Mapping Connectivity in the Western Balkans

Georgia Petropoulou

January 2020 Also, there are countries, such as Albania, which are members of NATO but not of the Introduction European Union, and finally there are countries such as North Macedonia, which are not members of NATO, and they are aspiring EU This article is the first part of the one- members. Thus, the European Union, Albania, year project “Connectivity in the Western North Macedonia and Greece could be seen as Balkans”, the main objective is to map the nodes of the network. In that sense, the connectivity effects within the framework of European Union and the Western Balkan the EU enlargement. People to people, political countries create their own network and they and infrastructural connectivity could all be constitute the interconnected nodes of the platforms to create concrete, stable and network EU-Western Balkans. sustainable ties among the countries and the European Union. For this article, the relationships of the network bring closer the nodes under In 2010, Emmanuel Castells published examination or create some kind of distance. his book “The Rise of the Network Society” The nodes interact and they are connected with reaching, among others, the conclusion that the each other either because they have networks are a new representation of our geographical proximity or because the societies. The objective of his work is that the European Union is so closely involved in their global societies are characterized by an instant effort towards the needed reforms of exchange of information, capital, and cultural democratization so that Albania and North communication. He argues that employment, Macedonia will be able to become members of information, communication, and, digitalization the European Union. For Albania and North has transformed the global societies and the Macedonia, which are aspiring members, the human experience of everyday life. fact that they are working on the needed reforms means that the EU membership is what The network theory is the starting point they are aiming for and at the same time for this article, which will be developed based enhances the relationship with the rest of the on Castells’ definition of networks. Castells nodes. The nodes are interconnected, and their defines networks as “a set of interconnected connectivity is what maintains the structure of nodes. What a node is, concretely speaking, the network. Therefore, for this work, depends on the kind of concrete networks of connectivity is the driving force of the network; which we speak” (Castells 2010, 501). For this is the interaction of the nodes of a network. work, the European Union is a network, which Connectivity is the process of the behaviour has structures, institutions, and regulations, and relations of the nodes of a network. The which make it function. At the same time, the European Council defines connectivity as European Union, as a network itself and as a follows: regional organization, interacts with the neighbouring countries as they also belong to “Connectivity is about bringing countries, the third countries with which the European people and societies closer together. It Union cooperates. In that sense, Balkans is a facilitates access and is a means to foster network where there are some states, in which deeper economic and people-to-people there are countries such as Greece, which are ties. It encompasses the hard and soft members of the European Union and NATO. aspects, including the physical and

institutional social-cultural linkages that North Macedonia is member of the European are the fundamental supportive means to Union and NATO. Thus, Greece, for this article, enhance the economic, political-security, will be treated as the node of the network, and socio-cultural ties which also which is geographically close to these two contribute to the narrowing of the Balkan countries. At the same time, the sharing varying levels of development and of some cultural proximity increases the capacities” (European Council 2017).1 understanding of the societies of the two countries something, which will be helpful to be The geographical proximity can be said communicated to the rest of the members of to facilitate the connectivity of a region as long the European Union. Thus, Greece could be as there are good neighbouring relationships, at seen as a bridge between the European Union least in some core parts of a country’s interests. and the region. At the same time, Greece, for Society, politics, technology, infrastructure, reasons, which will be mentioned in the investments etc. constitute a few of the areas of sections below, could also, be seen as a hub of cooperation between countries even when they connecting the East with the West. are not all under the same Union. In case there are no relationships or cooperation between Having that said, this article aims to the nodes connectivity cannot exist. However, briefly map a few of the connectivity effects on the European Union, has close ties with the two the network of the European Union- Western aspiring countries –Albania, and North Balkans in the framework of the EU Macedonia– and as aspiring countries they Enlargement. After the introduction of the cooperate closely in various sectors and there framework of the EU Enlargement, the are signed agreements which form their structure of this article will continue by taking cooperation framework. For example, such an into account various tools, mechanisms and important agreement is the “Stabilization and policies that the European Union is Association Agreement” which the European implementing for the people to people Union has signed with the two countries connectivity, the institutional connectivity and, separately (European Council, n.d.; n.d.) In the infrastructural connectivity. For each general, the cooperation between the European element of connectivity some examples of Union, Albania and North Macedonia enhances positive and negative effects will be presented. the connectivity of the region. “Improving What needs to be clarified at this point is that connectivity within the Western Balkans, as there can be many more elements and effects of well as between the Western Balkans and the connectivity. The ones that have been chosen European Union, is a key factor for growth and to be briefly examined, are based on the jobs and will bring clear benefits for the strategies or reports made by the European region’s economies and citizens” (European Union. In other words, the European Union in Commission 2016). various documents or strategies points out important issues, aspects, and tools, which the The Western Balkans are an integral European Union and the countries of the region part of the EU (European Commission n.d., 3), are committed to focus on. however, Greece belongs to the Balkan peninsula and, in contrast with Albania and

