3. See James Fenton, the Memory of War and Children in Exile: Poems Poems, Essays and Dramatic Writings, 1927-1939, Ed. Edward M

Notes

In all references place of publication is London unless otherwise indicated.

NOTE TO PREFACE

1. See Seamus Heaney, 'An Open Letter' (1983), repr. in Ireland's Field Day (1985) pp. 21-30; Tom Paulin, Ireland and the English Crisis (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1984) pp. 9-22; Douglas Dunn, 'Interview with Bernard O'Donoghue', Oxford Poetry, 11.2 (Spring 1985) 46-7, 49-50.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 1: JAMES FENTON'S 'NARRATIVES': SOME REFLECTIONS ON POSTMODERNISM

1. Compare Paul Muldoon's fabulation in 'Immram', Why Brownlee Left (1980) pp. 38-47, and 'The More a Man Has the More a Man Wants', Quoof (1983) pp. 40-64. 2. Compare Muldoon's 'The Big House', Mules (1977) pp.15-16, which indulgently spins a yarn, exploiting with evident enjoyment the narrative cliches of Gothic fiction and the detective novel, only in its final qualificatory line, which contradicts line 10, to playfully dismiss itself as fabrication by drawing attention to the unreliability of its artifice. 3. See James Fenton, The Memory of War and Children in Exile: Poems 1968-1983 (Harmondsworth, 1983) pp. 92-3. Line references in individual poems are incorporated wherever possible into the text. Compare W. H. Auden, Collected Poems, ed. Edward Mendelson (1976) p.41. 4. See Fenton, Memory of War, pp. 81-4. Compare The English Auden: Poems, Essays and Dramatic Writings, 1927-1939, ed. Edward Mendel• son (1977) p.61 and Auden, Collected Poems, pp.414-15, 224-31. 5. English Auden, p. 148. 6. Fenton, Memory of War, pp. 30-7. 7. Ibid., pp.10-19. 8. Ibid., pp. 58-61. 9. Notice the characteristically sinister wordplay here on prussic acid. 10. See 'An Interview with James Fenton', Poetry Review, 72.2 Oune 1982) 21, and Fenton, Memory of War, pp. 44-6. 11. See 'An Interview with James Fenton', p.18. 12. Muldoon, Quoof p. 29. 13. Compare Seamus Heaney, North (1975) pp.49-50. 14. 'An Interview with James Fenton', p. 21. Fenton is presumably thinking of Clare's 'Remembrances':

209 210 Notes to pages 9-17

Inclosure like a Buonaparte let not a thing remain It levelled every bush & tree & levelled every hill & hung the moles for traitors

See John Clare, The Midsummer Cushion, ed. Anne Tibbie and R. K. R. Thornton (Ashington and Manchester, 1979) p. 370. 15. See Fenton, Memory of War, pp. 96-9. 16. Compare the discussion of exoticism apropos of Christopher Reid's poetry in Chapter 2, pp. 34-5 infra. 17. See English Auden, pp.130-5 and The Complete Poems of Keith Douglas, ed. Desmond Graham (Oxford, 1978) p. 79. 18. See Fenton, Memory of War, pp. 47-9. 19. Compare particularly 'Ses purs ongles tres haut dediant leur onyx' in Stephane Mallarme, CEuvres completes, ed. Henri Mondor and G. Jean-Aubry (Paris, 1945) pp. 68-9. 20. See Charles Jencks, 'Late-Modernism and Post-Modernism', Late• Modern Architecture (1980) pp.10-30; The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, 3rd edn (1981) passim.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2: THEATRE OF TROPE: CRAIG RAINE AND CHRISTOPHER REID

The following abbreviations are used throughout this chapter:

A Reid, Arcadia (Oxford, 1979) CP Wallace Stevens, Collected Poems (1955) K Reid, Katerina Brae (1985) M Raine, A Martian Sends a Postcard Home (Oxford, 1979) P Reid, Pea Soup (Oxford, 1982) R Raine, Rich (1984) T Raine, The Onion, Memory (Oxford, 1978)

1. James Fenton, 'Of the Martian School', New Statesman (20 Oct 1978) p. 520. Amongst vituperative attacks on the exclusiveness of the British poetry scene, Martin Booth's British Poetry 1964 to 1984 (1985) pp. 248-56, is the most outspoken. 2. Craig Raine quotes Wordsworth to this effect in Viewpoints: Poets in Conversation, ed. John Haffenden (1981) p.182 and in 'Babylonish Dialects', Poetry Review, 74.2 Oune 1984) 31. 3. Jonathan Swift, Gulliver's Travels and Other Writings, ed. Louis A. Landa (Oxford, 1976) pp. 128, 143. 4. London Review of Books, 3, 24 July; 4, 18 Sept; 9 Oct, 20 Nov, 18 Dec 1986; 8 Jan 1987. 5. Wallace Stevens, Collected Poems [hereafter CP] (1955) pp. 486, 64. 6. Jane Austen, Selected Letters 1796-1817, ed. R. W. Chapman (1955) p.189. Raine's more extensive apologia, apropos of John Donne, is 'Making Love with the Light On', Listener (5 April 1984) pp. 12-13. Notes to pages 18-36 211

7. Salman Rushdie, Midnight's Children (1982) p. 357. 8. Harold Pinter, Plays: One (1976) pp.14-15. 9. This Eliotic theme (as in the elegiac 'Burnt Norton') is also explored in 'Memory' (T, p. 25), which Raine depicts as 'the staircase we can never climb, I the ruined spiral of the silver birch, I dripping cob• webs', confirming the Symbolist origins of his Martian interest in metaphor. 10. T. S. Eliot, Complete Poems and Plays (1969) pp.18-212. 11. Virginia Woolf, To the Lighthouse (1927; repr. Harmondsworth, 1974) p.183. 12. Compare Wallace Stevens's 'Life is Motion' (CP, p. 83), with its celebration of 'the marriage I Of flesh and air'. 13. R, p. 22. The decorous formality perhaps owes something to Enobarbus' s famous encomium on Cleopatra in Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra, n.ii. 198-9. 14. M, p. 6. Dryden's great translation of De Rerum Natura, IV.1052-1287, is in The Poems of John Dryden, ed. James Kinsley, 4 vols (Oxford, 1958) I. 413-21. 15. John Haffenden, 'An Interview with Christopher Reid', Poetry Review, 72.3 (Sept 1982) 16; Wallace Stevens, Opus Posthumous, ed. Samuel French Morse (New York, 1977) p. 179. Compare Stevens's equation of poetry with 'metaphor or metamorphosis' in The Necessary Angel: Essays on Reality and the Imagination (New York, n.d.) pp.ll7-18. 16. The sequence 'Spleen' in Charles Baudelair~, CEuvres completes, ed. Claude Pichois, 2 vols (Paris, 1975-6) 1. 72-5, contrasts with 'Parfum exotique' (pp. 25-6), 'La Chevelure' (pp. 26-7), 'L'Invitation au voyage' (pp. 53-4), 'Chanson d'apres-midi' (pp. 59-60), 'Un hemis• phere dans une chevelure' (pp. 300-1), 'L'Invitation au voyage' (pp. 301-3), 'Les Projets' (pp. 314-15) and 'Any where out of the world' (pp. 356-7). 17. Ibid., 1. 26. 18. Ibid., II. 334. Baudelaire is recasting a passage in Edgar Allan Poe's 'The Poetic Principle', repr. in his Complete Works, ed. James A. Harrison, 17 vols (New York, 1902) XIV. 273-4. 19. 'Brise marine', in Stephane Mallarme, is CEuvres completes, ed. Henri Mondor and G. Jean-Aubry (Paris, 1945) p. 38; see also 'Les Fenetres' and 'L' Azur', ibid., pp. 32-3, 37-8. 20. Ezra Pound, Collected Shorter Poems, 2nd edn (1968) pp. 221, 220; cf. the full context of pp. 216-21. 21. W. B. Yeats, Collected Poems, 2nd edn (1950) p. 392. 22. I would, of course, not wish to assert that there was a single High Romantic ideology unassailed by criticism from within: Word• sworth, for example, is the author of 'Peter Bell' as well as of The Prelude. Nevertheless I believe that one can usefully discriminate between the vatic pretensions which the major Romantics confirmed as a poetic tradition and Reid's ludic subversion of the High Romantic frame of reference that has continued to play such a dominant role in twentieth-century poetry. 212 Notes to pages 37-44

