unity in what is necessary; freedom in what is un- settled, and charity in any case.”78 Thus, wrapped in the embrace of the Creator, rather than holding that truth exist only within the confines of one’s particular religion, the deepening of dialogue between Donghak and Seohak enables us to let go of intolerant claims to the exclusivity of truth and calls us into an ever-

75 Gaudium et Spes, n. 92 76 Sangtai Shim, “The Korean understanding of God”, p. 136. 77 “Cardinal Ratzinger Urges Asian Bishops to Adopt Term ‘Inter-Culturality’”, UCANEWS, March 9, 1993, http://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1993/03/09/cardinal-ratzin ger-urges-asian-bishops-to-adopt-term-interculturality&post_id=42924. 78 Gaudium et Spes, n. 92.

Myongsook Moon / Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-u 253

deepening catholicity. In the expectation of truth, all parties need to nurture an attitude of listening. Donghak places great expectation on the construction of a peace amongst humans which is grounded in an eco-cosmic awareness. Given the exigencies of the contemporary ecological catastrophe, Donghak, through the ecological solidarity inherent in the ideas of Si Cheonju and the doctrine of Jigi, offers an invaluable Way of ecological spirituality for today. Pope Francis has highlighted the richness of the religious classics for every age “they have an enduring power to open new horizons, to stimulate thought, to expand the mind and the heart”.79 Inter-religious dialogue suggests new possibilities for co-operation. “The gravity of the ecological crisis demands that we all look to the common good, embarking on a path of dialogue which demands patience, self-dis- cipline and generosity, always keeping in mind that “realities are greater than ideas.”80 Jung-Bae Lee claims that the religious worldview of Donghak provides a mode by which “to reclaim a marginalised personal theism: the personal but not personal aspects of the cosmic Jigi which is God”.81 There exist some controversy amongst academics about the personalism and non-personalism of the deity. The reason for this controvesy is that the God being rediscovered in Donghak has been a shock to Seohak. Namely, when the implications of this kind of personal theism are ap- propriated, the God who continues to astonish and disturb is suggesting that the cosmos is not an impersonal realm but a personal reality into which we are all being drawn. The Ultimate Energy is not a separate spirit but the Spirit of God. Bearing this Spirit, the God-nature-human tripartite relationship can only be understood as personal. Thus, our spirituality

79 Evangelii Gaudium, n. 256. 80 Laudato Si’, n. 201. 81 Jung-Bae Lee, op. cit., p. 135.

254 Understanding God in the Context of Interreligious Dialogue

transforms: we can no longer see ourselves above the world, free to defile a cosmos which has been reduced to a thing. Now we must recognise the interiority of all the universe which, bearing the Spirit of God, is no longer a thing but a creation to be honoured. As Martin Buber (1878-1965) so aptly said: “And in all the seriousness of truth, hear this: without It man cannot live. But he who lives with It alone is not a man.”82 We are being challenged to move from an I–It to an I–thou relationship. Suun’s idea of gi was to be developed by Euiam into the idea that nature is “spiritual air” (“My spirit is the breath of all creation”), which is seen as a gift from God. Unfortunately, we have managed this gift as if creation was something to be possessed. However, the truth is that rather than a possession, creation is a sharing in, or maybe better, a “breathing in” of the shared gift: the I-thou. This breath, which by its very nature is to be shared, is at the service of, and in solidarity with, all life. It is what, Laudato Si’ calls Universal Communion.83 The spirituality and ecological practice promoted by Donghak is, in the context of our mundane existence, an extraordinary point of reference.

82 Martin Buber, “I and Thou”, tr. by Walter Kaufmann, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, p. 34. 83 Laudato Si’, nos. 89-92.

Myongsook Moon / Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-u 255

Bibliography

Pope Francis, Apostolic Exhortation, Evangelii Gaudium, Seoul: CBCK, 2014. ______, Encyclical Letter, Laudato Si’, Seoul: CBCK, 2015. Pope John Paul II, “Peace with God the Creator, Peace with all Creation”, World Day of Peace Message, 1 January 1990.

Agence d’information des Missions Etrangères de Paris, Eglise d’Asie, n. 152, 1 April, 1993. Bergson, Henri, L’Évolution créatrice, tr. by Su Young Hwang, Seoul : Acanet, 2005. , Les Deux Sources de la morale et de la religion, 218th ed., Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1932 (1984). Buber, Martin, I and Thou (revised version), tr. by Jae Myung Pyo, Seoul: Moonyebook, 1994. CBCK, Documents of the Second Vatican Council, 6th ed., Seoul: CBCK, 1979. Choe, Je-u, Donggyeongdaejeon [Donghak Scripture], in Chondogyo Gyeongjeon [The Scripture of Chondogyo], Seoul: Chondogyo Central Church Headquarters, 1998, pp. 15-114. , Yongdam yusa [Songs of Yongdam], in Chondogyo Gyeongjeon [The Scripture of Chondogyo], Seoul: Chondogyo Central Church Headquarters, 1998, pp. 115-237. John of the Cross, The Dark Night, tr. by Hyo-ik Bang, Seoul: Good News, 2005. Keel, Hee-Sung, Sin-ang-gwa i-seong sa-i-e-seo [Between Faith and Reason], Seoul: Sechang Pub., 2015. Kim, Chi-ha, Saengmyong [Life], Seoul: Sol, 1992. Kim, Kyoung Jae, i-leum-eobs-neun ha-neu-nim [Radical monotheism and religious pluralism], Seoul: Samin, 2002. Kim, Yong Hae, “A comparison between the theism of Christianity and Cheondo- kyo”, Dong-hag-hag-bo [The Korean Journal Studies of Dong Hak], 6, 2003, pp. 85-125. Kim, Yong Choon (ed.), Chondogyo Scripture: Donggyeong Daejeon (Great Scrip-