1 The definition on connectivity was made during the EU-Asia Meeting. 3 Connectivity in the framework of Commission’s recommendations of 2018 to open accession negotiations with the Republic the EU Enlargement of North Macedonia and with the Republic of Albania, the Council agreed in June to respond positively to the progress made and set out the The discussions about the EU path towards opening accession negotiations enlargement are always ongoing sometimes with the two countries in June 2019” (European with less intensity and some other with Commission n.d., 1). The accession stronger commitment. The current period of negotiations for the two countries did begin time is such a moment where the discussions neither in June 2019 nor in October 2019. about the EU enlargement are ongoing given the fact that two Western Balkan counties, “The involvement of Member States in Albania and North Macedonia, were denied the EU accession talks by their imposing of starting the accession negations for being bilateral conditions additionally threatens the members of the European Union. At the same already fragile credibility of EU conditionality. time, the French President, E. Macron, is At times it seems that the Western Balkans arguing for a strong need of a reform of EU’s enlargement strategy is driven by EU external Enlargement process by proposing a seven- crisis management” (Kmezić, Marović, and stage process with "stringent conditions in Tzifakis 2015, 4). At this point, this is neither a order to effectively converge towards European supportive nor a critical comment towards the norms and standards," plus a "reversibility" decision made by the European Council, it is component, allowing the EU to abandon just an observation regarding the fact that the membership talks if a candidate country's EU enlargement remains a political decision government backslides away from the bloc's and a country’s process towards the standards” (Barigazzi 2019). implementation of the Copenhagen Criteria is being evaluated as a whole. In that sense focus However, before going deeper into the is given to what is or is not be done. analysis of the theoretical framework a brief understanding of the European enlargement is For the Balkan countries, in this case needed. The procedure of the integration starts Albania and North Macedonia, the prospect of and is based on the Article 49 of the Treaty of becoming an EU member is a major goal for European Union. After the submission of a both their internal and foreign policy, based on country’s application the European Council statements of both governments. In the needs to decide unanimously whether the process of achieving the goal of full application will be accepted or not. The membership both countries tried to implement accession negotiations between the member the necessary democratic reforms so as to states and the candidate country will begin only make the beginning of the accession if the country meets the Copenhagen Criteria. negotiations possible. Whether the reforms, The integration process is based on the which need to be done and at the same time Copenhagen Criteria, however, given the fact need to be totally implemented, are enough that the final decision remains in the European remains to be seen in May 2020. However, the Council unanimity it still seems that in the end two countries should continue their efforts and it is a political decision. An example of this is make all the necessary steps so as to make that, in May 2019 the joint communication of progress mostly in the implementation of the the European Commission regarding the EU reforms (Zweers 2019). Only then, both enlargement states that “in response to the 4