23. 'Endymion', IV.636-44, in The Poems oflohn Keats, ed. Miriam Allott (1970) pp.271-2. 24. Laurence Sterne, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, ed. Graham Petrie (Harmondsworth, 1967) p.453. Compare Corporal Trim's flourish with his cane, ibid., p. 576. 25. Stevens, CP, p. 322. 26. The English Auden, ed. Edward Mendelson (1977) pp.210-12. 27. Compare 'Morality and the Novel' in D. H. Lawrence, A Selection from Phoenix, ed. A. A. H. Inglis (Harmondsworth, 1971) p.177. 28. See Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility (1811). 29. James Joyce, Ulysses (1922; repr. Harmondsworth, 1971) pp. 455-63. 30. Compare, for example, Craig Raine, 'Good Manners', London Review of Books, 6.9 (17 May-6 June 1984) 9; Viewpoints, p. 179. Joyce supplied the epigraphs for M; R, pt 1 and p. 88; and T, pp. 5, 12. 31. James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916; repr. Harmondsworth, 1975) pp. 221, 217. 32. Lines 996-1014; text from Jonathan Wordsworth, William Word• sworth: The Borders of Vision (Oxford, 1984) p. 414. M. H. Abrams traces the origins of 'the apocalyptic marriage' in Natural Supernatu• ralism (New York, 1973) Ch.l. 33. Stephen's transposition of Flaubert is in Portrait, p. 215. 34. Compare, for example, Mr Y's stencilling of catkins with the catkin 'epaulettes' in 'The First Lesson' (R, p.109); his playful reference to 'snows' with the metaphor of 'state cocaine' in 'The Sylko Bandit' (R, pp. 88-9); his fascination with the drunk lexicon of dreams with the sleeping 'readers' of 'A Martian Sends A Postcard Home' (M, p.2). 35. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, ed. George Watson (1965) p.167. 36. Stevens, Opus Posthumous, p. 167. For some of the other contexts of 'poverty' see ibid., p.104, and CP, pp.299, 317, 320-1, 325-6, 477, 480, 495, 505, 510, 532-3. 37. London Review of Books, 6.17 (20 Sept-3 Oct 1984) 11. 38. Stevens, Opus Posthumous, p. 178; Necessary Angel, p. 31. Compare CP, p.167; Necessary Angel, pp. 27-31, 170-1; Opus Posthumous, pp. 158, 159. 39. Stevens, Necessary Angel, pp. 57-8. 40. Poetry Review, 74.2 Gune 1984) 30-3. 41. Stevens, Necessary Angel, p. 98. 42. 'Babylonish Dialects', p. 32. 43. 'Memres' was printed in the London Review of Books, 8.14 (7 Aug 1986) 18-19. Raine comments on 'Purge' in 'A Martian at Glynde• bourne', Poetry Review, 76.4 (Dec 1986) 10. 44. Arthur Rimbaud, CEuvres completes, ed. Rolland de Reneville and Jules Mouquet (Paris, 1963) p.llO. 45. Ann Pasternak Slater's literal gloss, with some alternative words omitted, is quoted with her permission. Compare Marina Tsve• tayeva, Selected Poems, trs. Elaine Feinstein (1971) pp. 42-3. Notes to pages 45-61 213

46. In 'A Silver Plate', pp. 41-64; 'Plain Song', pp. 74-5; 'Again', pp. 76-9; 'The Season in Scarborough 1923', pp.82-4; 'A Hungry Fighter', pp. 92-4.

NOTES TO CHAITER 3: WAITING FOR THE END: ABSENCES IN THE POETRY OF MICHAEL HOFMANN

1. Michael Hofmann, Acrimony [hereafter A] (1986) pp. 34-5. Page references to Acrimony and to Nights in the Iron Hotel [abbreviated to N] (1983) are subsequently incorporated wherever possible into the text. 2. Compare Touring Company' (N, p. 11). 3. The phrase wrenches W. B. Yeats out of context. Compare his Collected Poems, 2nd edn (1950) p. 375. 4. Hofmann explicitly transposes Kirchner in 'Pavement Artistes. After E. L. Kirchner' (N, p. 25). 5. See, for example, Fredric Jameson, 'Postmodemism, or The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism', New Left Review, 146 Ouly• August 1984) 53-92. On the political complexion of Postmodem• ism see also Andreas Huyssen, 'The Search for Tradition: Avant• Garde and Postmodemism in the 1970s', New German Critique, 22 (Winter 1981) 23-40; and the essays by Andreas Huyssen, Fredric Jameson and Hal Foster in New German Critique, 33 (Fall1984) 5-78. 6. The fine poem of this title (N, p. 39) is a good example of Hofmann's command of subtle metaphorical transitions and visual rhymes, but also of how his ostensible political position (here that of a Green) comes down to a melancholy defeatism which seeks consolation in the 'ludic' imagination rather than in practical resistance. 7. Hofmann's emergent political meditations in Nights - for example 'Nations are irregular parcels, tight with fear' (p. 40) - are indebted to the Tom Paulin of A State of Justice (1977). 8. Hofmann's lodger poems are presumably inspired by autobiog• raphical circumstance, but they may also be indebted to Tom Paulin's 'Under a Roof', A State of Justice, p. 28, and 'Second-Rate Republics', The Strange Museum (1980) p.15. 9. See Roland Barthes, The Photographic Message', in Image-Music• Text, trs. Stephen Heath (1977) pp. 15-31. 10. See Jean Baudrillard, Simulations (New York, 1983). 11. Compare 'Consider this and in our time' and 'Get there if you can' in The English Auden, ed. Edward Mendelson (1977) pp.46-8. 12. In 'Against Nature' (A, pp. 43-4) Hofmann's suggestive juxtaposi• tion of the pathetic anorexic with the Japanese lodger in whose culture 'rice, raw fish, and the subjugation of women I combine to promote longevity in the male' implies a further indictment of the marketing of female sexuality. See also 'Mannequin' (N, p. 16). 214 Notes to pages 62-7

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4: HISTORY TO THE DEFEATED: GEOFFREY HILL'S 'THE MYSTERY OF THE CHARITY OF CHARLES PEGUY'

1. 'Little Gidding' 111, in The Complete Poems and Plays of T. S. Eliot (1969) p.196. 2. See Helen Gardner, The Composition of Four Quartets (London and Boston, 1978) p. 206. 3. See W. B. Yeats, Collected Poems, 2nd edn (1950) pp. 269, 392. 4. Compare, for example, Stephane Mallarme, CEuvres completes, ed. Henri Mondor and G.Jean-Aubry (Paris, 1945) pp.363-4, 368, and T. S. Eliot, The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (1964) p. 151. 5. Geoffrey Hill, The Mystery of the Charity of Charles Peguy (1983) p. [8). Compare Charles Peguy CEuvres en prose (1909-1914), ed. Marcel Peguy [hereafter Prose B) (Paris, 1961) p. 508. 6. For Hill's interpretation of Southwell see his The Lords of Limit: Essays on Literature and Ideas (1984) pp. 27-34. This aspect of Peguy's views on 'I' Affaire' appears in Prose B, pp. 535-8, 543-5, 642-9. 7. Geoffrey Hill, Collected Poems (Harmondsworth, 1985) pp. 207, 196, 206 (page references hereafter to CP). 8. Hill's second epigraph is drawn from Peguy, CEuvres en prose (1898- 1908) ed. Marcel Peguy [hereafter Prose A] (Paris, 1959) p.l158. The 'Preface' to T. S. Eliot's After Strange Gods (1934) quotes from the same paragraph by Peguy. For Peguy's views on the protean forms of modem 'avilissement', see Prose A, pp.1154-5, 1416; Prose B, pp.55-7, 506-9,518-21,1257-9,1295-6,1507-9,1530-5. 9. See Michael F. Harper, 'Truth and Calliope: Ezra Pound's Malates• ta', PMLA, 96 (1981) 86-103. 10. Among Hayden White's many reflections on historiographical method, see particularly his Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore, Md and London, 1973). 11. Compare Seamus Heaney's 'Punishment' in his North (1975) pp. 37-8. For an excellent treatment of this preoccupation in Hill's work, see Christopher Ricks, 'Geoffrey Hill 1: "The tongue's atrocities"' (1978), reprinted in his The Force of Poetry (Oxford, 1984) pp. 285-318. 12. On attempts to maintain a semantic distinction between performa• tive utterances and the language of art, between ethics and aesthetics, see Hill, Lords of Limit, pp. 138-59. For a brilliant essay on Hill's uses of history, see Hugh Haughton, '"How fit a title ..."; Title and Authority in the Work of Geoffrey Hill', in Geoffrey Hill: Essays on His Work, ed. Peter Robinson (Milton Keynes and Philadelphia, 1985) pp.129-48. 13. I adopt the notion of the author as 'arranger' from David Hayman's 'Ulysses': The Mechanics of Meaning, new edn (Madison, Wise. and London, 1982) and Hugh Kenner's Ulysses (1980). 14. Compare the attempted assassination of Robert Moore in Charlotte Bronte's Shirley, set at the time of the Luddite disturbances, but written in 1849 with an eye to the contemporary social conflict. 15. CP, pp. 184-5. Henceforth references to The Mystery are located in Notes to pages 68-74 215