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ture of Eastern Learning), University Press of America, 2007. Knitter, Paul, Without Buddha I could not be a Christian, tr. by Kyeong-il Chung et al., Seoul: ClearMinder, 2011. Lee, Don-Hwa, New Philosophical View on Humankind, Seoul: Chondogyo Cen- tral Church Headquarters, 1998. Léna, Marguerite, Patience de l’avenir, Lessius, donner raison 40, 2012. Lévinas, Emmanuel, Ethique et Infini, Paris: Fayard, 1982. Moon, Myongsook, “Donghak, Life, Human: a relationship between the thoughts of Donghak and that of modern philosophy”, The Korean Journal Studies of Donghak 1, 2000, pp. 151-180. , “Understanding of the Divinity by Donghak”, Enculturation of Concepts of Human Beings, Seoul: CBCK, 1995. , “Religious thought of Donghak in the Donggyeong Daejeon and Yongdam Yusa”, Studies of Religion and Theology 9, Institute of Religion and Theology at Sogang University, 1996. Pope Benedict XVI, “If you want to cultivate peace, protect creation”, World Day of Peace Message, 1 January 2010. Shim, Sangtai, “The Korean Understanding of God”, Catholic Theology and Thought 77 (2016 Summer), The Society of Theology and Thought, p. 144. Son, Byeong-hui, Euiamseongsabeopseol [Sermons of Revered Teacher Euiam], in Chondogyo Gyeongjeon [The Scripture of Chondogyo], Seoul: Chondogyo Central Church Headquarters, 1998, pp. 437-795. Varillon, Francois, Mid-neun gi-ppeum sa-neun gi-ppeum [Joie de croire, joie de vivre (Korean version)], tr. by Minhwa Shim, Seoul: saeng-hwal-seong-seo [Bible Life], 2000. Yi, Chan Su, Yu-il-sin-lon-ui jong-mal, i-je-neun beom-jae-sin-lon-i-da [The end of monotheism, now it is panentheism], Seoul: Dongyon Publishing Company, 2014. Zundel, M., Vivre Dieu: L’art et la joie de croire, Paris: Presses de la Renaissance, 2007.

Received: 6 March 2017 Reviewed and Edited: 29 May 2017 Finalized for Publication: 16 June 2017

Myongsook Moon / Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-u 257

❚Abstract❚ □

This paper engages with the thought of Choe, Je-u (Suun) the mid-19th century founder of Donghak Movement and Chondogyo, and his social, political and religious critique of the Korean society of his time. His experience of Western Religion, of Seohak (Western Learning) and the spread of Catholicism, provides a noteworthy statement, commentary and alternative vision about the socio-moral crisis prevalent in the Korea of his day. Suun’s religious revelation is both foundational and, within the cultural clash between East and West, seen to have many similarities with the immanent, personal God of Catholicism. The image of the deity which emerges from an analysis of the record of Suun’s revelation found in the Donggyeong Daejeon and the Yongdam Yusa is that of the Lord of Heaven; understood as a movement from polytheism to monotheism. In contrast to the dominant traditional ideology of the divinity, Suun expressed this breakthrough as Si Cheonju, the intimate bearing of God within. Choe draws deeply from his personal religious experience in order to re-inter- pret Korea’s traditional morality and religiosity. His radical vision favours and points to an equality of persons which challenges the traditional Con- fucian hierarchy. Nowhere is this better expressed in his belief that all people are able to cultivate the Way. On the one hand, Suun’s criticism of Christianity, when read from the perspective of Henri Bergson’s philosophy of morality and religion, draws attention to both individual and institutionally closed morality and static religiosity. On the other hand, we are offered the opportunity to appreciate the vision of Si Cheonju and its accompanying emphasis on human in-