countries will be able to enhance their highlighted so as to create a holistic perspective connectivity with the European Union and of the connectivity in the Balkan area within the minimize the negative connectivity effects. framework of enlargement. However, both Albania and North Macedonia are part of the Stabilization and Association Connectivity as a term, idea and concept Agreement2 and in the European Commission’s is quite dominant in the discussions, initiatives annual reports for both countries the European and research about mobility, energy, or Commission recognizes their progress but, in technology for the Western Balkans. Their most of the sectors which are mentioned in the importance cannot be denied; however, the reports, points out that further progress need above areas are also elements of connectivity to be made (European Commission 2019a; and, for example, the cultural connectivity is of n.d.). the same importance for creating a coherent and stable environment in the area. In other Enlargement has various aspects as it is words, connectivity in the Western Balkans on its own a very complex procedure which should include the human aspect. Indeed, could be, ultimately, a matter of political will. technology, for example, is made for people, but As it mentioned above, the European Union is it is not only the technology, which influences actively involved in the pre-accession process the connectivity, but also, the people to people so as to support the countries in their effort to mutual exchange of experience and societal reach the Copenhagen Criteria. More development. specifically, the European Commission announced in 2019 the “EU Connectivity Agenda for the Western Balkans”. In the Agenda People to People Connectivity it is stated that transport, energy, digital, economic and human connectivity will remain The European Union is quite familiar to be one of the major commitments and, also, with the people to people connectivity given the fact that through the single market has “in 2015 the European Union launched enabled the free movement of goods, people, the Connectivity Agenda, an initiative that services and capital. However, in the EU combines high-level political commitment Connectivity Agenda for the Western Balkans from both the EU and the region with a focus is given to infrastructure, energy, or financial pledge of EUR 1 billion from EU digitalisation policies, projects, and funds. pre-accession funds linked to reform Therefore, the people to people connectivity measures to improve key transport and description, which was made during the EU- energy connections” (European Asia Meeting will be used. In the Asia-Europe Commission 2019, 7). Connectivity Vision 2025 it is stated that “people to people connectivity can be of a However, for this work, the examination cross-regional and an intra-regional nature. of connectivity will focus in the following three Facilitating intraregional cooperation is a elements of connectivity; people to people, welcome side effect of inter- and trans-regional politics, and infrastructure. The positive along dialogue fora” (Rüland, n.d., 146). For this with the negative connectivity effects will be vision, people to people connectivity has three categories; first, the mass-based connectivity which includes tourism and, travels. Second, 2 Albania is member of the SAA since 2009 and the track two connectivity which involves the North Macedonia since 2001. 5 academia, intellectuals, artists, journalists, Process” is to keep the commitment towards parliamentarians, and issue-based specialists. the EU enlargement high by having in the And third, the track three which includes a agenda of the annual summits various topics broad spectrum of non-governmental such as regional cooperation, connectivity, organizations, social movements, solidarity infrastructure, youth. During the Summits civil networks, labor unions, and critical society representatives are, also, involved in parliamentarians. The European Union, as it the discussions. For example, in 2015 a Civil will be described below, has various policies Society Forum took place in the margins of that and strategies or funded projects regarding the year’s Summit with representatives from the people to people connectivity, even though Western Balkans expressing the need to for there is no structured description regarding the regional cooperation, prosperity and creation people to people connectivity as the one in the of jobs (Kmezić, Marović, and Tzifakis 2015, Asia-Europe Connectivity Vision. 11).

People to people connectivity in the At the same time the role of civil society framework of the EU enlargement could create is crucial for enhancing the connectivity of the a broad spectrum of effects both for the region. For example, the annual Western countries but also for the European Union itself. Balkans Civil Society Forum organized by the From this spectrum of effects, in this work will European Economic and Social Committee is a be mentioned the connectivity effects, positive platform where the various topics about the and negative, produced by the people to people Western Balkans are discussed. For instance, connectivity effects; regional cooperation, during the last annual meeting topics such as youth, and tourism. “regional cooperation (trade and investment, connectivity and people to people relations), First and foremost, connectivity in the the state of social dialogue, as well as enabling societies of the Western Balkans could increase civic space in the Western Balkans” were or further strengthen regional cooperation in discussed (EWB 2019). In that sense, such various aspects. There are indeed core initiatives are not only important for stressing differences and disagreements between the out what needs to be done and recognizing societies; however, there is space for what has been achieved but also enhances the cooperation and mutual exchange of initiatives, positive connectivity effects. During the which will bring them closer to the European Western Balkans Summit 2019 they took into integration. Most importantly though, account the conclusions and recommendations connectivity will bring them closer to reaching made by the Western Balkans Civil Society a higher status of development and growth and Forum 2019. At the same time, they reaffirmed facilitate the daily life of the societies. Regional the crucial role of civil society “in building the cooperation could bring the societies closer and participatory democracies that the Western enhance the cultural proximity and Balkans are striving to become” and “the role of understanding of the societies. integration of the societies and cultural cooperation in fostering regional cooperation The European Union in order to and good neighbourly relations” (European maintain the Open-Door Policy for the Western Commission 2019d). Balkan countries and deal with possible challenges organized the “Berlin Process”. Another element of connectivity for However, the main purpose of the “Berlin which attention will be drawn is the youth and