my text by the number of a stanza within each section of the poem: for example, the third stanza of section 4 is abbreviated as 4.3. 16. Ezra Pound, 'Canto 1', in Poetry, 10.3 ijune 1917) 113-21 (p.119). Pound's prose gloss on 'phantastikon', which 1 quote on p. 68, comes from The Spirit of Romance, rev. edn (1952) p. 92. 17. The phrase quoted is employed by the scriptural commentator Joseph Mede to characterise the prophetic form of Revelation; see Terence Allan Hoagwood, Prophecy and the Philosophy of Mind: Traditions of Blake and Shelley (University, Ala., 1985) p. 37 and Joseph Anthony Wittreich, Jr, Visionary Poetics: Milton's Tradition and his Legacy (San Marino, Calif., 1979) pp.16, 20-2, 38-40. 18. Compare 'Byzantium' in Yeats, Collected Poems, pp. 280-1, and 'Gerontion', in Eliot's Complete Poems and Plays, p.38. 19. See particularly Mercian Hymns XI, XVI, XIX, XX, XXI, xxm and compare the phantasmagoric framing of 'Tristia: 1891-1938' (CP, p.81). 20. See W. B. Yeats, Memoirs, ed. Denis Donoghue (1972) p. 213. 21. My account simplifies the issue, in that I don't discuss how the apparent fissure that opens up between artifice and reality is itself contained within the framing discourse and conventional stylisa• tion of a poem. I can here merely draw attention to the dizzy regressiveness of this rhetorical mise en abyme. 22. Seamus Heaney, 'Punishment', North, p. 38. 23. Yeats, Collected Poems, p. 393. On this theme compare 'The Tower' 11 (pp. 219-22), 'Vacillation' v (p. 284) and Autobiographies (1955) pp. 367-8. Contrast, however, the defiant assertion of art's eugenic function in 'The Statues' (pp. 375-6) and 'Under Ben Bulben' IV and v (pp. 399-400). 24. Compare Hill, Lords of Limit, pp. 138-59, and Jeffrey Wainwright's excellent essay, 'The Mystery of the Charity of Charles Peguy', in Geoffrey Hill, ed. Peter Robinson, pp. 100-11. 25. William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, ed. T. S. Dorsch, 6th edn (1955) 11.i.166-8, 180. For other attempts to dignify murder as political tragedy, see ll.i.63-5 (where 'interim' surely has the technical sense of 'interlude'; compare Love's Labours Lost, l.i.170); ll.i.135, 166-80, 225-7; lll.i.111-18, 223. 26. Compare Peguy, Prose B, pp. 38-40, 1114-15. 27. See John Barrell, The Dark Side of the Landscape: The Rural Poor in English Painting 1730-1840 (Cambridge, 1980). 28. See Thomas Carlyle, Past and Present (1843; repr. 1976) pp. 193, 197; John Ruskin, The Stones of Venice, 3 vols (1851-3) 11, Ch. VI, §12; Peguy, Prose B, p. 1106. Compare Hauviette's speeches in Peguy, CEuvres poetiques completes, ed. Fran\ois Porche, Pierre Peguy and Marcel Peguy (Paris, 1959) pp. 374-5. 29. Compare George Eliot's trenchant satire of this falsifying aesthetic• ism in Victorian genre painting in Middlemarch, Ch. 39 (1871-2; repr. Harmondsworth, 1974) p. 429. 30. For an aggressive but incisive account of cultural practices absent from such selective representations, see Fred Orton and Griselda 216 Notes to pages 74-88

Pollock, 'Les Donnees Bretonnantes: Ia Prairie de Representation', Art History, 3 (1980) 314-44. 31. In conversation with Hermione Lee on the television programme 'Book Four', 2 Oct. 1985. 32. See Prose B, pp. 1240-6, 1259. 33. There are particularly close parallels between Hill's Peguy and the Jeannette of le mystere de Ia vocation de Jeanne d'Arc, who yearns for martyrdom in a holy war which would liberate France and inaugurate the millennium. See especially CEuvres poetiques, pp. 1233-45. 34. The Poems of Wilfred Owen, ed. Edmund Blunden (1972) p. 66. 35. The Collected Poems of Wallace Stevens (1955) p. 408. 36. 'Ode: Intimations of Immortality', in William Wordsworth, The Poems, ed. John 0. Hayden, 2 vols (Harmondsworth, 1977) I.525. 37. See Prose B, pp. 7-9, 56-7, 61-2. 38. It has been remarked also by Grevel Lindop in 'Myth and Blood: The Poetry of Geoffrey Hill', Critical Quarterly, 26. 1 & 2 (spring and summer 1984) 150-1. 39. Compare, for example, the collocation in the 1798-9 Prelude, 1.258- 374, of the episodes of the drowned man of Esthwaite, the gibbet and waiting for the horses. Peguy's father died in the poet's first year of life.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 5: THE MASTERING EYE: DOUGLAS DUNN'S SOCIAL PERCEPTIONS

The following abbreviations are used throughout this chapter for Dunn's collections of poetry: TS Terry Street (1969) THL The Happier Life (1972) LON Love or Nothing (1974) B Barbarians (1979) SKP St Kilda's Parliament (1981) 1. Douglas Dunn, 'The Hunched' (THL, p. 38); 'I Am a Cameraman' (LON, p. 41). 2. Stephen Spender, Collected Poems 1928-1953 (1955) p. 30. 3. Philip Larkin, The Whitsun Weddings (1964) p. 35; Michael Longley, Poems 1963-1983 (Harmondsworth, 1986) p. 21. 4. On this aspect of Wordsworth, see, for example, Heather Glen, Vision and Disenchantment (Cambridge, 1983) and David Simpson, 'Criticism, Politics and Style in Wordsworth's Poetry', Critical Inquiry, 11 (1984-5) 52-81. 5. Compare 'Second-hand Clothes' (SKP, pp. 42-3): Even these women look As taken off as shirts, Worn sweaters, skirts, sea-boots, And thrown down on a floor. Notes to pages 89-99 217

6. A fascinating history could be written of the cultural mediation of provincial life for a genteel audience in nineteenth-century litera• ture, as in Mrs Gaskell's uneasy footnote glosses to the authenticat• ing dialect of Mary Barton (1848), or the use in Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights (1847) of Mr Lockwood as an intermediary amid the hyperborean savages. The relevant analogy is with the polite reader's experience of another foreign environment - the urban proletariat - as in Dickens's Bleak House (1853) Ch. 22, where Mr Snagsby is led by Mr Bucket into London's Inferno, whose squalor was to be so harrowingly depicted by Gustave Dore, just after he had illustrated Dante's Divine Comedy. 7. The English Auden, ed. Edward Mendelson (1977) p. 22. 8. The origins of this malaise are examined in David Craig, Scottish Literature and the Scottish People 1680-1830 (1961) and David Daiches, The Paradox of Scottish Culture: The Eighteenth-Century Experience (Oxford, 1964). 9. Seamus Heaney, North (1975) p. 64. 10. On this eighteenth-century nepotism, see Bruce Lenman, Integra• tion, Enlightenment, and Industrialization: Scotland 1746-1832 (1981). 11. Tony Harrison, Selected Poems (Harmondsworth, 1984) pp. 122-3. 12. To generalise on a complex issue, it would appear that the uncomfortable absence of workmen in eighteenth-century conversa• tion paintings replaces their paternalistic idealisation in the Renaiss• ance, as willing subordinates to their benevolent aristocratic overseers. John Barrell's The Dark Side of The Landscape (Cambridge, 1980) is the seminal introduction to this topic. 13. Compare 'Epistle to Burlington', lines 39-70, in The Poems of Alexander Pope, ed. John Butt (1968) pp. 589-90, and, on the composition of promenades, John Dixon Hunt, The Figure in the Landscape (1976) and Ronald Paulson, Emblem and Expression (1975) Ch. 2. 14. T. C. Smout, A History of the Scottish People 1560-1830 (1972) pp. 367- 71; Lenman, Scotland 1746-1832, p. 4. 15. Smout, History of the Scottish People, pp. 397-9. 16. Smout, History of the Scottish People, pp. 418-20; H. W. Meikle, Scotland and the French Revolution (Glasgow, 1912) pp. 226-9; Thomas Johnston, The History of the Working Classes in Scotland (Glasgow, n.d.) pp. 236-44. 17. On Tory reaction in Edinburgh, see Lenman, Scotland 1746-1832, pp. 133-45. 18. Dunn explains his interest in these forgotten figures in Viewpoints: Poets in Conversation, ed. John Haffenden (1981) pp. 25-7. 19. Robert Burns, Poems and Songs, ed. James Kinsley (Oxford, 1969) p. 73. 20. On Tannahill's rejection by Constable, see The Poems and Songs of Robert Tannahill, ed. David Semple (Paisley, 1874) pp. xxxiii-iv. 21. These are discussed in E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (Harmondsworth, 1968) pp. 158-63. 218 Notes to pages 100-8

NOTES TO CHAPTER 6: THE CIVIL ART: TOM PAULIN'S REPRESENTATIONS OF ULSTER

The following abbreviations are used throughout this chapter for Paulin's collections of poetry:

Sf A State of Justice (1977) SM The Strange Museum (1980) L T Liberty Tree (1983)

1. W. H. Auden, 'New Year Letter', in Collected Poems, ed. Edward Mendelson (1976) p. 193. 2. See Tom Paulin, Ireland and the English Crisis [hereafter Ireland] (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1984) pp. 75-9. 3. For biographical information about Paulin see his interview in Viewpoints: Poets in Conversation, ed. John Haffenden (1981) pp. 157- 73, and, combined with a perceptive critical overview, Bernard O'Donoghue, 'Tom Paulin: Theoretical Locations and Public Posi• tions', forthcoming in Verse. 4. Louis MacNeice, Collected Poems, ed. E. R. Dodds (1979) p. 226. 5. W. B. Yeats, Collected Poems, 2nd edn (1950) pp. 225-6. 6. See Doctor Faustus, I.iii.73-6, in Christopher Marlowe, The Complete Plays, ed. J. B. Steane (Harmondsworth, 1969) p. 275; Paradise Lost, IV.75, in The Poems of John Milton, ed. John Carey and Alastair Fowler (1968) p. 612. 7. See Edna Longley, Poetry in the Wars (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1986) pp. 188-99, 201-7. 8. See The Crane Bag Book of Irish Studies (Dublin, 1982) pp. [7-8], [10- 12). For Paulin's political 'credo' see his Ireland, pp. 15-18, and Viewpoints, pp. 158-9, 163-4; his opinions about literary theory are expressed in Ireland, pp. 9-15, 148-54, and in an interview with Bernard O'Donoghue in Oxford Poetry, 1.1 Oune 1983) 20-23. 9. Longley, Poetry in the Wars, p. 192. 10. Compare The English Auden, ed. Edward Mendelson (1977) pp. 204- 5. 11. Seamus Heaney, Preoccupations: Selected Prose 1968-1978 (1980) pp. 56-8. 12. Longley, Poetry in the Wars, pp. 167-9. 13. Tom Paulin, 'Letters from Iceland: Going North' [hereafter 'Going North'] in The 1930s: A Challenge to Orthodoxy, ed. John Lucas (Hassocks, Sussex, 1978) pp. 59-77. 14. Compare Alan Robinson, Poetry, Painting and Ideas, 1885-1914 (1985) pp. 109-11. 15. See Auden, Collected Poems, pp. 413-55, 518-39. 16. Paulin, 'Going North', pp. 67, 69. 17. Paulin, 'Going North', pp. 66-9. Compare Auden, 'The Poet and the City', in The Dyer's Hand and Other Essays (New York, 1968) pp. 72-89. Auden's 'The Unknown Citizen' exists in a dialectic with his 'Ode to Terminus' (Collected Poems, pp. 201, 608-9); the latter's Notes to pages 109-22 219

equivalents in Paulin's poetry are 'Ceremony' and 'To the Linen Hall' (LT, pp. 76-8). 18. Viewpoints, pp. 164-5; compare 'Going North', pp. 76-7. 19. Paulin, 'Going North', p. 68. 20. English Auden, pp. 214-16, 71-94. On Auden's fascination with psychoanalysis at this time, see Edward Mendelson, Early Auden (1981) pp. 56-9; Humphrey Carpenter, W. H. Auden (1983) pp. 85- 96; John Fuller, A Reader's Guide toW. H. Auden (1970) pp. 55-6, 62, 64, 68-9. 21. Compare Auden, 'Who's Who', Collected Poems, p. 109; English Auden, pp. 320-1. 22. See Viewpoints, pp. 159-60, and 'Going North', pp. 61-2. 23. See Christopher Hill, Antichrist in Seventeenth-Century England (1971) pp. 3-6, 9-40. 24. Paulin, Ireland, pp. 19-20, and Faber Book of Political Verse, ed. Tom Paulin [hereafter Faber] (1986) p. 28; my attributions differ some• what from Paulin's. 25. LT, p. 45. Compare T. S. Eliot, Complete Poems and Plays (1969) p. 194. 26. Paulin, Ireland, pp. 17, 140; Viewpoints, p. 159. The Northern Star was the Belfast newspaper of the United Irishmen. 27. Yeats, Collected Poems, p. 204, and Autobiographies (1955) p. 299. 28. LT, p. 25. Compare SM, p. 47, and Paulin's translation of Akhmatova's 'Voronezh' and his comments on 'the East European imagination' in Faber, pp. 351, 52. 29. Osip Mandelstam, Selected Poems, trs. Clarence Brown and W. S. Merwin (Harmondsworth, 1986) p. 115; Paulin includes this poem in Faber. 30. See English Auden, pp. 247, 242. 31. And this is despite the fact that in 'Oxford v. Cambridge v. Birmingham etc.', 'The Argument at Great Tew' and 'Faculty at War' (London Review of Books (2-15 Sept 1982) p. 22; (4-17 Nov 1982) p. 19; (3-16 Feb 1983) p. 5) Paulin obsessively satirised the literary theorist as 'the man who fucks texts', singling out as worthy of 'belonging to a footnote in a new Dunciad' Stephen Heath's semantic deliberations over the best translation of jouissance. 32. Paul Muldoon, Mules (1977) pp. 11-14, 35-6; Why Brownlee Left (1980) pp. 15, 16; Quoof (1983) pp. 29, 40-64. 33. LT, pp. 19, 20, 29, 64, 33, 47; Poetry Review, 75.1 (April 1985) 22-3. 34. Seamus Heaney, Station Island, p. 83. Compare Field Work, pp. 17- 18; North, pp. 17-18. 35. Yeats, Collected Poems, pp. 231-2. For the Yeatsian resonance of 'opinions', see his Collected Poems, p. 213 and W. B. Yeats, Memoirs, ed. Denis Donoghue (1972) pp. 191-2. 36. Tom Paulin, Fivemiletown (1987) pp. 10-11. The subtitle, 'Tom's Palinode', has been dropped for book publication. 37. Churchill's letter to Fitzgibbon of 16 Feb 1886 is quoted in W. S. Churchill, Lord Randolph Churchill, 2 vols (1906) 11.59. 38. The Poems of William Blake, ed. W. H. Stevenson (1971) p. 175. 220 Notes to pages 123-7

NOTES TO CHAPTER 7: SEAMUS HEANEY: THE FREE STATE OF IMAGE AND ALLUSION

The following abbreviations are used throughout this chapter for works by Seamus Heaney:

DN Death of a Naturalist (1966) HL The Haw Lantern (1987) N North (1975) P Preoccupations: Selected Prose 1968-1978 (1980) 51 Station Island (1984) WO Wintering Out (1972)

1. See Joseph Brodsky, Less than One (Harmondsworth, 1987) pp. 188, 106-7. 2. Heaney's development is also analysed perceptively in Blake Morrison, Seamus Heaney (1982); Neil Corcoran, Seamus Heaney (1986); and Edna Longley, Poetry in the Wars (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1986) pp. 140-69. 3. Seamus Heaney, 'Unhappy and at Home' (1977) repr. in The Crane Bag Book of Irish Studies (Dublin, 1982) p. 66. 4. Seamus Heaney, Place and Displacement: Recent Poetry of Northern Ireland (Grasmere, 1985) p. 5. 5. P, p. 56. Heaney's views on 'the verbal icon' are developed also in Viewpoints: Poets in Conversation, ed. John Haffenden (1981) p. 63. 6. Seamus Heaney, 'The Fully Exposed Poem', Parnassus: Poetry in Review (spring/summer 1983) 5. 7. Paul Muldoon, Mules (1977) pp. 11-13. 8. Compare the complex eroticism and doubling identifications of Charles Baudelaire's 'L'Heautontimoroumenos', in his CEuvres completes, ed. Claude Pichois, 2 vols (Paris, 1975-6) 1.78-9:

Je suis Ia plaie et le couteau! Je suis le soufflet et Ia joue! Je suis les membres et Ia roue, Et Ia victime et le bourreau!