258 Understanding God in the Context of Interreligious Dialogue

tegrity and freedom which is to be discovered within the open nature of Donghak morality. In many respects, Choe’s mysticism can be said to be a revelation of “dynamic religion”. Whilst there are many points of divergence between Seohak and Donghak, at the level of spirituality it is possible to assert a genuine moment of convergence. Through seeking a deeper appreciation of their respective similarities and divergences, we can more profoundly grasp the respective tasks of these two religions to promote universal values. Donghak’s eco-cosmic concept of an expanding, ultimate energy, or gihwa is particularly significant. The idea of God found within Donghak moves from the personalism of Suun’s concept of gi to his successor, Sihyeong Choe (Haeweol), and his concept of Yang Cheonju, or bearing God within by cultivating God within. The revered third leader, Byeong-hui Son (Euiam), codifies these concepts in the idea of Innaecheon, humans are divine, humans are one with God. Alluding to the air we breathe, Euiam describes Innaecheon as Gong-gi, or collective energy. These ideas suggest, for contemporary glo- bal citizens who are facing imminent ecological catastrophe, fruitful ways to develop an ethic which promotes harmony between humans and nature. The vision of humanness promoted by Donghak can be seen as a pointer to the efforts which people in the 21st century are going to have to under- take in order to protect and preserve creation. The paper concludes with some suggestions for dialogue between Donghak-Chondogyo and Seohak-Catholicism. Maturity for religious people, it is asserted, is to be found in the promotion of harmony in creation. Moreover, the path towards genuine dialogue is based on an attitude of respect and reverence for the life force, the élan vital, which is imminent within the other.

▶ Key Words: Donghak, Personal God, Si Cheonju, Moral and Religious Thought, Ecological Ethics.

Myongsook Moon / Donghak and the God of Choe, Je-u 259

❚국문 초록❚ □

동학에 나타난 최제우의 하느님 이해

문 명 숙 수녀 〔한국 하비에르 국제학교 교감〕

본고는 동학 또는 천도교의 창립자, 최제우의 19세기 중엽, 당시 한국의 사회, 정치적인 비판과 도덕, 종교적인 비판에서 출발한다. 그 이유는 그가 체험한 서구의 종교 문화, 특히 서학, 천주교의 파급 으로 인한 한국 사회의 가치관의 혼란상에 대한 진술과 그 원인에 대한 분석 및 대안적 견해에 주목할 필요가 있다고 생각했기 때문이 다. 필자의 견해를 보자면, 그 대안의 토대는 신의 체험에 있으며, 최제우는 동서양의 문화적인 충돌 현상 속에서도 천주교의 인격신을 체험했다고 보았다. 그의 저서 『동경대전』과 『용담유사』에 묘사된 인격신의 체험을 분석해 보면 그의 다신론적 신관은 유일신, 곧 천 주로 수렴되었다. 그는 재래의 신 관념과 방향을 달리하여 친근한 존재로서 인간이 천주를 모시고 있다는 의미에서 ‘시천주’라 표현하 였다. 인격신과의 만남을 기반으로 최제우는 한국의 전통적인 도덕과 종교에 대하여 재해석을 시도한다. 해석적 주체로서 그는 기존의 유 교 도덕관의 위계적 인간관계를 평등관계로 볼 수 있는 새로운 시각 을 제시한다. 그의 도덕과 종교관을 앙리 베르크손의 도덕과 종교철 학적인 관점에서 독해한 바에 의하면, 그의 그리스도교에 대한 비판

260 Understanding God in the Context of Interreligious Dialogue

에서 그리스도교(인) 내에서 드러나는 ‘닫힌도덕’성과 ‘정태적 종교’ 현상에 대한 비판에 주목할 수 있었다. 다른 한편, 동학에서 ‘열린 도덕’의 특성들도 발견할 수 있었는데, 그 대표적인 생각은 ‘시천주’ 사상에서 오는 인간의 존엄성과 자유의지에 대한 인식이다. 최제우 의 신비가적인 여러 면모에서 드러나는 ‘역동적 종교’의 특성들을 통 해 종교적인 정체성 또한 살펴보았다. 이 영성적인 특성에서 필자는 서학과 동학은 서로 대치되는 것 같이 보이지만 그리스도교와의 접 점들도 존재함을 파악할 수 있다고 말한다. 이러한 유사점과 차이점은 동∙서학의 본질, 곧 각 종교가 지닌 고 유한 사명인 인류를 지향한 보편적 가치를 보는 지평을 확대하는 데 기여한다. 그 하나로 동학의 종교사상에서 ‘기화’는 우주생태학적인 차원에서 중요한 개념임을 알게 되었다. 최제우의 천주, 기 개념을 동학의 2대 교주 최시형은 ‘인시천’과 ‘양천주’라고 표현하면서 인본 주의적인 대상인 동시에 생명사상으로 발전시켰고, 3대 교주 손병희 는 ‘인내천’과 정신으로서의 ‘공기’를 언급하면서 자연과 인간을 일 체로 보는 생태윤리적 해석을 시도했다. 이는 생태위기에 처해 있는 현대 지구촌인들에게 시사하는 바가 있다고 하겠다. 이런 차원에서 동학의 인간관과 세계관은 21세기 창조보전을 위한 인류 공동노력의 한 행동 지표로서도 중요하다고 본다. 본고를 마치면서는 동학-천도교와 서학-가톨릭과의 대화가 오늘날 에 이르러서는 어느 시점에 와 있는지 자문하게 된다. 종교적 인간 의 성숙함은 ‘창조적 조화’에 기여하는 데 있다고 본다. 이를 지향하 며 대화의 길을 모색하는 데 있어 이웃 종교에 내재된 진실과 생명 력에 기대하는 자세가 필요하다.

▶ 주제어: 동학, 인격신, 시천주, 도덕과 종교사상, 생태윤리.