its importance – taking into account that it is for the network as a whole but also for the the coming generation, as well as the nodes of the network separately. opportunities ahead, which they share in the pre-accession stage. For example, Erasmus+ The numbers, which are presented Program is a European tool, which could above regarding the students and staff who enhance or limit the people to people come from Albania and North Macedonia, seem connectivity in the Western Balkan countries, to be quite low. Especially, if these numbers are in this case Albania and North Macedonia. compared with the number of students coming from Greece to other members of the European Albania and North Macedonia are Union which, for the year 2016-2017, is 5259 in officially part of the Erasmus+ Program since total. And by that, it is obvious that there is 2014. According to the European Commission’s difference between a member state, and with a factsheet about the two countries the number non-member state from the same region and of students and staff coming from North the same network. On top of that, it is, also, Macedonia to the European Union increased to obvious, that both nodes are missing what 13 in 2018 (European Commission 2018a). At youth could bring to the connectivity of the the same time, the number of students and staff network. Therefore, through enlargement this who came from Albania to the European Union negative connectivity effect will be eliminated. also increased in 2018; however, the number is However, even in the pre-accession stage, it will higher, from 509 in 2017 to 728 in 2018, in be beneficial for both nodes, the young students comparison to North Macedonia. to be “exposed” to the European Union’s ideas and the European identity. The core reason for The European Union and the western that is that youth is the future of each and every Balkan countries understand that it is of reform, which needs to be done towards paramount importance to strengthen the membership. Most importantly, youth is capabilities and skills of the youth. The important on how the reforms will be exchange and the free movement of the youth implemented. from the two countries will be quite beneficiary for both nodes of the network. Within this On the other hand, such programs would understanding, during the “Balkan Process” have negative connectivity effects for the Summit of 2019, EUR 10 million Youth countries themselves. A negative effect for a Guarantee scheme was initiated by the country’s youth could be the so-called brain European Commission and the European drain. According to Eurostat, in 2018, 62,000 Investment Fund. The aim of the scheme is to Albanians moved to the EU, which is 2.2% of support youth employment in the Western the country's overall population, followed by Balkans and “is expected to leverage 2.1% of North Macedonians (24,300). The free investment of at least EUR 60 million for the movement of the youth could limit what can be young people in the region to strengthen their called the “youth resources” of a country. In entrepreneurial capacity and provide job other words, even though, the movement and opportunities”(European Commission 2019d). exchange of the youth could be beneficial for all the countries as described above, the cost of However, as it is mentioned previously, this exchange would limit the youth resources a tool of connectivity, which is implemented, of the countries and enhance the brain drain. could also create negative connectivity effects Therefore, such kind of projects need to make sure that, at least, a high percentage of the

7 youth returns back to their countries. It is cultural tourism in the Western Balkan important the aspiring countries become highly countries so as to attract more tourists to the competitive so that the youth to have a more region, increase their revenues and contribute friendly environment to return and at the same to growth and employment. At the same time, time to attract the youth from other countries. the Western Balkan countries are a popular destination for EU citizens. Approximately, However, these projects include not only 93% of international arrivals to Albania and young students but also experts from various 92% of international arrivals to North fields. Thus, brain drain could limit and Macedonia were reported to come from Europe influence the connectivity of the countries, also, (OECD 2016, 23). on this level. For example, according to a survey conducted by the Skopje-based Institute for Finally, the above-mentioned effects Strategic Research and Education, 69 percent of could also be seen as negative connectivity lecturers, assistants, and researchers who work effects in case the nodes act in a way, which in North Macedonia’s higher education system blocks the development of the countries in the would consider leaving the country to seek new pre-accession stage. From this point in time employment opportunities, while 20 percent of and onward, the blocking of the accession them had already applied for a job abroad negotiation could create distance between the (European Council on Foreign Relations 2017). nodes, even though the leaders of the two countries reassured that they will remain in the Last but not least, tourism could, also, be European path. By that, it is meant that it is seen as an element of connectivity, which could possible a “societal gap” to be created. This result a positive connectivity effect mostly could be based on the possibility that if there is because, not only enables the cultural exchange less regional cooperation or fewer but also develops the economic growth of the opportunities for the youth the cultural nodes. Tourism contributes 10% to EU GDP and proximity or understanding could limit the creates jobs for 26 million people – through its connectivity of the network. direct, indirect and induced effects in the economy.3 “Greece, as an EU member state and global top-10 tourist destination, has a key role Institutional Connectivity to play, and in 2015 it successfully launched a new policy that resulted in a 25 per cent With institutional connectivity is meant increase in tourists” (Okano-Heijmans 2018, 6). all the areas in which the nodes are interact on In that sense, Greece as a bridge between the political level. For example, as it is mentioned European Union and the two countries could above, the European Union is actively involved increase the positive connectivity effects given in the effort, which the countries are doing in that many tourists from the two countries are order to achieve the Copenhagen Criteria. visiting Greece. However, the European Union Some of the areas in which the European Union funded EUR 5 million and the Regional aids the aspiring countries are the reforms in Cooperation Council implemented the Tourism the internal rule of law or the regional Development & Promotion project. This is a cooperation. The political connectivity is project, which aims to create a competitive probably the most complex element of connectivity because one should always keep in mind that in the political connectivity is also 3 (World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) included the political will of the decision 2018) 8