9. On scopophilia, see Sigmund Freud, On Sexuality, ed. Angela Richards (Harmondsworth, 1977) pp. 69-70, 109-13. 10. Heaney's interpretation of Wordsworth's trauma in the 1790s, when his political utopianism made him feel a traitorous, internal exile in his native country, is autobiographically suggestive also. See his Place and Displacement, p. 3. 11. 'Roots' (WO, p. 39). On Heaney's tensions in Belfast at Christmas 1971, seeP, pp. 30-3. 12. Seamus Heaney, Stations (Belfast, 1975) p. 19. Compare Osip Mandelstam, Selected Poems, trs. Clarence Brown and W. S. Merwin (Harmondsworth, 1986) p. 46. 13. Seamus Heaney, Sweeney Astray (1984) p. 73. Notes to pages 128-33 221

14. Seamus Heaney, Place and Displacement, pp. 4-5. 15. Heaney, 'Preface' to Crane Bag Book, p. [8]. 16. Ibid., p. 67. 17. Frank Kinahan, 'An Interview with Seamus Heaney', Critical Inquiry, 8 (1981-2) 412. On this watershed, see also Viewpoints, pp. 64, 71-2. 18. W. B. Yeats, Collected Poems, 2nd edn (1950) p. 267. Yeats's 'The Circus Animals' Desertion', pp. 391-2, which also examines this dilemma, is a text that Heaney frequently cites. 19. The version published in 1983 as Sweeney Astray is heavily revised from Heaney's initial, politically allegorical draft of 1972-3. 20. In Crane Bag Book, p. 70, Heaney comments on Buile Suibhne as an 'objective correlative', leading to 'the discovery of feelings in myself which I could not otherwise find words for'. 21. Heaney, Sweeney Astray, p. (vi]. 22. Viewpoints, p. 65. 23. Heaney, 'The Language of Exile', Parnassus: Poetry in Review (fall/ winter 1979) 6; 'Current Unstated Assumptions about Poetry', Critical Inquiry, 7 (1980-1) 649; P, p. 101; Corcoran, Seamus Heaney, p. 39. On poetry as a 'vocation', see also Viewpoints, p. 58. 24. Matthew 19:16-30; Mark 10:17-31; Luke 18:18-30. Here, as else• where, I quote from the Authorised Version as, curiously for a Catholic, Heaney's phraseology is closer to this translation than to the Douai Bible. 25. Seamus Heaney, 'Envies and Identifications: Dante and the Modem Poet', Irish University Review 15.1 (spring 1985) 18-19. 26. James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916; repr. Harmondsworth, 1975) p. 203. 27. Heaney, Place and Displacement, pp. 6-7. 28. Carleton's representative importance is examined by Heaney in 'A Tale of Two Islands: Reflections on the Irish Literary Revival', Irish Studies, 1 (1980) 1-20; 'After the Synge-song', Listener (13 Jan 1972) pp.SS-6; 'John Bull's Other Island', Listener (29 Sept 1977) pp.397, 399; 'Kavanagh of the Parish', Listener (26 April1979) pp.577-9. 29. Heaney links Carleton and Kavanagh in P, pp.116-17; see also pp.137-44. 30. The epigraph to 'The Wool Trade' (WO, p. 37) is drawn from Joyce, Portrait, p. 189. 31. Heaney, 'John Bull's Other Island', p.397; 'A Tale of Two Islands', pp.17-18. 32. James Joyce, Stephen Hero (Frogmore, St Albans, 1977) p. 213; cf. Portrait, pp. 251-2. 33. Heaney, 'John Bull's Other Island', p. 397. 34. Kinahan, 'An Interview with Seamus Heaney', p. 407; Heaney, 'Current Unstated Assumptions about Poetry', p.649. 35. Heaney, 'Current Unstated Assumptions about Poetry', p. 650. 36. Czeslaw Milosz, Native Realm (London and Manchester, 1981) p.125. 37. Baudelaire, CEuvres completes, 1. 9-10. 222 Notes to pages 134-46

38. Heaney quotes this passage from Milosz, Native Realm, p. 124 in his Preface to Crane Bag Book, p. [8). 39. See Chapter 4, p. 66 supra. 40. Brodsky, Less than One, p. 10. Heaney comments on the artist as 'outlaw/hero' in 'Current Unstated Assumptions about Poetry', p. 646. Compare Sade in Peter Weiss's Marat/Sade, trs. Geoffrey Skelton and Adrian Mitchell, 5th edn (1969) p.40: I do not know if I am hangman or victim for I imagine the most horrible tortures and as I describe them I suffer them myself There is nothing that I could not do and every- thing fills me with horror And I see that other people also suddenly change themselves into strangers and are driven to unpredictable acts 41. Compare in Joyce's Ulysses the Pisgah Sight of Palestine which Stephen satirises in 'Aeolus', together with J. F. Taylor's powerful millenarian speech in that chapter and Bloom's visions of the Promised Land in 'Calypso' and of the New Bloomusalem in 'Circe'. In view of the poem's apocalyptic conclusion, there may also be a reference to the famous prediction of Viscount Grey of Fallodon on the eve of declaration of war with Germany on 3 August 1914: 'The lamps are going out all over Europe; we shall not see them lit again in our life-time', quoted in G. M. Trevelyan, Grey of Fallodon (1937) p. 266. Dr John Kelly suggests tentatively a reminiscence of 'Not in our time:', the catchphrase of Mr Toobad, the Manichaean Millena• rian, in Nightmare Abbey in The Novels of Thomas Love Peacock, ed. David Garnett, 2nd edn, 2 vols (Frogmore and London, 1977) 1.361. 42. Seamus Heaney, 'From the Canton of Expectation', Times Literary Supplement (24 Jan 1986). Compare 'The First Kingdom' (Sf, p. 101). 43. Richard Kearney, 'Myth and Terror' and 'The IRA's Strategy of Failure', Crane Bag Book, pp.273-87, 699-707, and 'Myth and Motherland', Ireland's Field Day (1985) pp. 61-80. On Padraic Pearse's desire for immolation in Easter 1916, see also Seamus Deane, Celtic Revivals (1987) pp. 63-74. 44. Kearney, Field Day, p. 62. Compare Heaney, P, pp. 56-8. 45. Quoted by Kearney in Crane Bag Book, p. 702. 46. Kearney, Field Day, p. 67. 47. Yeats, Collected Poems, pp. 396-7. 48. Heaney comments on the Marian aspect of his Catholic upbringing in Viewpoints, pp. 60-1 and Kinahan, 'An Interview with Seamus Heaney', pp.408-9. 49. Osip Mandelstam, The Complete Critical Prose and Letters, ed. Jane Gary Harris (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1979) p.432. 50. Heaney, 'The Fully Exposed Poem', pp. 5, 8. 51. Viewpoints, p. 60. 52. Heaney, 'Current Unstated Assumptions about Poetry'; quotations from pp. 646-7, 648, 649, 645, 650 respectively. Notes to pages 146-55 223

53. Seamus Heaney, 'Osip and Nadezhda Mandelstam', London Review of Books (20 Aug-2 Sept 1981) pp. 3, 5, 6; quotations in text are from p.6. 54. Heaney, 'Envies and Identifications', pp. 18, 17. 55. Ibid., p. 17; 51, pp. 102-3. 56. Heaney, 'Envies and Identifications', p. 18. Heaney quotes also from this text in 'The Language of Exile', pp. 8-9 and in Kinahan, 'An Interview with Seamus Heaney', p.413. 57. Heaney, 'The Fully Exposed Poem', p. 7. 58. P, p. 34. On this putative sexual antithesis in writing between 'linguistic mothering' and 'rhetorical mastery' and 'penetration', see alsoP, pp. 61-2, 85-8. 59. P, p. 186. See Seamus Heaney, 'King of the Dark', Listener (5 Feb 1970) pp. 181-2; P, pp.47-9, 52, 83. His desire to fuse both creative aspects in 'works that would be "vocables": vowels and consonants turning into a harmony of some kind' is expressed in 'Poets on Poetry', Listener (8 Nov 1973) p. 629; P, p. 37; WO, p. 33. 60. William Wordsworth, The Poems, ed. John 0. Hayden, 2 vols (Harmondsworth, 1977) !.525. Compare Wordsworth's famous gloss on the recollection of childhood that this poem commemo• rates: 'I was often unable to think of external things as having external existence, and I communed with all that I saw as something not apart from, but inherent in, my own immaterial nature' (ibid., p. 978). 61. P, p. 57. Contrast Heaney's earlier rather sexist complacency about coition in 'Undine', Door into the Dark, p. 26. 62. P, p. 35. Heaney writes of Derek Walcott's postcolonial experience in similar terms in 'The Language of Exile', p. 6. 63. 'Editorial', Crane Bag Book, p. [10]. 64. Brian Friel, Selected Plays (1984) p. 445. 65. Compare the writer's quixotic attempt in 'The Riddle' (p. 51) to 'sift the sense of things from what's imagined'. 66. Compare John Montague's etymological reading of Knockmany in Tyrone, quoted in P, p.l40: The curious cup marks and circles have been described as the eves and breasts of a mother goddess, whose cult spread from Syria ... [0. G. S. Crawford's] eye goddess theory bears out the derivations I have suggested, since the same shapes are found at Newgrange, on the Boyne. So the least Irish place name can net a world with its associations.' 67. W. H. Auden's phrase in 'In Transit', Collected Poems, ed. Edward Mendelson (1976) p.413. 68. Compare the well-meaning British soldier, Yolland, in Friel's Translations, in Selected Plays, p. 416: 'Even if I did speak Irish I'd always be an outsider here, wouldn't I? I may learn the password but the language of the tribe will always elude me, won't it? The private core will always be ... hermetic, won't it?' The reply is 'You can learn to decode us'. 69. See Robert Graves, The Greek Myths, 2 vols (Harmondsworth, 1962) particularly §§ 14, 17. 224 Notes to pages 156-61

70. Thomas Traheme, Poems, Centuries and Three Thanksgivings, ed. Anne Ridler (1966) p. 263. 71. Wordsworth, Poems, 1. 523. Traheme, Poems, p. 264; following quotation ibid. 72. Interestingly, in an earlier version of 'Hailstones' (London Review of Books (1-14 Nov 1984) p. 8) the penultimate stanza read, bathetic• ally:

to say there, there's where to taste and test it: disappointment

In revtsmg this jarring clutter of homonyms and alliterative pararhyme, Heaney radically shifted the whole emphasis of the poem away from Romantic dejection. 73. Yeats, Collected Poems, pp. 202-3. 74. Full title Light and Colour (Goethe's Theory) - the Morning after the Deluge - Moses writing the Book of Genesis (1843) pl. 407 in The Paintings of f. M. W. Turner, ed. Martin Butlin and Evelyn Joll, 2 vols (New Haven and London, 1984). 75. D. H. Lawrence, Women in Love (1921; repr. Harmondsworth, 1974) p.48. 76. Derek Mahon, Poems 1962-1978 (Oxford, 1979) pp.64-5. 77. Brodsky, Less than One, p. 3, my emphasis; on 'estrangement' see also p.6. 78. See, for example, Brodsky's comments on Mandelstam in Less than One, pp. 136-44.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 8: DECLARATIONS OF INDEPENDENCE: SOME RESPONSES TO FEMINISM

1. Tillie Olsen's Silences (1980) provides the epigraph to Harri• son's poem 'The Effort' in The Poetry Book Society Anthology 1986-87, ed. Jonathan Barker (1986) p. 48. Yet while, in anthropological terms, the working class and women might both be described as 'muted groups', their experience is, of course, not necessarily discrete nor comparable in every respect. There are crucial variations in the economic and historical determinants on each, while to predicate a universal, homogeneous working-class or female experience is to elide the distinctive subjectivities of, for example, those blacks and/or lesbians who might form part of these complex• ly diversified social formations. For discussion of the concept of 'muted groups', see Elaine Showalter, 'Feminist Criticism in the Wilderness', in The New Feminist Criticism, ed. Elaine Showalter (1986) pp.261-4. 2. Lucid accounts of the influence of post-Freudian psychoan• alysis on contemporary French feminist theory are provided Notes to pages 161-6 225

in Toril Moi, Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist Literary Theory (1985) pt II; Ann Rosalind Jones, 'Inscribing Femininity: French Theories of the Feminine', in Making a Difference: Feminist Literary Criticism, ed. Gayle Greene and Coppelia Kahn (1985) pp. 80-112; Jan Montefiore, Feminism and Poetry (1987) Chs 4 and 5. Julia Kristeva' s distinction between the semiotic and the symbolic is somewhat different in that what she terms the 'semiotic' is an avant-garde, oppositional mode accessible to male and female writers alike. 3. Anne Stevenson, Selected Poems 1956-1986 (Oxford, 1987) pp. 7-8; subsequent page references to this edition are incorporated into the text. The central importance to Stevenson of her philosophical and moral interest in nature is indicated by her contemporaneous analysis of 'Nature' in the work of her principal poetic mentor, in Elizabeth Bishop (New York, 1966) pp. 31-3, 100-5. 4. The Poems of William Blake, ed. W. H. Stevenson (1971) p. 111; 'Home at Grasmere' lines 1006-11, in Jonathan Wordsworth, William Wordsworth: The Borders of Vision (Oxford, 1984) p. 414. 5. The Cantos of Ezra Pound, rev. edn (1981) p. 521; Paquin was a Parisian dressmaker. 6. See Anne Stevenson, 'Writing as a Woman', in Women Writing and Writing About Women, ed. Mary Jacobus (London and Sydney, 1979) pp. 159-76; page references to this essay are inserted parenthetical• ly into the text. There are further helpful autobiographical essays by Anne Stevenson in The Bloodaxe Book of Contemporary Women Poets, ed. Jeni Couzyn (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1985) pp.185-9, and 'The Music of the House', Poetry Review, 72.3 (Sept 1982) 5-10. 7. It appears that Sylvia Plath's most basic anxiety was for reassurance of her personal worth. Her insecurity and habitual self-deprecation led to a neurotic perfectionism that measured approval by scholas• tic excellence and public recognition as a writer and which punished imaginary shortcomings (interpreted as letting down family or sponsors) by a masochistic self-contempt. The suicidal depression of November 1952 and summer 1953 arose from the conflict between her compulsive pursuit of intellectual hyper• achievement, which had come to seem a hollow goal, and the desire for emotionally fulfilling experience. In her years at Smith College and her first months in Cambridge Plath confusedly strove to excel in all aspects of life; cracking again under the impossible strain, she was in spring 1956looking for a supportive father-figure to fill the resented absence of the father who had abandoned her by dying when she was eight years old. (Cf. The Bell Jar (1966) pp. 175- 7; Johnny Panic and the Bible of Dreams, 2nd edn (1979) pp. 204-7, 216; Letters Home, ed. Aurelia Schober Plath (1975) p. 289; Collected Poems, ed. Ted Hughes (1981) pp. 92-3, 116-17, 129-30.) The physically and intellectually towering Ted Hughes fulfilled this role from spring 1956 to summer 1962; Hughes was initially mentor as well as lover, bolstering Plath's ego by his evident admiration for her as a writer as well as wife and mother. Hence Stevenson's 226 Notes to pages 166-75

argument that Plath found the roles of 'writer' and 'woman' incompatible (p. 160) is, I believe, misleading: she projects her own attitude onto Plath, moulding her into a desired exemplary forebear. The truth is rather, I feel, that it was Plath's symbiotic relationship with Hughes that enabled her creative talents to develop; the Ariel poems that were inspired by the birth of her second child and by her tragic abandonment by her second father• figure ('The vampire who said he was you I And drank my blood for a year, /Seven years, if you want to know', as she writes in the poem 'Daddy', p. 224) were the final intense release of a genius that could flourish only if sustained by daily reinforcement of her self• esteem as a loved and loving woman as well as a writer (cf. Letters Home, pp.217-18, 277). 8. As in 'The Takeover' (pp. 11-12) and 'Small Philosophical Poem' (p.l17), Stevenson's familiarity with the male philosopher (like Virginia Woolf's with her father Leslie Stephen) forms the basis for generalisation about gender-roles, associating the male with ratio• nality (cf. Bloodaxe Book, p.185) and the female with the emotional and the nurturing. 9. Stevenson, 'Writing as a Woman', p. 171; Bloodaxe Book, p. 186. 10. Stevenson's maternal awareness of the tensions between her adolescent daughter and herself as an implicit role-model informs At Thirteen', Travelling Behind Glass: Selected Poems 1963-1973 (1974) pp.51-2. 11. Compare Stevenson's description of Maura in 1900 and Ruth in 1940: 'neither one of these women was willing to take risks, and their happiness was bordered with wistfulness, with a longing for knowledge beyond their experience. It is Ruth's children who are given the opportunity of risk, and two of them take it' ('Writing as a Woman', p. 169). 12. Stevenson, Selected Poems, pp. 3-4, 12, 13. The autobiographical circumstances underlying 'The Women' are discussed in 'Writing as a Woman', pp.164-5. See also pp. 37-9 of the title poem of Travelling Behind Glass. 13. Compare Stevenson's recollections in 'Writing as a Woman', p.165 and Bloodaxe Book, p. 186: 'I was intoxicated with the idea of becoming an artist. At the same time I thirsted for "real life", and assumed that any story I lived could be incorporated into the fiction I intended to make of myself ... Until I was divorced ... I continually mistook the accoutrements of art for the truths of life. Even then I indulged in Romantic imaginings'. 14. Stevenson, 'Writing as a Woman', p. 168. See also the historical outline in 'The Dear Ladies of Cincinnati', Stevenson, Selected Poems, pp. 6-7. 15. Stevenson's own view of New England in the 1960s and 1970s is expresseJ in 'Writing as a Woman', pp.168-9, 170, and Bloodaxe Book, pp. 186-7. 16. For a perceptive outline of the prevailing Victorian attitudes to women, see Walter E. Houghton, The Victorian Frame of Mind, 1830- Notes to pages 176-86 227