makers. The simplest aspect, which the mentioned above, the decision makers are the enlargement offers so that the countries remain ones who have the will and the political power united, is the regular meetings in all the to decide the path, which a country will follow. different European institutions. In that sense, research and innovation competition among the countries could occur, In this section, it will be presented and considering that the European Union some connectivity effects, positive and having the “knowhow” of unification should negative, produced by European policies or make sure that the governments are positively tools. These elements of connectivity will be the involved and the internal political interests do regional cooperation in research and not disturb the regional and the European innovation, parliamentarian cooperation, and development. Even thought the Leaders have border management. endorsed the Declaration on Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications and they have Next to that, in the Western Balkans made clear their commitment towards the Summit the Leaders highlighted the importance mutual recognition of the educational of the regional cooperation. In their final qualifications, the negotiations are not conclusions they recognized, among others, completed yet (European Commission 2019d). that the research and innovation is quite Therefore, the lack of full implementation of important for the development of the region this agreement could be seen as an example of and it can be seen as a hub of cooperation and negative connectivity effect because the connectivity (European Commission 2019d). development of each node and the network as a Indeed, research and innovation as hub of whole is limited in that area of regional cooperation could further strengthen the cooperation. positive connectivity effects for the network. On the one hand, the Western Balkan countries Another institutional connectivity effect, could have an additional area of cooperation, which includes the regional cooperation, could which in conjunction with the previous section be the parliamentarian cooperation. In the of this article will enable the mutual cultural annual progress reports of the European understanding. On the other hand, the Commission, one of the observations and European Union, as a node, will also benefit requirements is the need for parliamentarian from the research on innovation in a regional reforms. According to the Progress Reports of level. The regional cooperation can be seen as 2019 for the two countries, the Albanian rules an element of connectivity, which on its and procedures of the parliament do not reflect positive aspect aids the development of the the Law on the role of Parliament in the EU network as a whole bringing the nodes of the integration process. In addition, the Parliament network even closer. has limited capacity to monitor the implementation and the compliance of the new However, the negative effect of this legislation. On the other hand, in the Progress element of connectivity could be the Report 2019 for North Macedonia, it is stated competition in which the countries could enter. that despite of the challenges in planning and Therefore, the European Union should coordination of a more effective legislative implement policies, which will balance the oversight, “the number of shortened and urgent results of this effect. Constant dialogue between procedures have significantly decreased” governments could be the key to safeguard the possibility of this negative effect. As it is

9 (European Commission, n.d., 8)4. Having that part of the designing and implementation of a said, the two countries could closely cooperate reform. in the areas, which are facing common challenges and exchange their own effective At the same time, one other core area of ways of dealing with the various issues they regional cooperation is the border face. That kind of cooperation could increase management. The Western Balkan countries the positive connectivity effect for the countries are places of transit and what makes this aspect themselves and for the network as a whole. remarkable is, among others, the fact that in Cooperation in such areas could increase the this transit path Greece is an EU member while willingness to find effective and immediate North Macedonia and Albania are not. The solutions. It could, also, increase the tension and the lack of communication, which decisiveness and commitment to further was created between the countries regarding implement the reforms, which will be beneficial the way of dealing with this matter, enhanced for the society and the way that the political the negative connectivity effect of the network. system operates. Miscommunication, tension, and different approach on how an issue which affects the The same applies to the fight against region as a whole should be dealt, could limit corruption. In the two Progress Reports, it is the positive connectivity effects. mentioned that both countries have “some level of preparation and good progress” in fighting The complexity of the fact that in the against corruption (European Commission transit path there are countries that are not 2019a, 3; n.d., 4). The two countries could members of the European Union and, therefore, cooperate more in this sector and create a more the European Union can not impose its policies transparent environment. In that sense, the and, the fact that the European Union had not positive connectivity effect could be the joint polices “in terms of how to secure EU strengthening of the ties between the countries external borders, how to deal with refugees made by their cooperation and, also, the once in the EU and their distribution, and the development of more effective and transparent general approach” (Kmezić, Marović, and way to tackle with the corruption. Tzifakis 2015, 15) creates negative connectivity effects because the cooperation within the However, the negative effect on network is limited. Even thought, the EU connectivity out of this could be that the supportive measures to the countries regarding European Union should be cautious on what migration managed to reduce irregular arrivals kind of reforms it asks and if these reforms are by 35%, “more needs to be done to better fully aligned with a country’s special equip countries to manage migration, including characteristics. In other words, the European efforts to better manage borders and to reduce Union should consider that the rule “one size irregular migration” (European Commission fits all” could not be always applicable n.d., 7). especially, if the national characteristics are not However, what the EU enlargement in the Western Balkans safeguards is the fact that 4 In 2018, 20% of laws were adopted in a there could be a joint approach on this matter shortened procedure and none in urgent where the counties of this transit path are procedure (compared with 75% in shortened members of the European Union. Therefore, the procedure and one law in urgent procedure in decisions will jointly be made, and all the the previous reporting period). 10