1870 (New Haven and London, 1968) pp.348-93. 17. Her psychosomatic distress recalls that of Stevenson's first marriage in the 1950s; see 'Writing as a Woman', p.166. 18. Matthew 27:46, Mark 15:34; see also Psalms 22:1. 19. Stevenson, 'Writing as a Woman', pp.166-7. 20. Ibid., p. 167. 21. Ibid., p. 166. On p.172 Stevenson describes Kay as 'a version of myself' and 'a sort of Esther Greenwood'. 22. Compare particularly 'Lesbos' in Plath, Collected Poems, pp. 227-30. 23. The 'doll' metaphor recalls Plath's 'The Applicant', Collected Poems, pp. 221-2, and The Bell Jar, pp.126-7. 24. Compare Plath's 'The Moon and the Yew Tree', Collected Poems, pp.172-3. 25. Compare 'Graves with Children', in Anne Stevenson, Enough of Green (Oxford, 1977) p.40, and 'Poem to my Daughter', in Anne Stevenson, Minute by Glass Minute (Oxford, 1982) p. 50. 26. The English Auden, ed. Edward Mendelson (1977) p. 237. 27. Compare Travelling Behind Glass, p. 39: But how will you describe the conspicuous hush of the suburbs when the children have grown up and gone? Your breasts sag into your ribs. You dig weeds out of the lawn. The radio's on ... 28. Stevenson, Selected Poems offers, sadly, a very inadequate represen• tation of Minute by Glass Minute. The most notable absence is the lyrically rich 'Green Mountain, Black Mountain' (pp. 21-9), which is a vital exploration of Stevenson's cultural and familial heritage, but one must regret also the omission of 'Walking Early by the Wye', 'At Kilpeck Church' and 'The Three' (pp.13, 17-18, 42). 29. Stevenson, Selected Poems, p.l11; compare the religious perception that informs 'Stasis', p.125. 30. Its antitheses are the frustrated rage of The Garden' (p. 121), recalling an earlier phase of maternity, and the disillusioned iconography of the ages of woman in 'The Three' (Minute by Glass Minute, p. 42). 31. Stevenson, Bloodaxe Book, p. 188; 'More News for Babylon', Poetry Review, 74.3 (Sept 1984) 35. 32. 'Beauty Abroad', in Fleur Adcock, Selected Poems (Oxford, 1983) p. 4; subsequent page references to this edition are incorporated into the text. 33. This conciliatory view of the 'bogyman' could, however, be seen as lending dangerous credence to the abhorrent conviction of some men that women somehow invite rape, suggesting a complicity between victim and oppressor. Two later poems set in Newcastle upon Tyne, 'Street Song' and 'Across the Moor' (pp. 120-1), which convey the terror inspired by the Yorkshire Ripper, are a necessary 228 Notes to pages 187-202

restitution of the balance, a reminder of the grim reality underlying gender myths. 34. Compare the more restrained rejection of the inauthenticity of romantic cliches in 'Parting is Such Sweet Sorrow', p.l4. 35. Fleur Adcock, The Incident Book (Oxford, 1986) p. 36. References to this collection - abbreviated as IB - are subsequently incorporated into the text. 36. See Fiona Pitt-Kethley, 'The Case Against Men', Poetry Review, 75.2 (Aug 1985) 70, and Sky Ray Lolly (1986) p.33. 37. See 'Comprehensive', 'Lizzie, Six', 'Education for Leisure', 'War Photographer', 'Someone Else's Daughter', in Carol Ann Duffy, Standing Female Nude (1985) pp. 8-9, 13, 15, 51, 59. Subsequent page references to this collection are incorporated into the text. 38. I must stress that my interpretation is not biologically determinist. I am not suggesting that all women or all men will behave in this way, but merely that the point of view inscribed in the film is that of a masculine subject position, which spectators of either sex might identify with or reject. For further discussion of this issue, see Laura Mulvey, 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema' and Constance Penley, '"A Certain Refusal of Difference": Feminism and Film Theory', in Art After Modernism: Rethinking Representation, ed. Brian Wallis (New York, 1984) pp. 361-73, 375-89. 39. There is perhaps a recollection of Renoir's figurative claim that he painted with his penis. See Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic (New Haven and London, 1979) p. 6. 40. Reed's poem is reprinted in the Oxford Book of Twentieth-Century English Verse, ed. Philip Larkin (Oxford, 1978) pp. 478-9. 41. There is another intertextual play in the first stanza: 'Underneath the lamplight' recalls both 'Lili Marlene' and 'Under the firelight' of T. S. Eliot's 'A Game of Chess', with its neurotic woman. An apparently arbitrary collocation links this with Madame Sosostris's 'wicked pack of cards'. See The Waste Land, lines 108, 46, in The Complete Poems and Plays of T. S. Eliot (1969) pp. 64, 62. The phrase 'the world whimpers' is perhaps a reminiscence of Eliot's 'The Hollow Men': 'This is the way the world ends I Not with a bang but a whimper', ibid., p.86. 42. Medbh McGuckian, Venus and the Rain (Oxford, 1984) p.29. Subsequent references to this collection [abbreviated as VR] and to The Flower Master (Oxford, 1982) [abbreviated as FM] are incorpo• rated into the text. 43. McGuckian's feminist awareness of the traditional exclusion of women from literary creativity is evident in 'From the Dressing• Room' (VR, p. 14), in which the 'I' and 'the poet' represent aspects of McGuckian's sense of a split personality as 'masculine' author rather than the conventional female role of passive muse, and in the internecine tension of 'The Rising Out' (VR, p. 35), in which the recriminatory 'dream sister' attempts to 'kill the poet in me'. 44. Wallace Stevens, Opus Posthumous, ed. Samuel French Morse (New York, 1977) p.171. Notes to pages 203-8 229

45. Rozsika Parker and Griselda Pollock's Old Mistresses: Women, Art and Ideology (London and Henley, 1981) Ch 2 overturns such derogatory attitudes, in a persuasive revaluation of domestic art. 46. For a fascinating sociological placing of the governess, see M. Jeanne Peterson, 'The Victorian Governess: Status Incongruence in Family and Society', Victorian Studies, 14 (1970-1) 7-26. Index

Abish, Walter, 4 Carlyle, Thomas, 73, 106 Abrams, M. H., 212 Carpenter, Humphrey, 219 Adcock, Fleur, 162; 185-94 Carroll, Lewis, 9 Aeschylus, 56 Carson, Edward, 113, 151 Akhmatova, Anna, 219 Carter, Angela, 27 Aretino, Pietro, 43 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 43 Armstrong, Neil, 10 Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich, 39, Arnold, Matthew, 32 101, 135 Auden, W. H., 2-3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 38, Church, Frederic Edwin, 163 52, 53, 56, 91-2, 100 (cited), 103- Churchill, Lord Randolph, 120-1 10, 112, 115, 125, 154 (cited), 181, Churchill, Sir Winston, 219 218, 223 Clare, John, 7-8, 209-10 Austen, Jane, (Northanger Abbey), Cole, Thomas, 163 11; 17-18, 212 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 41, 64, Austin, J. L., 134 75 Collins, William Wilkie, 11 Barker, Jonathan, 224 Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur, (The Barrell, John, 215, 217 Hound of the Baskervi/les), 11 Barthes, Roland, 116, 213 Connolly, James, 71 Bastien-Lepage, Jules, 74 Conrad, Joseph, 61 Baudelaire, Charles, 9, 34-5, 133, Constable, Archibald, 97 220 Coppola, Francis Ford, 61 Baudrillard, Jean, 55 Corcoran, Neil, 220, 221 Beckett, Samuel, 46 Craig, David, 217 Bernard, Emile, 88 Couzyn, Jeni, 225 Blake, William, 74, 110, 121, 165, Crane Bag, The, 103-4, 127-8, 137, 184 153 Bloom, Harold, 38, 55-6 Cromwell, Oliver, 151 Bonnard, Pierre, 25 Borges, Jorge Luis, 153 Daiches, David, 217 Bosch, Hieronymus, 3 Dangerfield, George, 72 Brodsky, Joseph, 123, 129, 135, 160, Dante Alighieri, 43, 117, 130, 134- 224 5, 141, 143, 147, 148, 217 Bronte, Charlotte, 10-11, 214 Deane, Seamus, 103-4, 106, 138, Bronte, Emily, 217 222 Brooke, Rupert, 53 Denning, Alfred Thompson, Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, 27 Baron, 192 Burke, Edmund, 63, 94 Dickens, Charles, 110, 217 Burns, Robert, 96-8 Dickinson, Emily, 206 Byron, George Gordon, Lord, 36, Dix, Otto, 52 106-7 Dore, Gustave, 217 Douglas, Keith, 9 Carleton, William, 131, 140, 143, Dryden, John, 113, 211 221 Du Bellay, Joachim, 79

230 Index 231

Duffy, Carol Ann, 162; 195-201 Hill, Christopher, 219 Dunbar, William, 96 Hill, Geoffrey, x, 62-81, 129, 135, Dunn, Douglas, ix, x, 16, 82-99, 214-16 216 Hoagwood, Terence Allan, 215 Hobbes, Thomas, 107-9 Eliot, George, 175, 215 Hofmann, Gert, 55 Eliot, T. S., 8, 14, 24, 62-3, 65, 67, Hofmann, Michael, x, 49-61 69, 78, 107, 113, 117, 211, 214, 228 Hogarth, William, 167 Hogg, James, 96 Feinstein, Elaine, 43-4 Holub, Miroslav, 144, 148 Fenton, James, x, 1-15, 16 Houghton, Walter E., 226 Fergusson, Robert, 96-7 Hughes, Francis, 136, 139-40, 143 Flaubert, Gustave, 212 Hughes, Ted, 130, 146, 225-6 Foster, Hal, 213 Hulme, T. E., 72, 107 Foucault, Michel, 56, 59 Hunt, John Dixon, 217 Fowles, John, 5, 14-15, 66 Huxley, Aldous, 8 Freud, Sigmund, 108-9, 194-5, 220 Huyssen, Andreas, 21J Friel, Brian, 104, 153, 223 Fuller, John, 219 Isherwood, Christopher, 10

Gainsborough, Thomas, 74 Jacobus, Mary, 225 Gardner, Helen, 214 James, Henry (The Turn of the Gaskell, Elizabeth, 217 Screw), 11 Gauguin, Paul, 74, 88-9 Jameson, Fredric, 52, 213 Gilbert, Sandra M., 228 Jaures, Jean, 70, 72, 75-6 Gladstone, William Ewart, 120 Jencks, Charles, 210 Glen, Heather, 216 Johnston, Thomas, 217 Graves, Robert, 152, 223 Jones, Ann Rosalind, 225 Greene, Gayle, 225 Jones, David, 77 Gregory, Lady Augusta, 89 Joyce, James, 9, 40-2, 47, 104, 112- Grey, Sir Edward, 1st Viscount 13, 117-18, 130-2, 142, 147, 152, Grey of Fallodon, 222 222 Grosz, George, 52 Gubar, Susan, 228 Kahn, Coppelia, 225 Kant, Immanuel, 152 Haffenden, John, 210, 211, 217, Kavanagh, Patrick, 131, 141, 143, 218, 220 221 Hardy, Thomas, 46, 75, 90, 101, 173 Kearney, Richard, 137-8, 140 Harper, Michael F., 214 Keats, John, 36-7, 182 Harrison, Tony, 16, 45, 93, 94, 161 Keenan, Terry, 141 Haughton, Hugh, 214 Kelly, John, 222 Hayman, David, 214 Kenner, Hugh, 214 Heaney, Seamus, ix, x, 7, 66, 71 Kinahan, Frank, 221, 222, 223 (cited), 92-3, 104, 105-6, 113, Kipling, Rudyard, 10 116-18, 119, 120, 123-60, 215, Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, 52, 213 220, 221, 222, 223 Kristeva, Julia, 225 Heath, Stephen, 219 Kundera, Milan, 42, 55 Hegel, G. W. F., 107 Herbert, Zbigniew, 153 Lacan, Jacques, 109, 151, 161, 194 232 Index

Laforgue, Jules, 33 Montague, John, 104, 223 Larkin, Philip, 54, 87, 228 Montefiore, Jan, 225 Lasserre, Pierre, 106-7 Morrison, Blake, 16, 220 Lawrence, D. H., 23, 39 (cited), 109, Motion, Andrew, 16 152, 159, 167 Muldoon, Paul, ix, 1, 6-7, 104, Lear, Edward, 9 116-17, 121, 124, 147, 202, 204, Lee, Hermione, 216 209 Le Fanu, Joseph Sheridan, 11 Mulvey, Laura, 228 Lenman, Bruce, 217 Munch, Edvard, 57 Lessing, Doris, 167 Lewis, (Percy) Wyndham, 72 Nashe, Thomas, 19 Leyden, John, 96 Lindop, Greve!, 216 O'Connell, Daniel, 71 Lockhart, John Gibson, 98 O'Donoghue, Bernard, 218 Longley, Edna, 103-6, 220 Olsen, Tillie, 161 Longley, Michael, 87 Orton, Fred, 215 Lowell, Robert, 23, 45, 54, 129, 132 Owen, Wilfred, 77 (cited), 216 Lucas, John, 218 Lucretius, 30 Paisley, Rev. Ian, 110-11 Palmer, Samuel, 79 MacNeice, Louis, 100-1, 105, 106, Parker, Rozsika, 229 153 Parnell, Charles Stewart, 71 Magritte, Rene, 18 Pasternak, Boris, 38-9 Mahon, Derek, 116, 147, 160 Pasternak Slater, Ann, 43-4, 212 Malatesta, Sigismondo, 65 Paulin, Tom, ix, x, 17, 100-22, 147, Mallarme, Stephane, 14, 33, 35, 153, 213, 218, 219 113, 117, 214 Paulson, Ronald, 217 Mandel, Ernst, 52 Peacock, Thomas Love, 222 Mandelstam, Osip, 115, 119, 123, Pearse, Padraic, 222 126-7, 130, 133, 141, 146-8, 224 Peguy, Charles, 62-7, 72-81, 216 Manet, Edouard, 91 Penley, Constance, 228 Marat, Jean Paul, 70 Peterson, M. Jeanne, 229 Marlowe, Christopher, 102 Pinter, Harold, 15, 18, 19, 54 Marquez, Gabriel Garda, 153 Pitt, William, the Younger, 98 Martineau, Robert, 6 Pitt-Kethley, Fiona, 162, 194-5 Mauriac, Fran«;ois, 10 Plath, Sylvia, 166, 167, 177, 225-6, McCartney, Colum, 117, 142-3 227 McEwan, Ian, 26 Plato, 68, 155, 156 McGuckian, Medbh, 162, 202-8 Poe, Edgar Allan, 211 McSwiney, Terence, 138 Pollock, Griselda, 215-16, 229 Mede, Joseph, 215 Pope, Alexander, 28, 217 Meikle, H. W., 217 Pound, Ezra, 8-9, 35, 65, 67-8, 69, Mendelson, Edward, 219 70, 72, 111, 165-6, 215 Mendelssohn, Felix, 90 Proust, Marcel, 143 Merat, Albert, 43 Millais, Sir John Everett, 80 Raeburn, Henry, 96 Milosz, Czeslaw, 123, 133-4, 146 Raine, Craig, 16-31, 38-48 Milton, John, 102 Ralegh, Sir Walter, 151 Moi, Tori!, 225 Rauschenberg, Robert, 50 Index 233

Reed, Henry, 199 Thackeray, William (Vanity Fair), 6 Reid, Christopher, 16-17, 25-38, 66 , 42 Thomas, Dylan, 202 Renoir, Pierre Auguste, 228 Thomas, Edward, 75 Ricks, Christopher, 214 Thompson, E. P., 73, 217 Rilke, Rainer Maria, 158, 184 Tomlinson, Charles, 181 Rimbaud, Arthur, 43 Tone, (Theobald) Wolfe, 106, 114 Robinson, Alan, 218 115 , Robinson, Peter, 214, 215 Traherne, Thomas, 156-8 R6Zewicz, Tadeus, 113 Trevelyan, G. M., 222 Rushdie, Salman, 18 (cited) Trotsky, Leon, 101 Ruskin, John, 73 Tsvetayeva, Marina, 43-5 Russell, Bertrand, 106 Turner, J. M. W., 90, 159

Van Gogh, Vincent, 75, 79 Scott, Sir Walter, 96, 98 Verlaine, Paul, 43 Serusier, Paul, 88 Virgil, 113, 121, 143 Shakespeare, William, 43, 47, 72, Vuillard, Jean Edouard, 25 150, 152, 211, 215 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 35-6, 37, Wainwright, Jeffrey, 215 129, 163 Walcott, Derek, 129, 223 Showalter, Elaine, 224 Wallis, Brian, 228 Simpson, David, 216 Weiss, Peter, 222 Smith, Alexander, 96 White, Hayden, 214 Smout, T. C., 217 Whitman, Walt, 60 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 113 Wilkie, David, 96 Sophocles, 110, 114 William III, King, 113, 151 Southwell, St Robert, 64 Williams, William Carlos, 8-9 Spencer, Stanley, 74, 79 Wilson, Games) Harold, 192 Spender, Stephen, 84 Wilson, John, 97-8 Sterne, Laurence, 37 (cited), Wimsatt, W. K., 124 212 Wittreich, Joseph Anthony, Jr, 215 Stevens, Wallace, 17 (cited), 31-4, Woolf, Virginia, 26, 100-1, 226 38 (cited), 41-2, 45, 77, 119, 165, Wordsworth, Jonathan, 212, 225 202, 211 Wordsworth, William, 41, 73 Stevenson, Anne, 162, 163-&5 225-7 , (cited), 78 (cited), 81, 87, 129, 144, 151, 156, 165, 182, 211, 216, 220 Stoppard, Tom, 39 223 , Strathearn, William, 142 Wright, James, 146 Sweetman, David, 16 Swift, Jonathan, 17 Yeats, W. B., 35-6, 51 (cited), 63, Synge, J. M., 89, 131 69, 70-2, 89, 102-3, 115, 117, 119, 120, 128, 129, 139, 143, 158, Tannahill, Robert, 96-7 215, 219, 221