countries will have their own voice and their development of the digital connectivity is a new own recommendations to share. requirement which the countries of the region need to fulfill so that the accession negotiations to start. At the same time, digitalization is an Infrastructural Connectivity element of connectivity, which could balance a possible limited progress regarding the Infrastructure is a broad area in which necessary reforms, which the two countries many aspects are included, for example, should make in a political, parliamentarian, or technology, energy, digital development, judicial level. The European Commission has transportation etc. However, in this article, the launched a Digital Agenda for the Western digital connectivity as well as energy will be Balkans and the European Union will grant EUR highlighted. The reason for this choice is the 30 million for digital. This EU strategy “leaves fact that these two elements will give additional no doubt about the conditions and criteria for value to this article in the sense that they will EU membership of the six Western Balkan follow the reasoning and the effects mentioned countries – that is, the path of reform of these previously. Most importantly, though, the countries and their unequivocal strategic European Union pays close attention to these orientation towards the EU” (Okano-Heijmans two areas by implementing various projects, 2018, 6). which will be mentioned bellow. Therefore, the fact that transportation, for example, will not be In the Digital Agenda, the European mentioned does not mean that it does not Commission and the Western Balkans Partners enhance or limit the connectivity of this agreed to remain committed to strengthening network. the digital economy and society and to boosting research and innovation. These are two of their The perspective of the European Union commitments where the first includes, among and of the countries of the region towards the others, the opening of Digital Opportunity infrastructural connectivity in the Western Traineeship to students and young people from Balkans is quite structured because “increasing the region, the Code Week so as to increase the transport and energy connections improves coding skills, eGovernment, eProcurement and competitiveness, drives economic growth and eHearth tools. With the second, the Digital ensures security of supply, and is at the same Agenda will help the set up of national research time an important prerequisite for economic facilities, which will be integrated in the digital integration within the Western Balkans” European Research Area (European (European Commission 2019b, 7). Moreover, Commission 2018b). the European Union in order to make sure that people and businesses will have the maximum Therefore, the above mentioned of the benefits from the infrastructure project strategies and commitments enhance the which will be implemented asks from the connectivity of the network as a whole because countries to adapt their regulatory and legal such kind of strategies increase the frameworks and implement the so-called technological development of the region but “connectivity reform measures” (European also creates additional value to the existing Commission 2019b, 9). technological European development. In that sense, such initiatives could be seen as positive It seems that the digital connectivity is connectivity effects since they are beneficial for quite important, and one could argue that the the people and the general growth of the

11 European region. Thus, the commitment “to fragmented markets with limited cross- border improve the investment environment for digital trade operations” (European Commission project in the region” which is stated in the 2019b, 12). The European Union and the European Commission’s Factsheet “EU- countries of the region are working on the Western Balkans Boosting Digital Connectivity” improvement of the energy industry and, (European Commission 2019c, 3) can only be therefore, various investments are taking place seen as proof of willingness from the nodes to towards this goal. For example, there is a huge further enhance their connectivity and increase investment of EUR54.4 million for a 68 km of their cooperation. interconnection gas pipeline, which will connect North Macedonia and Greece. Given However, the digitalization projects, the fact that the objective of this investment is trainings or lack of digital development, could, the connection of North Macedonia and Greece, also, limit the positive connectivity effects, the completion of this investment will increase which mentioned in the previous sections of the connectivity between these two nodes of this article. Namely, an unsuccessful the network. At the same time, the energy implementation of project such as the Digital development of the countries will be increased Opportunity Traineeship could result fewer changing the status of the countries, enchasing students from the region to interact with each the good neighborly relations, and facilitating other and at the same time the European Union the lives of the people. These could be seen as will miss the chance to engage with young and positive connectivity effects because people innovative brains. will be affected and, at the same time, in terms of the EU enlargement, the growth of the Another negative effect of the countries could, also, create a friendlier digitalization could be the use of common environment regarding the opening of the databases. The question which arises is what accession negotiations. kind of databases are existing and who has access to this information. Thus, it can be said However, the presence of other powers that the databases, which will be created due to such as China should be pointed out given that the digitalization or exist already, could have a China, Japan or India are “developing and negative connectivity effect on the security of deepening trade ties with Europe, traditional the countries or on the personal information of trade routes between Asia and Europe are the citizens. A country and the European Union shifting” (Okano-Heijmans 2018). Such an should be cautious regarding the sharing of the involvement could neither be described as information or make sure that its databases are negative or positive connectivity effect, but one secured from possible cyber threats and the should keep in mind that such involvement leaking of information to unauthorized could differentiate the development of the individuals. connectivity of the network as a whole. Having that said, the globalized and international Except from the digitalization, the environment dictate the cooperation of the energy sector is, also, an element, which could states as survival is one of a state’s major enhance or limit the connectivity of the interests. network. According to the European Commission the energy sector in the Western An additional point for the Balkans “still suffer from outdated infrastructure -energy and digitalization- could infrastructure, low energy efficiency and be that Greece manages to maintain good

relations with Russia and China while being a various projects and tools in the framework of NATO and EU member (Okano-Heijmans 2018). the EU enlargement, which were mentioned Therefore, the nodes of the network could take above, intent to further enhance the advantage of the status of Greece as hub which connectivity of the network EU-Western links East and West, in terms of relationships, Balkans. The close cooperation with the know-how, or even careful investments where European Union along with the strengthening is needed so that the network as a whole to be of the regional cooperation could possibility developed in parallel. limit the negative connectivity effects.

The final link of infrastructural The connectivity in the area could connectivity and the EU enlargement can be probably have a slightly different approach found in the comment of the Commissioner for than the one in this article if the two Balkan European Neighbourhood Policy and countries were members of the European Enlargement Negotiations, Johannes Hahn, Union. A member state has access to other EU during the Western Balkans Summit in 2019. projects or tools, for example, than the ones, He stated that “we are stepping up our work to which an aspiring country has. The modernized infrastructures, support membership status enables different ways of digitalization, invest in green growth and dealing with the existing or emerging issues, circular economy. The EU programs will bring which a country has. Various other instruments tangible benefits to the people in the Western and mechanisms can be implemented so as to Balkans and are another milestone in our even ameliorate the structures of the countries closer ties with the region”. which, at the same time, enjoying the benefits along with the responsibilities which the membership status brings. However, it is important, that not only the European Union, Conclusion but also the aspiring countries themselves put the necessary effort towards the effective and As this is the first milestone of the one- beneficial development of their national year project on “Connectivity in the Western environment which then integrated into the Balkans”, a mapping of the connectivity in the European. region was necessary so that an introduction to the connectivity effects to be made. Based on This first milestone is followed by key the reports and the official documents of the political changes for which the results cannot European Union, the people to people be foreseen. Such political changes are the connectivity, the institutional connectivity and membership of North Macedonia in NATO, the the infrastructural connectivity are considered fact that North Macedonia has elections in April to be important elements for the further 2020 and, last but not least, the fact that the development of the region. European Union will decide in May 2020 on whether the accession negotiations with Given that the European Union is closely Albania and North Macedonia will begin. working with the two countries on the needed reforms so that the counties can reach the Therefore, it seems worthwhile a few Copenhagen Criteria to help the region develop comments or observations to be addressed, its structures further and connect them even though, recommendations will be given in enhances the connectivity of the nodes. The the final paper of this project.

13 members of the European Union and the other We should never underestimate the way around. Thus, it would be fair the decision influence of the disappointment of a society on regarding the opening of the accession the connectivity. Disappointment could make negotiations to be taken separately for the two the societies unwilling to make reforms or countries. make them unwilling to accept existing national characteristic and mentalities. The European Union should maintain its unity, first and foremost, and, at the same time, Even though, the heads of the two states should make sure that the ties between the reassured that they will continue their efforts neighbouring countries are strong and close. towards the democratic reform after the non- Only then, a solid connectivity will be created, agreement to open the accretion negotiations, and it is exactly what will enable the societies of we should keep in mind that the the two countries ready to become not only implementation of those reforms needs to be members of the European institutions but done by the people and the people in the mostly parts of the European ideal. In his 2017 governments. Therefore, there is a thin line we State of the Union address, President Jean- should always remember that exists. This refers Claude Juncker re-affirmed the European future to the possibility that the disappointment, on of the Western Balkans countries: "If we want the one hand, of putting a lot of effort and not more stability in our neighbourhood, then we reaching slightly the desirable goal and, on the must also maintain a credible enlargement other hand, of not be committed enough to perspective for the Western Balkans". In that make the necessary changes could limit the sense, what is needed beyond the reforms, is willingness of the nodes to remain focused to the Leaders to remain committed to their goal their goal of integration. of integration and inspire the societies to create a structured and connected European In terms of connectivity this could lead environment where the national characteristics to the negative connectivity effects of distrust are the tools to development of the network. from the part of the society towards the national governments and towards the

Bibliography

Barigazzi, Jacopo. 2019. “France Outlines Proposal to Overhaul EU Accession Process.” POLITICO. November 17, 2019. https://www.politico.eu/article/france-outlines-proposal-to-overhaul-eu- accession-process/. Castells, Manuel. 2010. The Rise of the Network Society. 2nd ed., with A new pref. The Information Age : Economy, Society, and Culture, v. 1. Chichester, West Sussex ; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. European Commission. 2016. “Western Balkans.” Text. Mobility and Transport - European Commission. September 22, 2016. https://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/international/enlargement/wester nbalkans_en. ———. 2018a. “Erasmus+ International Higher Education Cooperation:North Macedonia.” ———. 2018b. “Launching of Digital Agenda for Western Balkans.” Text. European Commission - European Commission. 2018. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_18_4242. ———. 2019a. “Albania 2019 Report.” ———. 2019b. “EU Connectivity Agenda for the Western Balkans.” https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood- enlargement/sites/near/files/connectivity_agenda_brochure.pdf. ———. 2019c. “EU- Western Balkans Boosting Digital Connectivity Factsheet.” ———. 2019d. “Western Balkans Summit Poznan Chairs Conclusions.” ———. n.d. “COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS.” Accessed January 16, 2020. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood- enlargement/sites/near/files/20190529-communication-on-eu- enlargement-policy_en.pdf. ———. n.d. “North Macedonia 2019 Report.” European Council. 2017. “ASEM 13th Foreign Ministers Meeting: Chair’s Statement- Press Release.” https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/31705/annex- i.pdf. ———. n.d. “Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and Their Member States, of the One Part, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, of the Other Part,” 108. ———. n.d. “Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the European Communities and Their Member States, of the One Part, and the Republic of Albania, of the Other Part,” 337. European Council on Foreign Relations. 2017. The Way Back: Brain Drain and Prosperity in the Western Balkans. https://www.ecfr.eu/publications/summary/the_way_back_brain_drain_and _prosperity_in_the_western_balkans.

15 EWB. 2019. “What Is the Role of Civil Society in the Western Balkans?” European Western Balkans (blog). April 15, 2019. https://europeanwesternbalkans.com/2019/04/15/role-civil-society- western-balkans/. Kmezić, Marko, Jovana Marović, and Nikolaos Tzifakis. 2015. “Western Balkans and the EU: Beyond the Autopilot Mode,” 24. Lelieveldt, Herman, and Sebastiaan Princen. 2015. The Politics of the European Union. Cambridge University Press. OECD. 2016. “Fostering Tourism Competitiveness South East Europe.” Okano-Heijmans, Maaike. 2018. “Promoting Sustainable Connectivity in the Balkans and Black Sea Region,” 12. Rüland, Jürgen. n.d. “Peoples-to-Peoples Connectivity in the Asia–Europe Meeting,” 14. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). 2018. European Union Tourism Trends. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284419470. Zweers, Wouter. 2019. “Between Effective Engagement and Damaging Politicisation Prospects for a Credible EU Enlargement Policy to the Western Balkans.” Clingendael, May. https://www.clingendael.org/sites/default/files/2019- 05/PB_Western_Balkans_May19.pdf.